SectionE-6 (2)

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SECTION E

SUPPORT DOCUMENTS

• A Functional View of Language

• Explanation of Text Types

• An Approach to the Study of Texts

• Focusing on Texts

• An approach to Shared Reading

• Strategy for Writing Text Types

• Glossary of Grammatical Terms

• Recommended References

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A FUNCTIONAL VIEW OF LANGUAGE

A functional view of language:

• enables us to talk about language (it is a metalanguage)

• looks at how language functions in different ways to make meaning

• sees language as

a resource for making meaning in specific contexts to specific audiencesfor particular purpose

• emphasises the text as a whole and how texts are pattemed

•enables us to explore various patterns within the text

• recognises that these patterns vary in particular ways according to the context .

Traditional Grammar is one way of describing language. It provides us with formalterms to identify parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives).

Functional Grammar focuses on how words and groupings of words work togetherto make meaning in a text terms like participants (nouns, noun groups), processes(verbs, verb groups), circumstances (usually phrases of time, place, reason), etc.attempt to identify these various functions.

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TEXT TYPES

Literary Texts Factual Texts

Narrative Discussion

Drama Explanation

Poetry Exposition

Report

Procedure

Recount

Note:

InFirst Steps, ‘Discussion’ is listed in the Oral Continuum only.

Also,First Steps does not specifically address Poetry and Drama

as Text Types.

Text Forms

Literary Texts Factual Texts

Aboriginal dreaming stories AdvertisementsBallads Announcements

Cautionary tales Conversation

Fables Current affairs programs

Parables Debates

Fairy tales Directions

Fantasy Documentaries

Folktales Editorials

Historical narratives Essays

Improvisions Constructions

Legends Instruction manuals

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Limericks Interviews

Lyrics Lectures/Presentations

Mimes Letters

Myths Newspaper articles

Odes Public speaking

Playscripts Recipes

Radio drama Reference articles

Science Fiction School reports

Sonnets

Narrative

Purpose

To relate a story that is imaginery or factual; sometimes to teach a lesson or explain

phenomena.

Structure

Orientation Sets the scene, time and/or characters of the story.

(Who, what, when, where.)

Complication Problem arises which initiates a chain of events.

Sequence of Events Consequences of complication are explored through

time-sequenced events.

Resolution Complication resolved and tension dissipates.

Coda (Optional) The moral, lesson, or literary ending.

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Grammar

• Specific characters with defined identities. They can be people,

animals or things that are important to the story;

• Usesdetailed noun groups to create images in reader’s mind;

• Often uses time connectives to sequence events throughout the story;

• Verbs focus on action, feelings, thought and speech;

• Usually written in past tense (this may change during dialogue);

• Written in first or third person.

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Text Type:Narrative

Structure Grammar

(Examples)

Orientation

Introduces the

setting

Complication

Child wants

the key butdoes not know

how to get it

Sequence of

events

The child trying

different ways

to get the key

Repeat event

Action which

leads to

resolution

Resolution

The child

A Russian Legend

The Golden Palace supposedly contained everything a

child could desire, and all children sought to do

something good so that they might obtain the key to the

palace.

One child brushed her hair and cleaned her shoes, but

the gatekeeper turned her away with the admonition to

do something good for somebody else.

She went out in search of that someone and found a

beggar into whose hand she poured all the precious

coins she had saved. Having completed her mission,

she rushed back to the golden palace. But again she

was turned away. The gatekeeper noticed her

disappointment and encouraged her to try again.

Upon returning to the town the little girl saw an old

woman carrying a heavy bundle up a steep hill. She ran

to the lady, took the bundle, and raced up the hill.

Depositing the bundle at the top, she dashed down the

hill, headed for the castle. and demanded the key. But

again the Gatekeeper turned her away. This time she

was thoroughly disappointed, and, though told to try

again, she completely gave up. “I don’t want the key

anyway,” she muttered to herself.

On the way home she heard a whimpering in the

bushes. Trailing the cry to its source, she found a dog

caught in an animal trap. She tried her utmost to release

the dog, and her hands were bleeding before she finally

succeeded. Then she tore off strips of her dress to make

bandages and wound them around the dog’s bruised

paw.

Suddenly the gatekeeper from the Golden Palace

Specific

nouns

Detailed noun

groups

Thought

verb

Time

connectives

Third Person

Action verbs

Speech verb

Past tense

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received the

key

Coda

The moral of

the story

appeared before her and offered her the key. “But,” she

protested, “I don’t deserve the key. I didn’t help the dog

for the key. I forgot all about the key.”

The old gatekeeper fondly said, “You forgot yourself,

dear child. The key is for those who forget themselves.”

Extract from Sakae Kubo: Calculated Goodness

Tense

changes

during speech

First Person

Drama

Purpose

To depict visual and auditory actions and interactions of characters.

Structure

Drama scripts are often a combination of various text types. They include directions and

procedural aspects as well as direct speech.

Grammar

Drama draws on a variety of grammatical patterns.

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Text Type:Drama

Structure Grammar

(Examples)

Information

about

characters

Explanation on

how to set the

stage

Procedural text to

give instruction

Dialogue

The Playground

Characters

Peter A quiet boy and Mary’s friend

Paul The class tell tale

Mary The school bully and Peter’s

friend

Mrs Green Teacher on playground duty

Setting

The scene is set in a school playground at recess

time. There is a lot of colourful sports equipment

being used and the teacher on duty is walking

around supervising the students while thinking about

the next lesson.

( Peter and Mary are playing with a hoop and some

skipping ropes when Paul walks over)

Paul: (pointing to Peter tied to the pole) Um ah I’m

dobbing.(turns and begins to run to the teacher)

Mary: Wait, it’s only a game. Come back and play

with us. (She chases after Paul, drags him back

and ties him to the pole)

Peter: (In a soft voice) I think you had better untie

him or there’ll be trouble. (Points to the teacher

walking across the playground)

Mrs Green: Mary, what are you doing?

Mary: We are playing indians Mrs Green. (Smiles

sweetly)

Specific

nouns

Timeless

present tense

Noun groups

Thought verbs

Action verbs

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Mrs Green: (Absently) Well don’t play to rough then.

(She walks away)

Paul: Mrs Green, Mrs Green wait!! (The teacher

keeps walking away). Help! I want to... (Mary

stuffs a sock into Paul’s mouth).

Poetry

Purpose

Poetry is for description, criticism, argument or praise

Structure

Conveying sound and imagery are the main aims of poetry. Each type of poem is

individually structured

Grammar

Each poetic text form has its own characteristic grammatical pattern. Repetition, synonyms

and antonyms are often the basis for textual cohesion

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Text Type:Poetry

Structure Text Form Grammar

(Examples)

The initial letters

in each line form

a word

Acrostic

Beautiful

Inspirational

Books

Lovely

Everlasting

Can be one

word or a

phrase each

line

Usually tell a

story about a

hero.

They are often

set to music

Ballads

There was once a boy named David

Who tended father’s sheep.

He use to play the harp and sing

But never would he sleep.

Until one day his father asked

For him to take some lunch

To his brothers who were at war

With the Philistine bunch.

Goliath came onto the scene-

He was an enormous man.

No Israelite would go and fight,

So David raised his hand.

‘If none of you will go and fight,

May I go out and try?

I have my sling, my faith, my God,

We can’t let this pass by!’

So David with his one small sling

Went out and met the giant,

On his way he picked up stonesOn God he was reliant.

The most

common

verse found in

Ballads is the

Quatrain or

four-line

stanza

Rhyming

patterns canbe varied

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One small stone went in the sling

Around and round it spun,

The stone went sailing through the air,

Goliath’s down! We’ve won!

So when you have an enormous task

And the problems are all new,

Just ask the Lord to be with you,

And He will guide you through.

Creates a list to

provide a collage

of images about

a particular idea

Catalogue Poems

Green is the grass

Green is some glass

Green on the trees

Green on my knees

Green is so cool

Green is a jewel

Does not

necessarily

have to rhyme

Each line

does not

necessarily

have to start

with the theme

Five line poem to

present an image

Cinquain

Pathfinders

exciting, challenging

full of fun

campouts are the best

great!

1 word to statesubject

2 word

description

3 word

description

4 word

comment

1 word

comment

Visual imagesand layout

Concrete Poetry

it that

is we

why always

like

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to

qu

es

ti

on

?

A five line poem

Diamante

Caterpillar

soft, white

crawling, creeping, eatingfeet, cocoon, colours, wings

flitting, flying, fluttering

vivid, beautiful

butterfly

1 word to name first

subject

2 adjectives

3 -ing words

2 nouns related to

first subject then two

nouns to introduce

second subject

3 -ing words

2 adjectives

1 word to name

second subject

A question

followed by a

descriptive line

Dylan Thomas Portrait

Have you ever seen a cloud?

Fluffy-white, floating-gently, sparkling-crystal, raindrops

Intricate noun

group of four

pairs of

adjectives(or a single

noun at the

end)

Two lines. The

second line a

contrasting

Ezra Pound Couplet

A class full of infants

A box of playful kittens

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image to expand

the first

Japanese poem

with three lines

that describes

some aspect of

nature

Haiku

Fire comes from its mouth

Its stomach grumbles and groans

Volcano erupts

5 syllables

7 syllables

5 syllables

five line poem

which tells about

something funny

Limerick

There once was a girl from Barcoo,

Who could not decide what to do.

She first was a nurse,

And then drove a hearse,

And finally tried teaching too.

Lines 1,2 and

5 rhyme (3

strong beats)

Lines 3 and 4

rhyme (2

strong beats)

Epics

An epic is a long poem that describes deeds

and events and that usually tell a story.

Odes

An ode is a reflective poem of praise or satire.

Sonnets

Sonnets are lyric poems with 14 lines. They

have a structured rhythmic pattern and usually

rhyme.

Lyrics and Songs

Lyrics and songs are short poems that

express feelings or emotions usually with a

regular rhythmic pattern.

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Discussion

Purpose

To present contrasting views on an issue

Structure

Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed.

Background information and overview often included.

Argument Arguments for and against the basic position are written

in a logical sequence with supporting evidence. The

arguments for are usually presented first.

Summary This can be recommendations, a summative

evaluation of the arguments, personal conclusions, or

open choice for the audience.

Grammar

• Uses generalised nouns.

• Uses intricate noun groups

• Uses a variety of verbs ( action, speech and mental).

• Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).

• Uses varying degrees of modality ( perhaps, should, must).

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Text Type:Discussion

Structure Grammar

(Examples)

Statement

of Position

Arguments

for

Arguments

against

Summary

School Lunches

Many people believe that yoghurt is good in school

lunches.

A healthy lunch is most important for growing children.

Yoghurt is nutritious as well as delicious and kids love it.

The Australian culture has developed a race of

sandwich-eaters at lunch time and it is time that this

concept was changed. Carrot sticks, fresh fruit, salad

and yoghurt should be included lunch time treats.

In many families both parents are working and yoghurt is

a good and easy selection for the children’s lunches.

However, there can be many problems with yoghurt in

school lunches.

Many times the yoghurt stays in the school bag during

40 degree temperatures when the owner could have put

it in the school fridge.

Then there are the times that the yoghurt has had an

accident and it is all over the homework, theshow and

tell, and the jumper. Sometimes the broken yoghurt is

not noticed until it is lunch time and the students have to

ask the teacher for help. So by this time the yoghurt has

set to a sticky consistency and the smell is not nice.

In conclusion, yoghurt is a good food for the students

but there is definitely a great risk in school bags.

Generalised

nouns

Mental verbs

Intricate noun

groups

Action verbs

Contrasting

connective

Medium

modality

Causal

connectives

High modality

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Explanation

Purpose: To explain how and why things occur.

Structure

Definition Defines the phenomenon.

Operation Uses a series of logical statements which outline how

or why something works.

Application (Optional) Gives application for the phenomenon.

Conclusion Concluding statement or summary.

Grammar

• Generalised non-human nouns

• Use of technical terms

•Occasional intricate noun groups

• Uses timeless present tense

• Mainly uses action verbs

• Occasionally uses passive voice

• Uses time connectives to indicate sequence

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• Cause and effect (consequently, because of this, then...)

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Text Type:Explanation

Structure Grammar

(Examples)

Definition

Operations

Conclusion

How do Grasses Pollinate?

Pollination describes the process whereby grass seeds

germinate.

Pollination for grasses begins with tiny flowers, usually

about five millimetres long, which have no petals or

sepals. A grass flower opens only once for about an

hour or so. Some grasses open early in the morning.

Others, like wheat and oats, open in the afternoon. On a

dry, sunny day when the temperature is right, these tiny

flowers split open and spout out pollen.

After the male part of the plant discharges the pollen,

the female pistil pushes up to receive the pollen floating

around in the air from other plants. When exactly the

right pollen grain arrives at the tip end of a pistil ready to

receive it, the material adheres to the sticky stigma.

Like a tiny plant suddenly coming to life, it begins to

grow. Soon a long tube has grown down inside the pistiluntil it reaches the ovules then an egg, or seed

is produced with the characteristics of the two plants.

E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and

Herald: Washington.

Non-human

nouns or noun

groups

Timelesspresent tense

Intricate noun

groups

Time

connectives

Action verbs

Technical

terms

Cause and

effect

Passive voice

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Exposition

(Argument and Persuasion)

Purpose

To present logical, well ordered statements or arguments from a particular viewpoint.

Structure

Statement of Position This is the basic position that is being discussed.

Background information and overview often included.

Argument Arguments for the basic position are written in a logical

sequence with supporting evidence.

Summary This can be a re-statement of the issue, a summative

evaluation of the arguments or personal conclusions.

Grammar

• Uses generalised nouns.

• Uses a variety of verbs ( action, linking, speech and mental).

• Mainly uses timeless present tense.

• Uses nominalisation (actions changed to things) to make argument sound objective.

• Uses technical terms related to the issue.

• Uses causal connectives that indicate reasoning (therefore, so, firstly).

• Frequent use of passive voice.

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• Uses high modality to stress point of view (will, must, always).

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NOTE:First Stepsincludes arguments both for and against in the

exposition text type.

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Text Type:Exposition

StructureGrammar(Examples)

Statement

of Position

Argument

Danger Pay

Kindergarten teachers should definitely get an extra

wage allowance: Danger money! There are three main

dangers that the kindergarten teachers must face.

First, at the beginning of the school day, a mother dragsher screaming daughter into the classroom and shouts,

‘Here, you take over. I can’t do a thing with her!’ She is

not dressed in uniform and she has not had breakfast.

The mother then shoves clothes and food at the teacher

and runs out the door. The result is a sudden panic

attack.

Secondly the teacher may come to school feeling fit and

healthy but then just after recess, during quiet time,

someone decides to share his breakfast with the floor.

All the other students race for the door. The kindergarten

teacher must use crowd control tactics, keep the class in

order, clean up the mess, deodorise the room and

resume teaching, leaving the teacher with a panic attack

and anupset stomach.

Finally, there iswater on the knee. After lunch when it is

show and tell time, one student somehow silently sits

on the teacher’s knee. The unsuspecting teacher begins

to notice the first warm trickle. Then it is too late! The

deed is done, the teacher has a panic attack, an upset

stomachand a wet patch on the knee.

Because of these issues, kindergarten teachers must

receive danger money. If they do not receive this money,

then there will be a major shortage of kindergartenteachers in the future, which will cause far reaching

implications for our society.

Generalised

nouns

Action verb

Saying verbs

Linking verbs

Mental verbs

Nominalisation

Causal

connectives

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Summary

High modality

Timeless

present tense

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Report

Purpose

To organise and record information about a whole class of things.

Structure

Opening Statement Often a definition or a general statement on the

topic.

Facts Sequenced facts that build a description of the

topic.

Summary (Optional)

Grammar

• Uses nouns to describe a whole class of things.

• Uses some action verbs when describing behaviour.

• Uses linking verbs (is, are, have)

• Uses timeless present tense

• Uses factual descriptive language

• Uses technical terms

• Uses paragraphs with topic information

• Uses pronouns

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Text Type:Report

Structure Grammar

(Examples)

Opening

Statement

Facts

Summary

Hummingbirds

There are about 400 different kinds of hummingbirds

that live in the Western Hemisphere at all altitudes and

climates from forest to high mountains to deserts. They

range in size from the tiny Cuban Hummingbird only

2cm long to the largest variety, a native of the Andes

measuring twenty centimetres.

The hummingbird is like a glittering fragment of rainbow.

Few birds are so brilliant and able to flash iridescent

colours with such intensity and beauty. As the bird turns

its body, what at first appeared black flashes shows

brilliant metallic hues.

Almost everything about a hummingbird denotes speed.

The hummingbird’s wings beat seventy-five times a

second. They are the only birds that can hoverindefinitely, fly backwards, forwards or sideways. Bathing

quickly on the wing, they dash under a small waterfall,

plunge into clear pools, or flutter through dewy leaves.

Their tiny nest, a work of art beautifully camouflaged, is

often built in a single day. Though built in plain sight, it is

often invisible.

Usually twins hatch from pea-sized eggs. These naked,

blind babies must receive food every few minutes at first.

The mother inserts her long bill into the wide-open

mouths, literally pumping food into the young ones.

As you see the blur of the hummingbirds as they dart

from flower to flower take time to remember the One

who created them.

E and J Lantry (1976)Stop Look and Listen. Review and

Herald: Washington.

Technical

terms

General

nouns

Linking verbs

Paragraphs

with topic

information

Timeless

present tense

Factual

descriptive

language

Action verbs

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Pronouns

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Procedure

Purpose

To instruct someone how to make or do something

Structure

Goals This section states what is to be done

Materials Lists the materials needed to reach the goal

Methods Sequential steps needed to be taken to reach the goal

Evaluation (Optional) How successful was the procedure in reaching the

goal

Grammar

• Uses generalised nouns

• Mainly action verbs

• Timeless tense

• Uses imperative mood (Do this!, Do that! )

• Time connectives

• The reader is referred to in a general way

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Text Type:Procedure

StructureGrammar

(Examples)

Goal

Materials

Method

Quick Chocolate Cake

To make a quick chocolate cake you will need:

• 1 3/4 cups of self raising flour

• 1 1/4 cups of sugar

• 1/4 cup of cocoa

• 1/4 teaspoon of salt

• 1/2 teaspoon of Carb Soda

• 125 gms of butter

• 1 cup of milk

• 2 eggs

Steps

• Sift together flour, sugar, cocoa, salt and carb soda.

• Next melt butter and add it to dry mix.

• Then add milk

• Beat mixture for 1 minute

• Add the eggs

• Beat mixture for 2 minutes

• Pour into a greased cake tin and bake for 1/2 an hour

General

reference to

reader

Generalised

nouns

Imperative

mood

Time

connectives

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on 200° C

Action verbs

Timeless

tense

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Recount

Purpose

To tell what happened in time sequence

Structure

Orientation This provides background information

Events The events are placed in chronological order

Concluding comments These may include personal comments

Grammar

• Uses specific nouns and first person pronouns

• Uses action verbs

• Usually written in past tense

• Uses time connectives to sequence events

• Uses time and place phrases (Yesterday, before lunch, at school)

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Text Type:Recount

StructureGrammar(Examples)

Orientation

Events

Concluding

Statements

Letter

Daring Station

RD 1003 North Road

Alice Springs NT 0954

Dear Sir and classmates,

This has been the best holiday that I have ever had. The

day after school finished Mum and Dad packed the car

and we headed off to the Northern Territory. It took

about twenty-eight hours to drive here and on the way

we helped a hitch-hiker, rescued a flying fox and

changed six tyres (my Dad did not like that part!).

When we arrived at the station, Mrs Daring gave me a

horse of my own for the holidays. I explored all over the

station and then when night came I was given the loft to

sleep in.

During the first night I saw four satellites, two comets,

and three planets.

The next three days were spent mustering the cattle and

we had to sleep in tents. In that time I had to save Dad

twice as he kept falling off his horse.

In the last week I went crocodile wrestling and saw 16

platypus in the river.

Looking forward to seeing you all again,

Love

Jacquie.

Action verbs

Specific

nouns

Past tense

Time

connectives

Time phrase

Place phrase

1st person

pronouns

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AN APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TEXTS

The Language System

Texts convey the meaning they do because of certain distinctive features. These features relate

and work togethersystematically within the text to achieve their purpose. One way to make sense

of this function is to recognise what some define as the language system. The following notes

explain briefly what makes up this language system and the relationship between them.This

explanation provides a basis for the notes on the following pages.

The Language System

Semantic Level Grammatical Level

Meanings Words and Structure

Graphological/

Phonological

Level

Letters, sounds &

visual features

Explanation:

Semantic Level

How ideas, information, issues, opinions, etc are organised within the text, eg.

the ordering of ideas,time sequence,

cohesion patterns and text structures,

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visual features such as illustrations, etc.

Grammatical Level

How structural patterns function within texts for particular purpose, eg.sentences and clauses,

words and word groups

- participants/nouns/noun groups,

- processes/verbs/verb groups,

- circumstances/phrases, reference chains, modality, mood.

Graphological/Phonological Level

The function of letters and speech sounds, punctuation, layout and visual images.

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FOCUSING ON TEXTS

Text Structure and Presentation

1. Introduce arangeof texts over time. Draw attention to their purpose, and theirsimilarities and differences.

Ask questions like:

What is the text about?

What text type is this?

How do you know? (Look at its features.)

What other texts like this have you read? (Encourage students to compare texts.)

What makes them similar?... different?)

What is it trying to achieve? (Find heading, pictures.)

Who might write a text like this?

Who might read a text like this? (Talk about audience.)

Why?

Do you think it achieves that purpose?

What is effective about it?

2. When planning and setting tasks:

Be specific about the purpose of the task.

Who is the audience? What text type is appropriate?

Provide sample texts as models. (Draw attention to the way the text is organised.)

Support students with reference models showing structure and subheadings.

Inferring Context from Text

Text and Context

In order to understand the purpose of any particular text, that is, how it works, we

need to consider its cultural context, and thespecific situation in which it was

produced.

Contextinfluences thegrammatical patterns found in the text. As the context changes,

so will the grammatical patterns change. Three major factors influence the language

choices:

What the text is about (thefield);

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Who is involved in the interaction (thetenor);

The channel of communication (themode).

Field —What the text is about; subject matter or the content.

Fields can include such areas as 'assisting hungry people in developing countries,

'describing features of a trip', 'the way our government works, 'different types of

mammals', etc. In language, are concerned about developing different fields of

knowledge. It can be about things that are part of our everyday life, or abstract,

scientific and technical areas.

Each field has its own characteristic way of constructing knowledge through

language. Students need to be familiar with the language needed to construct and

understand these different fields.

Tenor —Who is involved in the interaction?

We make different language choices according to whom we are interacting with.

Obviously we would speak differently to one of our best friends than we would to

someone whom we don't know and who has some authority over us.

The tenor can be described in terms of the roles assumed by the people in the

situation at the time ('teacher', 'student', 'principals', 'director', 'friend', 'acquaintance',

'mother', 'daughter', 'husband', 'wife', and so on) and the relationships between those

involved in the interaction (hostile, familiar, affectionate, neutral, etc.). In particular,

we need to consider such aspects as power status, authority, expertise, degree of

familiarity, feelings and the like.

Mode — The channel of communication.

The language patterns of a spoken text are significantly different from the language

patterns of a written text. But it is not a simple matter of 'spoken' and 'written',

because there are many types of spoken texts and many kinds of written texts.

The mode can be described in terms of a continuum ('the mode continuum') ranging

from those texts which are closest tospontaneous oral interaction(e.g. language

accompanying some activity) through to language which isconsidered, crafted and

carefully edited and organised,where there has been the opportunity to distance

oneself from the activity and to reflect upon it.

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Implications for Teaching

As teachers, we are constantly constructing contexts for learning for our students. If

we are aware of key features of the contexts we construct and how these influence

the sort of language being used (and hence the sort of learning going on throughlanguage), we are in a better position to make decisions in our programming. Such

decisions might include the following:

Field

What purpose do l want the students to be able to achieve through writing in this

unit?

What type of text best achieves this purpose? How would such a text be

structured?

What field of knowledge am I trying to develop?

How can I help the students to move from their everyday, familiar understandings

of the world to more systematised, generalised, technical and abstract

understandings?

What language patterns might be involved in shifting from commonsense fields

to educational fields?

Tenor

What range of roles do lwant my students to be able to take up?Where necessary, how can I help them to operate not only on a personal,

informal level, but when necessary in a more formal, objective manner?

What interpersonal language skills will students need to gain control over so that

they can operate confidently in a wide range of contexts?

Mode

How can I move the students along the mode continuum from exploratory oral

interaction where they are coming to an understanding of the field and

purpose, through to final draft written texts where they are pulling together their

knowledge of the field and organising it coherently?

Do I need to give them the opportunity for an 'oral rehearsal' before they write

their texts, as a 'bridge' between the oral and written?)

What knowledge about written language will the students need in order to make

the transition from the oral mode to the written mode?

Using a Text

Field

Does this book contribute toward the field being developed in this unit?

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What particularly effective or significant vocabulary might l highlight?

Can we identify any major patterns or relationships in the text?

What new terms might need clarifying?

Tenor

How does the author involve the reader?. Can I take advantage of this?

Am I allowing the students to participate in an active way?

Am I allowing them to identify various characteristics of the text?

Mode

What is the purpose of this piece of writing?

Would this book provide a good model for the students' writing in this mode?

Am I sharing a variety of written modes and demonstrating how they achieve

their different purposes through language?How can I guide the students to identify the overall structure of the text, and the

language characteristic of the various stages?

How are the pictures contributing to the text?

How does the text rely on diagrams, illustrations, etc?

Planning a Unit of Work

Field

What knowledge or fields will l want to help the students develop?

What new concepts? (ultimately new language)

What relationships or patterns might it be useful to make explicit?

What sort of logic or reasoning might be involved?

If have ESL children, will the field involve unfamiliar cultural references? Is there

any way I can integrate the cultural background of the ESL children into the

field?

Tenor

What sorts of roles might the students adopt during the learning process?

What sorts of roles might the teacher adopt during the learning process?

Do the relationships within the classroom allow the students to adopt different

roles?

What is the power relationship within the classroom? Is it based on negotiation,

mutual respect, responsibility?

Are the students encouraged to express their knowledge and ask questions? Are

they given enough opportunity to talk? To demonstrate their developingexpertise?

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What sort of roles and relationships do the students need to use in their written

language?

What sorts of questions might the teacher ask?

Are the activities or learning experiences structured so that the students

progress from an exploratory, tentative tenor through to a position of

confidence and control of knowledge?

Mode

How do the different modes of language play different roles in the learning

process?

What purposes do the different modes serve?

Does the unit of work take the children from 'language accompanying action'

through to 'reflection'?

Monitoring Student Work

Field

Is the student using the most appropriate or effective vocabulary for that particular

field?

Does he or she need to be introduced to more specific terms?

Tenor

Is the student adopting the most appropriate tenor for the reader involved?

Mode

Is the text structured according to its purpose?

Is the reference internal to the text?

Is the student learning to distance himself or herself through writing?

Is the student using external reference, making assumptions about shared

knowledge and experiences, or relying too heavily on illustrations e.g. sharedbook.

Monitoring My Own Language In the Classroom

Field

Am l introducting the students to new words or technical terms? In a meaningful

way? Am I helping the students to order their experience through various patterns of

language?

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Tenor

Am I asking a variety of question-types?

Am I encouraging the students to ask a variety of questions?

Am I allowing them to take responsibility for their learning?

Am I encouraging them to voice opinions, express judgements, make decisions,

etc.?

Mode

Am I encouraging the use of a variety of modes and media?

Am I stressing the interplay between speaking-writing-reading?

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SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF A ‘BIG BOOK’ IN SHARED

READING

Book used as an example:‘Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge’ by Mem Fox, Illustrated by Julie Vivas (Omnibus Books)

Semantic and Contextual Information (NP: 2.5, 2.6)

Making sense of the text

• Talk about the title, author, illustrator, features of the illustrations.

• Look at the artwork to determine possible clues

• Using the cover, determine whatWilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge might be about.

• Focus on field knowledge and concepts that need to be understood to make sense of text.

e.g. old people’s home, memory, memories.

• Ask questions e.g.

Who is in this story? Is there anybody else?

Look at the expression on the people’s faces.

What do you think could happen?

What places do you think we will see?Who will read this story? What makes you say that?

• Reconstruct text using sentences from a page.

• Identify main events. List on cardboard strips. Arrange strips in order.

• Hot seat activity e.g. the various characters

• Draw one of the characters. List known facts about this character as provided in the text

e.g. Miss Nancy, old lady, ninety-six years of age, lost memory, lost a brother at war, etc.

Purpose and Audience

•Ask, ‘Why do you think the chair on the last page is empty?’

• Ask, ‘Does this story teach us anything?’

(To entertain children but in so doing, to stimulate sensitivity and respect for others.)

Using Prior Knowledge

• Activate knowledge of the field —

e.g. Discuss student’s own experience of old people, possibly relatives.

Discuss personal memories

• Concepts —

Linking with own experience of old people/relatives. Some may have visited an old people’s

home.

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•Language Experience —

Language associated with narrativese.g. There once was a small boy.

Discuss personal interpretations of words used in different situationse.g. memories,

precious, remembered, medal, war.

Linguistic Structure and Grammar of Narrative Text (NP: 2.5, 2.7)

• Identify thematic repetition -

‘What’s a memory?’ he asked.

‘Something that makes you - , my - , something that makes you - .’• Identify noun/noun group (participants)

Wilfred Gordon McDonald Partridge, Mrs Jordan, organ, Mr Tippett, cricket, Miss Mitchell,

wooden stick, etc.

• Identify adjectives (modifiers) in noun groups

• Identify reference chains (Noun/pronoun links)

• Identify verbs/verb groups (processes)

(action/ material) Played, listened, walked, told, heard, lost, etc.

(mental) thought, remembered;

(verbal) said, asked;

(state of being or having) was, had, wasn’t

• Ask questions about place and manner - phrases/circumstances

with a wooden stick, with sadness (how); in a basket, next to the shells, to Miss Nancy’s

(where), etc.

• Look for words that link ideas (connectives)

(addition) and, and what’s more

(contrast) but

(time) suddenly

(causal) because.

• Identify statements and questions.

• Identify simple narrative structure as an example ofnarrative text.

• Develop a story map.

Punctuation

• Mask punctuation marks. Students provide missing symbol.

• Find examples in text of full stops, question marks, exclamation marks, commas, etc.

Visual Features of Words and Concepts About Print (NP: 2.5, 2.7)

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Spaces and Directionality

• Pointing to text by teacher/child, emphasising left to right and words one-by-one.

• Stop and ask for the next word in text.

• Use marker to emphasise direction/line being read (beneath or above)

Capitals

• Why are capitals used? Discuss. Find other examples in this text and other familiar texts.

Sight Vocabulary

• Create word banks of high frequency words with removable cards for use in own writing.

Sound/Symbol Relationships

Letter Knowledge

• Create words using ‘th’ (voiced and voiceless); hard and soft ‘g’.

Hearing Sounds in Words

• Find which begin or end with the same sound; in familiar texts (read aloud).

• Play games which emphasise listening for sounds, e.g. ‘I Spy’

• Try tongue twisters emphasising beginning sounds.

Separating Sounds in Sequence

• Clap/tap the syllables or phonemes in words... how many?

e.g. some/thing..(2), mem/or/y .. (3), re/mem/ber/ed..(4), etc.

Making Generalisations

• Find other words in familiar text which have similar letter patterns.

e.g. something, mother.

Letters Represent Multiple Sounds

• Identify all words with ‘g’. What sound does it make?

• Make word banks of words with hard g or soft g.

• Locate these in familiar texts, environment, own writing.

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Blending

• Say words from text slowly...stretching e.g. mm - eee - mm - oorr - yy then sliding sounds

together.

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STRATEGY FOR WRITING TEXT TYPES

The following sequence of activities may be followed as a guide to the writing of each

of the text types.

A. PREPARATION — BUILDING A KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD

• Decide which text type best suits the context, audience and purpose of the

writing task.

• Consult useful resources.

• Engage children in activities to familiarise them with the subject matter.

B. MODELLING THE TEXT TYPE

• Discuss the purpose of the text type in society.• Refer to reference samples of the text type.

• Review the structure and features of the selected text type.

• Discuss the function of each stage.

C. JOINT CONSTRUCTION OF A TEXT

• Pool information gained

• Develop lists of information with the children relevant to the topic.

•

Set out the information in a useful form (e.g. lists, tables, flowcharts, etc.) forchildren to access.

• Teacher act as a facilitator and guide for children as they contribute

information and ideas to the collaborative construction of the planned text.

• Teacher write the text on the board or overhead transparency as it is

developed.

• Class assesses the text in relation to on of the models used earlier.

D. INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTION

• Children research and write drafts of a similar text on a related topic.• Refer periodically to the model .

E. CONFERENCING

• Children share their drafts with peers and the teacher to gain comments and

suggestions.

F. EDITING AND PUBLICATION

• Edit and refine texts.

• Publish and share texts.

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GRAMMATICAL TERMS

Term Definition Example

Active voice The grammatical subject is performing the

action.

Jim climbed the tree

Adjective (Modifier) Adds to the image of the noun. Thered flower

Adverb (Modifier) Adds to the meaning of the verb. I walkedslowly

Antonym Words that are opposite in meaning. big - little

Apostrophe Can be used to indicate ownership, or to replace

missing letters

Heather’s shoes

don’t, can’t

Circumstance Phrases or word groups that tellhow,where,

when orwhy an action is happening

He walkedto the car

Classifiers Words in the noun group that classify the noun

(usually other nouns or adjectives)

Steamtrain,football match

Clause A group of words that contain a unit ofinformation. It must have a verb group.

The child ran to the fence andslid under it.

Colon A punctuation mark (:) which is used to

introduce a list of items or an explanation which

completes the sentence.

The bag contained a number of

items: some clothing, toiletries,

a few books and some gifts.

Comma Can be used to separate parts of a sentence

when it is important to meaning. Can be used to

separate words eg. in lists

I ran, waited, and kept going.

One, two, three! Off we go!

Commands (Imperative mood) A demand. Ends with an

exclamation mark.

Go away!

Conjunctions See connectives

Connectives Additive connective -

Used when adding information

Temporal connective -

Used when linking phrases through time

Contrastive Connective -

Link words by comparison Causal Connectives -

words linking cause and effect

And, also

When, after

On the other hand, likewise

Because, unless

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Dash A punctuation mark used to show a pause.

Increasingly used in place of a comma, colon

and semi-colon.

We went to the recent pet show

— a squarking, noisy affair!

Determiners Words in the noun group that specify, query, or

indicate ownership.

Specify (this, that, those)

Query (who, whose, which,

what)

Ownership ( my, our, their)

Direct speech Words that indicate actual words spoken. Bob said, ‘It is hot.’

Field The particular topic or subject that the text is

about.

Idiom Words that are peculiar to a culture. ‘All thecracks had gathered to

thefray.’

Indirect speech Words that have reportedly been said — not the

exact words. Verbs in past tense.

I heard Bob said that it was hot.

Lexical chain Chains of nouns and verbs that relate directly to

one another.

Metaphors A statement that describes something by using

another idea not literally applicable to it.

Amighty fortress is our God.

Mode Whether a text is spoken, written or visual

media.

Modality A way for expressing the writer’s level of

assertiveness toward the subject:

High Modality

Low modality

Always, must, never

Maybe, sometimes

Modifier See adjectives and adverbs.

Mood See Statement (Declarative mood)

Question (Interrogative mood)

Command (Imperative mood)

I am going

Are you going?

Go now!

Nominalisation When an action is turned into a thing. Thebarking dog is noisy. The

bark of the dog is loud.

Noun or noun group (Participant) A word or word group that

represents a person, place, thing or idea.

Table, Jim, Australia

The quick brown fox jumpsover the lazy dog.

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Participants (see noun)

Passive voice The subject is the goal or focus of the action. The tree was climbed by me.

Prepositional Phrases A group of words beginning with a preposition

but without a verb.

near the pool

Prefix An addition in front of the base word. judge becomesmis judge

Process (see verb)

Pronoun Stands in place of a noun. The dog was barking.It was

very noisy.

Questions (Interrogative mood) A sentence that asks a

question. Always ends with a question mark.

Will it rain today?

Quotation marks Marks (‘ ‘) to indicate direct speech, titles of

articles, poems or songs and to emphasise a

word for a particular reason.

‘What a nice day’, said Bill.

‘Mulga Bill’ by A B Paterson

He was a special ‘helper’.

Reference chains The words which link references to particular

nouns through the text

Thefrog jumped out of the

pond.He was sick ofit.

Semantics The area of the language system that focuses on

meanings in the text.

Sentence A unit of language that contains one or more

clauses. It contains at least one verb or verb

group.

The runaway horse cleared the

fence with a mighty bound.

Similes Likens a thing or person to something else. It

begins with ‘like’ or ‘As — as”

He was like a hungry lion.

She wasas cool as a

cucumber.

Statement (Declarative mood - providing information)

A sentence that states something.

I am going to Queensland for

my holidays.

Suffix An add-on to the end of a base word. Judge becomes judgment

Synonym Words that have similar meaning. Cool, chilly, brisk

Tenor Refers to who is speaking to whom in a

particular context.

Takes into account roles, relationships, status,

age and level of formality.

Tense Past Iwent to school

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Present Iam going to school

Timeless present Igo to school

Future Iwill go to school

Verbs (Process) Words dealing with action, speech,

and thoughts

Action verbs Jump, run, skip

Speech verbs Sheshouted, Hesaid

Relational verbs She is here. Weareall

students.

Thought verbs Ibelieve I will.

Verb group A group of words connected with the verb Wewill soon be celebrating

Ann’s birthday.

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REFERENCES

Note: The list of references related to contemporary English is extensive. This is only a

selective list of highly recommended resources from within this range. They are included

because of their direct usefulness for teachers. In most cases the following materials are

available on loan from the SPD Curriculum Unit.

Bremner, S (1995),Teaching Grammar Through Everyday Language Activities, Pen 99, Primary

English Teaching Association (PETA).

• An article on how to use grammar throughout language activities

Collerson, J (1990),Grammar Part 1, Pen 77, PETA.

• A practical introduction to grammar

Collerson, J (1990),Grammar Part 2, Pen 77, PETA.

• A practical introduction to grammar

Cusworth, R (1994),What is a Functional Language Model? Pen 95, PETA.

• An excellent introduction to functional language.

Derewianka, B (1990),Exploring How Texts Work , PETA.

• The language and structure of text types are examined in detail. Examples are given

throughout the book.

Derewianka, B (1991),Exploring How Texts Work : The Video, PETA.

• A resource kit with video, assessment activities and work sheets. Excellent forthose teachers who are serious about teaching functional English.

Dillon, F and Cahill, M (1991),Key into Literacy,Longman Cheshire.

• Gives suggested ways of teaching text types and lists resources and ideas that can readily

be used in the classroom.

DSP Centre Marketing, Earthworms, Teaching Factual Writing in the Early Years of School,Erskinville,

NSW.

• A stimulating video that demonstrates a year 2 classroom teacher using the

functional language approach while teaching about earthworms.

Education Department of Western Australia (1994),First Steps Literacy Program, Addison-Wesley

Longman Australia: Melbourne.

Writing Developmental Continuum and Resource Book

Reading Developmental Continuum and Resource Book

Oral Language Developmental Continuum and Resource Book

Spelling Developmental Continuum and Resource Book

Parents as Partners

Era Publications. These publications represent the full range of specific text types. Most are published in both big and small book format. Titles and order form available from

Lioncrest Pty Ltd, PO Box 522, Roseville, NSW. 2069.

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PETA (Primary English Teaching Association) publications, Laura Street, Newtown NSW 2042

Swan, S (1995),Thinking Books, Pen 101, PETA.

• An excellent paper on helping children reflect on their learning.

Walker, Kate (1991),Step By Step Stories, Kate Walker Ink, New South Wales.

• A wonderful guide to narrative writing in the infant grades

Wing Jan, Lesley (1991),Write Ways, Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

• An excellent overview of text type writing and assessing.

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