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SEDIMENTARY ROCKS THIRD EDITION
F. J. PETTIJOHN The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore
HARPER INTERNATIONAL EDITION
HARPER & ROW, PUBLISHERS New York, Evanston, San Francisco, and London
CONTENTS
PREFACE xi
1 INTRODUCTION 1
Definitions 1 History of Sedimentology 2 Economic Value of Sediments 8 References 9 Textbooks and General References 10 Laboratory and Fie ld Manuals 10 Sedimentary Petrography 11 Sedimentation and Stratigraphy 11 Processes, Physical and Chemical 11 Sedimentary Environments , Ancient
and Modern 11 Sedimentary Structures 12 Periodicals and Serials 12
2 NATURE AND ORIGIN OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 13
Introduction 13 Fabric 15 Composition 16 Classification 17 Total Volume and Mass of Sediment 19 Relative Abundance of tbe Common
Sediments 21 References 22
frequency distributions 36 • Characteristics of size frequency distributions 38 • Mathematical nature of size frequency distributions 40
Grain Size Distributions and Causal Factors 40 Grain size and provenance 41 • Grain size and transportation 45 • Grain size and depositional processes 48
Grain Size Distributions and Environmental A n a l y s i s 50
Summary 51 Sbape and Roundness 52 Shape (Formj 52 Roundness 56 Surface Textures 61 Polish versus Frost 61 Microrelief 62 Fabric and Framework Geometry 64 Fabric 64 Definitions and Concepts 65 Fabric Elements and A n a l y s i s 65 Symmetry Concepts and Fabric Types 67 Fabric of Sediments 68
Gravel fabric 68 • Till fabric 69 • Sand fabric 69 Fabrics of clays and shales 70 • Fabrics of limestones and dolomites 71 • Fossil orientation 71
Evaluation of Sedimentary Fabrics 72 Framework Geometry of Detritai Sediments 72
Packing 72 • Porosity 76 • Permeability 77 Crystal l ine and Otber Endogenetic Fabrics 79 Crystal l ine Textures 80
Crystal elements 80 • The fabric of cements 81 Recrystallization fabrics 82 • Textures of replacement and paragenesis 82 • Fabrics of veins 83
Oolites, Spherulites, and Peloids 83 Oolites and pisolites 83 • Spherulites 87
Biogenic Fabrics 87 Composition and Mode of Preservation 88 Petrology of Fossi ls 89 References 89
THE TEXTURE OF SEDIMENTS 25
Particle Size of Detritai Rocks 25 Concept of Size 25 Size Terms 27 Classification of Sedimentary Aggregates 31 Grain Size Distributions 34
Grade scales 34 • Representation of size
INTERNAL ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS 100
Introduction and Classification Bedding 101
100
V
vi 6 GRAVELS, CONGLOMERATES AND BRECCIAS 154
Internal Organization and Structure of Beds 103
Massive Bedding 103 Laminations 104 internal Organization and Structure 104 Cross-Bedding and Ripple Marks 105
Ripple marks 109 • Ripple bedding 111 Graded bedding 113 Growth bedding 117 Bedding Plane Markings and Structures 117 Sole Marks 117
Scour and tool marks 117 • Mud crack casts 120 Load structures 120
Surface Marks 121 Parting lineation 121 • Rill, swash, and related marks 122 • Rain, hail, and spray pits 122 Mud cracks 122
Deformed and Disturbed Bedding 123 Load Casts and Baii-and-Piilow Structures 124 Synsedimentary Folds and Breccias 124 Sandstone Dikes and Sills 126 Convolute Bedding 126 Stromatolites and Otber Biogenic
Structures 127 Stromatolites 127 Other Biogenic Structures 129
Introduction 129 • Classification 130 Geological significance 131
Diagenetic Structures 132 References 132
5 GEOMETRY OF SEDIMENTARY BODIES 140
Introduction 154 Modern Gravels 155 Fabrics and Composition of Gravels 157 Texture of Gravels and Conglomerates 157 Composition of Gravels and
Conglomerates 161 • Structure of Gravels and Conglomerates 162 Basic Differences Between G r a v e l s
and Sands 162 Classification of Gravels
and Conglomerates 163 Ortboconglomerates 164 Orthoquartzitic Conglomerates 164 Petromict Conglomerates 167 Paraconglomerates
(Conglomeratic Mudstone) 170 Lominated Pebbly Mudstone 170 T i l l and Till i te 171
Textures 172 • Structures of till 175 Composition 176 • Stratigraphic aspects 176 Distribution in time and space—examples 179 Origin and geologic significance 180
Tilloid ( "Gerollton") : Nonglacial Pebbly Mudstones 180 Definitions 180 • Textures, structures, and composition of tilloids 181 • Stratigraphic associations 181 • Distribution in time and space 181 • Origin of tilloids 182
Diagenesis of Conglomerates 183 Intraformational Conglomerates 183 Breccias 185 Cataclastic Breccia 186 Landslide and Slump Breccias 186 Collapse (Founder) and Solution Breccias 187 Pyroclastic Breccias 187 Impact or Fal lback Breccias 187 Pseudoconglomerates and Pseudobreccias 188 References 188
Introduction 140 Sandstone Bodies 141 Shoestring Sands 143 Complex Sand Bodies 145 Wedge-shaped (Fan) Sand Bodies 145 Sheet Sands 146 Sand Body Orientation 146 Sandstone Dikes , S i l l s , and Autointrusions 147 Carbonate R o c k Geometry 148 Reefs 149 Mounds and Banks 149 Other Carbonate Bodies 150 Salt Domes, Stocks, and Anticl ines 150 F i l led Cavit ies and S i n k s 151 Miscellaneous Sedimentary Bodies 152 References 152
7 SANDS AND SANDSTONES 195
Introduction 195 Modern Sands 195 Properties of Sandstones 198 The Fabric of Sandstones 198 The Structures of Sandstones 200 The Mineralogy of Sandstones 200
Quartz, opal, and chalcedony 200 • Feldspar 202 Rock fragments 204 • Micas 205 • "Heavy minerals" 206 • Calcite, dolomite, and siderite 207 Clay minerals and other silicates 208 Cellophane 208
Chemical Composition of Sandstones 208
vii CONTENTS
Classification of Sandstones 209 Sandstone Petrography 213 FeJdspathic Sandstones and Arkose 213
Definitions 213 • Arkose 213 • Fabric and composition 214 • Varieties and manner of occurrence 216 • Origin and geologic significance 218
Lithic Sandstones and Subgraywackes 219 Definitions 219 • General description and varieties 219 • Occurrence and significance 222
G r a y w a c k e s and Related Rocks 224 Fabric and composition 225 • The matrix problem 227 • The soda problem 229 • Occurrence and geologic significance 230
Quartz Arenites (Orthoquartzites) 230 Definitions 230 • Fabric and composition 231 Distribution in time and space 232 • Origin and geologic significance 234
Miscellaneous Sandstones 235 Greensand 235 • Phosphatic sandstones 236 Calcarenaceous sandstones 237 • Placer sands 238 • Itacolumite 238
Diagenesis of Sandstone 238 Cementation 239 Decementation 245 Intrastratal Solution 245 Matrix 246 Fractured and Deformed Grains 246 Petrogenesis of Sandstones 246 References 250
8 SHALES, ARGILLITES, AND SILTSTONES 260
Introduction 260 Definitions and Terminology 260 Textures and Structures 261 Grain Size and Fabric 261 Fiss i l i ty 263 Laminations 264 Concretions and Other Structures 265 Mineral Composition of Shales
and Argilli tes 265 T h e Clay Minerals 266
Composition and structure 266 • Base exchange 268 • Occurrence and origin of clay minerals 268
Other Minerals of Shales 269 The Average Shale 269 Chemica l Composition 270 Color 274 Diagenesis of Shales 275 Compaction 276
Diagenesis 276 Classification and Petrology of Shales 278 Classification 278 Residual Clays 279 Common Shales 281 Red Shales and Mudstones 282 Black (Carbonaceous) Shales 282 Siliceous Shales 284 Calcareous Shales and Marls 285 Miscellaneous Shales 285 Geological Occurrence of Muds
and Shales 288 In the Modern World 288 In the Ancient World 289 Siltstones and Loess 290 Loess 290 Origin of Silt 291 References 292
9 VOLCANICLASTIC SEDIMENTS 299
Introduction and Definitions 299 Textures and Structures of Volcaniclast ic
Sediments 300 Composition 304 Petrography of Volcaniclast ic Sediments 306 Classification 306 Petrography 306
Vitric tuffs 306 • Crystal tuffs 307 • Lithic tuffs 307 • Tuffaceous sedimentaries 308
Alteration of Tuffs 308 Origin and Nature of Volcaniclast ic Deposits 310 Primary Pyroclastic Sediments 310
Ash falls 310 • Ash flows 310 • Base-surge deposits 313 • Mudflows 313
Secondary (Reworked) Pyroclastic Sediments 313
Epiclastic Volcanic Sediments 313 References 314
10 LIMESTONES AND DOLOMITES 316
Introduction 316 Definitions 316 Occurrence of Limestones 316 Economic Value of Limestones 317 General References 317 Modern Carbonate Sediments 318 Occurrence and Distribution 318
Shallow-water carbonates 318 • Deep-sea carbonates 319 • Freshwater carbonates 320 Evaporitlc carbonates 320 • Eolian carbonates 320
Environments of Carbonate Deposition 320
viii E v a p o r i t i c Carbonate Facies 379 Relat ions Be tween Facies 380 References 380
Pe t ro logy of M o d e r n Carbonate Sediments 321 Mineralogical and Chemica l Composition 323 Carbonate M i n e r a l s 323 Si l ica and Si l icates 324 M i n o r Cons t i tuents 325 Chemica l C o m p o s i t i o n 326 I so top ic C o m p o s i t i o n 329 Textures and Structures of Limestones 330 I n t r o d u c t i o n 330 A l l o c h e m s ( " F r a m e w o r k " Elements) 330
Oolites 330 • Fossils 330 • Intraclasts 332 Pellets 333
M i c r i t e 333 S p a r r y Calcite ("Spar"] 334 N o n c a r b o n a t e C o m p o n e n t s 335 P o r o s i t y of Carbonate Rocks 335 B e d d i n g and O t h e r Structures
of L imes tone 337 Hydrodynamic structures 337 • Growth fabrics and structures 338 • Nodular bedding 338 Stylolites 340
Classification of Limestone 342 Petrography of Limestones
(and Dolomites] 348 Grainstones (Calcarenites
and C a l c i r u d i t e s ) 348 Boundstones (Reef-Rock) 354 Carbonate M u d s t o n e (Calc i lut i tes
and Calc igranul i tes ) 355 A l l o d a p i c (Graded) Limestones 357 T u f a , T r a v e r t i n e , and M a r l 357 Cal iche and O t h e r E v a p p r i t i c Carbonates 358 D o l o m i t e 359
Nomenclature 360 • Composition 361 • Textures and structures 361 • Occurrence and associations 364
Diagenesis of Carbonate Rocks 365 Cements and C a v i t y F i l l i n g s 366 S o l u t i o n 367 G r a i n G r o w t h ( A g g r a d i n g N e o m o r p h i s m ) 368 G r a i n D i m i n u t i o n ( M i c r i t i z a t i o n
or D e g r a d i n g N e o m o r p h i s m 368 C o m p a c t i o n 369 L imes tone Replacement and the D o l o m i t e
P r o b l e m 369 D e d o l o m i t i z a t i o n 371 Other Replacements 371 Diagenet ic Paragenesis 372 Limestone Facies 372 S t r o m a t o l i t i c ( T i d a l Flat) Facies 372 B i o h e r m a l (Reef and M o u n d ) Facies 373 Cross-Bedded ( W i n n o w e d Shelf) Facies 376 A l l o d a p i c (Basinal) L imestone Facies 377 N o d u l a r L imes tone Facies 376 Cha lk (Pelagic) Facies 379
11 NONCLASTIC SEDIMENTS (EXCLUDING LIMESTONES) 392
Introduction 392 Chert and Other Siliceous Sediments 393 D e f i n i t i o n s and Class i f i ca f ion 393 C o m p o s i t i o n of Cherts 395
Mineralogic composition 395 • Chemical composition 396
P e t r o g r a p h y of Cherts 397 Geologic Occurrences of Cherts
and Related Rocks 400 O r i g i n of Cher t 402 Si lcrete 407 Iron-Bearing Sediments 407 D e f i n i t i o n s 407 M i n e r a l o g y and Class i f i ca t ion 408
Iron oxides 408 • I ron carhonates 409 Iron silicates 409 • Iron sulfides 411
Facies of I r o n - B e a r i n g Sediments 411 Bedded iron sulfides 411 • Bedded siderite 413 Bedded i ron oxides 414 -i Bedded i ron silicates 417
Occurrence and D i s t r i b u t i o n of I r o n - B e a r i n g Sediments 418
O r i g i n of I r o n - B e a r i n g Sediments 420 Diagenesis of I r o n - B e a r i n g Sediments 425 Glauconite 425 Phosphorites and Otber Phosphatic
Sediments 427 I n t r o d u c t i o n 427 M i n e r a l o g y and C h e m i c a l C o m p o s i t i o n 428 Pe t ro logy 429 Assoc ia t ions and Geologic Occurrence 431 O r i g i n 432 Salines and Other Evaporites
(Excluding Carbonates) 434 D e f i n i t i o n s and Class i f icat ions 434 M o d e r n E v a p o r i t e s 434 C o m p o s i t i o n of E v a p o r i t e s 435 P e t r o g r a p h y of E v a p o r i t e s 436 Occurrence of E v a p o r i t e s 440 O r i g i n of Evapor i tes 441 Carbonaceous Sediments 443 I n t r o d u c t i o n 443 ' N a t u r e and F o r m of Organic Residues 444 Class i f i ca t ion of Carbonaceous Sediments 445 The Coal Series 446
General characteristics and classification 446 Chemical composition of coal 447 • Constituents of coal 448 • Occurrence of coal 451 • Origin of coal 451
O i l Shales, P e t r o l e u m , and N a t u r a l Gas 452 References 453
" ^^^^^^ J^LEOCURRENTS AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY 506
12 CONCRETIONS, NODULES, AND OTHER DIAGENETIC SEGREGATIONS 462
Introduction 506 Directional Structures and Fabric 508 Cross-Bedding, R i p p l e M a r k and
Paleocurrents 508 Sole-Marks and Paleocurrents 509 Fabr ic and Paleocurrents 511 Scalar Properties and Paleocurrents 512 D o w n c u r r e n t Size Dec l ine of Clasts 512 Roundness , Shape, and Paleocurrents 515 Compositional Properties
and Paleocurrents 517 Bed Thickness , Isopachs, and Paleocurrents 519 Paleocurrents and Time 520 Paleocurrents and Bas in A n a l y s i s 521 Facies Maps and Paleogeography 522 References 525
15 ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS 530
Introduction 530 Concept of Environment 530 Environmental Parameters 531 Physical Parameters 532
The nature of the depositing medium 532 • The depth of water problem 534 • Current velocity, direction, and stability 536
Chemical Parameters 537 Oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) 538 Alkal in i ty-ac idi ty (pH) 539 • Salinity 540 Temperature 541
E v a l u a t i o n a n d S u m m a r y 542 Classification of Environments 543 Facies Models and Environmental
Reconstruction 545 I n t r o d u c t i o n 545 Alluvial E n v i r o n m e n t s 547
A l l u v i a l fans 547 • Braided rivers 548 • Meandering rivers and fining-upward alluvial cycles 550
Shore-Zone Environments and C y c l i c Sequences 552
P r o g r a d i n g Del ta and C o a r s e n i n g - U p w a r d Sequences 552
I n t e r d e l t a i c Shore l ine E n v i r o n m e n t s 554 Barrier beach 554 • Lagoon and t idal marsh 556 Prograding muddy shorelines 556 • Tidal-flat and t idal sequences 557
The Carbonate Shelf Complex 558 The carbonate tidal-flat sequence 558 • The sabkha cycle 558 • The reef cycle 558
M a r i n e E n v i r o n m e n t s 558 Shallow marine 560 • Turhidite ("graded-bedded") facies 560
Introduction 462 Definitions and Classifications 462 Origin 463 Carbonate Concretions and Nodules 464 Concre t ions of Sand and Si l ts tones 464
Kugelsandstein 464 • Imatra stones 465 Sand crystals 466
Calcareous Concre t ions of Shale 466 Septarian N o d u l e s 469 Cone- in-Cone 470 C o n c r e t i o n a r y Layers and Ve ins 471 Cal iche Nodules and Loess Concre t ions 472 Siliceous Nodules and Concretions 472 C h e r t Nodules 472 Geodes 474 Si l iceous Connect ions i n B e d d e d Sulfates 475 Phosphatic Concretions and Nodules 475 Iron-Oxide Nodules and Concretions 476 Pyrite and Marcasite Nodules
and C r y s t a l Aggregates 476 Barite Nodules and Rosettes 477 G y p s u m Crystals and C r y s t a l Clusters 478 Pseudoconcretions 478 A r m o r e d M u d Balls 478 Onco l i t es 479 Lake Balls 479 References 479
13 PROVENANCE 483
Introduction 483 Definitions and Concepts 484 Minerals and Source Rocks 484 Mineral Stability: I n the Soi l Profile 486 M o b i l i t y of the Oxides 488 M i n e r a l S t a b i l i t y 489 M a t u r i t y 491 Mineral Stability: During Transi t 493 Mineral Stability: Intrastratal 495 H e a v y Mineral Zones 497 Mineral Stability: Theoretical and Other
Considerations 499 Reading Provenance History 501 References 503
X Geosyncl ines and Plate Tectonics 584 References 585
Interior Basin Environment 563 The Glacia l Model 564 References 564
16 SEDIMENTATION AND TECTONICS 571
Introduction 571 Cratons 572 Geosyncl ines 575 Orogenic Sediments 578 F i y s c h 578 Molasse 580 Pre/Iysch Facies 582 T h e Geosyncl inal C y c l e 583
17 SEDIMENTS AND EARTH HISTORY 588
Introduction 588 Evolution of Soils 589 Evolution of Shales 590 Evolut ion of the Sandstones 591 Evolut ion of the Carbonates 593 Relative Abundance of the Common
Sediments and Geologic T i m e 594 Rate of Sedimentation 594 Length of the D a y and Lunar Tides 595 The Question of the E a r l y Atmosphere 596 Summary and Critique 597 References 597
INDEX OF NAMES 599
INDEX OF SUBJECTS 614
