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Senna (plant)
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Senna
Senna alexandrina
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae
Tribe: Cassieae
Subtribe: Cassiinae
Genus: SennaMill.
Type species
Senna alexandrina Mill.
Species
Around 250, see text
Synonyms
Cathartocarpus (partim)ChamaefistulaDiallobusEarleocassiaHerpeticaIsandrinaPalmerocassiaPseudocassia
Senna (from Arabic sanā), the sennas, is a large genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae. This diverse genus is native throughout the tropics, with a small number of species reaching into temperate regions. The number of species is usually estimated to be about 260,[1] but some authors believe that there are as many as 350.[2] The type species for the genus is Senna alexandrina. About 50 species of Senna are known in cultivation.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Description 2 Affinities 3 Circumscription
4 Ecology and uses o 4.1 In medicine
5 Selected species 6 Footnotes 7 References
8 External links
[edit]Description
The following description is rather cursory and based mostly on Irwin and Barneby (1982), [4] but partly on Marazzi (2006) [1].
The sennas are typically shrubs or subshrubs, some becoming scandent when growing into other vegetation. Some are herbs or small trees. Many species have extrafloral nectaries.
The leaves are paripinnately compound, the leaflets opposite. The inflorescence is a raceme, or some arrangement or racemes. The pedicels lack bracteoles.
The flowers produce no nectar. They are buzz pollinated and offer pollen as a reward to pollinators. They are often asymmetric. The petals are 5 in number, similar to each other, yellow, or rarely white.
The stamens may be as few as 4, but usually there are 10. When 10, they occur in 3 sets. The 3 adaxial stamens are staminodial. The 4 medial stamens are smaller than the 3 abaxial stamens. Theanthers are basifixed and open by two terminal pores or short slits.
The gynoecium is often enantiostylous; that is, it is deflected laterally to the right or left. This makes the flower asymmetric, but the perianth and the androecium may be asymmetrical as well.
The fruit is a legume, indehiscent or tardily dehiscent.
[edit]Affinities
Chamaecrista, Cassia, and Senna form a monophyletic group which some authors have called Cassia sensu lato. [5] In 1982, Howard Samuel Irwin and Rupert Charles Barneby called it subtribe Cassiinae of their tribe Cassieae. [4] Cassieae, sensu Irwin and Barneby, contains 21 genera and is now known to be polyphyletic. [5] Most authors continue to use the Irwin and Barneby classification because a subsequent revision of Fabaceae has yet to be published. [5]
[edit]Circumscription
The genus Senna has had a rather complex taxonomic history. [6] What is now known as Senna was included by Linnaeus in his concept of Cassia in Species Plantarum in 1753. [7] Philip Miller segregated Senna from Cassia in 1754 in the fourth edition of The Gardeners Dictionary. [8] Until Irwin and Barneby published their paper in 1982, many authors, following Linnaeus, did not recognize Senna and Chamaecrista, but included them in a broadly circumscribed Cassia sensu lato. Molecular phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences have shown that Chamaecrista, Cassia, and Senna are all monophyletic, but the relationships between these three genera have not been resolved. [1] They are therefore shown in phylogenetic trees as a tritomy.
The division of Senna into sections and other infrageneric groups is in need of major revision, but none has been published since Irwin and Barneby published their classification in 1982.
[edit]Ecology and uses
Siamese Senna (S. siamea) leaves can be eaten as a vegetable
Senna species make good ornamental plants and are used for landscape gardening. The wide variety of species and ecological adaptations makes at least a handful of sennas suitable for any climate warmer than cool-temperate.
Cassia gum - a commonly-used thickening agent -, despite its name is actually from Chinese Senna (S. obtusifolia) seeds. In some Southeast Asian cuisines (particularly those of Thailand and Laos), the leaves and flowers of Siamese Senna (S. siamea, called khi-lek in Thai), either fresh or
pickled in brine, are used in cooking, particularly in gaeng khi-lek (khi-lek curry). [9]
Another senna, Senna italica ssp. italica (= Cassia obovata), often called "neutral henna", is used as a hair treatment with effects similar to henna but without the red color. The active component is an anthraquinone derivative called chrysophanic acid, which is also found in higher concentrations in rhubarb root. It adds a slight yellow color.Some species of Senna are notable for being host to caterpillars of certain Lepidoptera species, for example:
Ascalapha odorata (Black Witch Moth) – recorded on Candle Bush (S. alata)
Astraptes fulgerator (Two-barred Flasher) – recorded on Candle Bush (S. alata), S. cobanensis, S. hayesiana, S. pallida, S. papillosa, S. undulata and probably others [note 1]
Catopsilia pomona (Common Emigrant, Lemon Emigrant) – recorded on Candle Bush (S. alata) and possibly others
Catopsilia pyranthe (Mottled Emigrant) – recorded from Candle Bush (S. alata), Avaram Senna (S. auriculata), S. garrettiana and probably others
Phoebis sennae (Cloudless Sulphur)[verification needed]
They are pollinated by a variety of bees, especially large female bees in genera such as Xylocopa.[1] Some species also have extrafloral nectaries on the leaves or flower stalks, which attract ants but do not benefit pollinators. The ants probably deter herbivores. [1]
[edit]In medicine
Sennas have for millennia played a major role in herbalism and folk medicine. Alexandrian Senna (S. alexandrina) was and still is a significant item of trans-national trade e.g. by the Ababdeh people and grown commercially, traditionally along the middle Nile but more generally in many regions around the northwestern Indian Ocean.
Sennas act as purgatives and are similar to aloe and rhubarb in having as active ingredients anthraquinone derivatives and their glucosides. The latter are called sennosides or senna glycosides. Senna alexandrina is used in modern medicine as a laxative; [10] acting on the lower bowel, it is especially useful in alleviating constipation. It increases the peristaltic movements of
the colon by irritating the colonic mucosa. The plants are most often prepared as an infusion. Senna glycosides are listed as ATC code A06AB06 on their own and A06AB56 in combined preparations.
Resveratrol was first isolated from Senna quinquangulata
As regards other chemicals, the antiinflammatory compound resveratrol was first isolated from S. quinquangulata,[citation needed] and Siamese Senna S. siamea contains barakol used to counteract aconitine poisoning. Chinese Senna (S. obtusifolia) seeds are also used in Kampō (traditional Japanesemedicine) where they are called ketsumei-shi (ケツメイシ, 決明子) or by their Chinese name jué míng zǐ(traditional: 決明子, simplified: 决明子).
The long-standing use of (mainly) Alexandrian Senna is reflected by its presence in many herbal remedies and tonics. These include for example Black draught, Catholicon, Daffy's Elixir, Diasenna (literally meaning "composed of senna") and Swedish bitters. On the other hand, it was contained in more dangerous "medications" such as the highly toxic antihelminthic Lumbricide and - because their purgative effects are a readily-observed "proof" that some concoction "works" - many generally useless and often poisonous "patent medicine".
Senna is also the primary ingredient found in most "dieter's teas". The combination of acting as a stimulant which reduces a dieter's appetite, and the laxative properties that cause food to move through their system before as many calories can be absorbed is a combination that can lead to rapid and even dangerous weight loss.[11] Additionally it's important to be on the lookout for side effects that can start appearing after 7 days of prolonged use.
The stimulant action of sennosides should be taken into account for those
who suffer from any conditions where stimulants are contraindicated, such as past heart disease, high blood pressure, anxiety attacks, etc. A (generally invisible and harmless) side effect of taking Sennamedication regularly is Melanosis coli, a brown discoloration of the colon wall.
[edit]Selected species
Senna aversiflora flowers
Senna didymobotrya
Undetermined Senna species
Velvet-leaved Senna, Senna lindheimeriana
Senna multiglandulosa flower
Coffee Senna (Senna occidentalis) leaf
Senna surattensis
Senna glutinosa
Senna acclinis (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna aculeata (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna alata (L.) Roxb. – Candle Bush, Candelabra Bush, Empress
Candle Plant, Candlestick Tree, Ringworm Tree, "candletree" Senna alexandrina Mill. – Alexandrian Senna, Egyptian Senna,
Tinnevelly Senna, East Indian Senna,sene de la palthe (French) Senna angulata (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna appendiculata (Vogel) Wiersema (= S. australis) Senna armata (S.Watson) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna artemisioides (Gaudich. ex DC.) Randell – Silver Senna,
Feathery Senna Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb. – Avaram Senna, avaram, ranawara Senna aversiflora (Herbert) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna bicapsularis – Rambling Senna, Christmas Bush, Money Bush,
Yellow Candlewood Senna birostris (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna candolleana (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna cardiosperma (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna caudata (Standl.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (Costa Rica, Panama) Senna cobanensis (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna corymbosa – Argentine Senna, Argentina Senna, Buttercup
Bush, Flowering Senna, (Texas) Flowery Senna, Tree Senna Senna covesii (A.Gray) H.S.Irwin & Barneby – Desert Senna, Coues'
Senna, Rattleweed Senna cumingii (Hook. & Arn.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna cuthbertsonii (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna domingensis (Spreng.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (Cuba, Hispaniola)
Senna excelsa (Schrad) Irwin & Barneby[verification needed]
Senna fruticosa (Mill.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna garrettiana (Craib) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna gaudichaudii (Hook. & Arn.) H.S.Irwin &
Barneby – Heuhiuhi (Pacific Islands, Queensland)[12] [13]
Senna hayesiana (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna hebecarpa – American Senna, Wild Senna Senna helmsii[verification needed]
Senna heptanthera (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna hirsuta (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna hirsuta var. puberula
Senna italica Mill. Senna italica ssp. italica – Neutral Henna
Senna ligustrina (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna lindheimeriana (Scheele) H.S.Irwin & Barneby – Velvet-leaved
Senna Senna macranthera (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Senna macranthera var. macranthera Senna magnifolia (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna marilandica (L.) Link Senna martiana (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna martiana (Schrad) Irwin & Barneby[verification needed]
Senna multiglandulosa (Jacq.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna multijuga (Rich.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Senna multijuga var. lindleyana (Gardner) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna nicaraguensis (Benth.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna nitida (Rich.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Senna notabilis (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby – Chinese Senna, Sicklepod, Foetid Senna, Sickle Senna, Coffeeweed, Arsenic Weed, "blunt-leaved senna", "coffee pod", "java bean"
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link – Coffee Senna, Mogdad Coffee (Pantropical)[14]
Senna odorata (R. Morris) Randall Senna oligoclada (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna oligophylla[verification needed]
Senna pallida (Vahl) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna papillosa (Britton & Rose) H.S.Irwin & Barneby
Senna pendula (Willd.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna pendula var. stahlii (Urb.) Irwin & Barneby
Senna pleurocarpa (F.Muell.) Randell[15]
Senna polyphylla (Jacq.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Senna purpusii (Brandegee) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna reticulata Willd[16][verification needed]
Senna rugosa (G.Don.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna scandens Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby – Siamese Senna, khi-
lek (Thai) Senna spectabilis (DC.) Irwin & Barneby
Senna spectabilis var. excelsa Senna spectabilis var. micans - sometimes placed in Senna
macranthera Senna splendida (Vogel) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna surattensis (Burm.f.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (= S. speciosa Roxb.) Senna sulfurea (Collad.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna sylvestris (Vell.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby[verification needed]
Senna sylvestris var. bifaria H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna timoriensis (DC.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna tora L. – Sickle Wild Sensitive-plant Senna trolliiflora Senna undulata (Vahl) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Senna venusta (F.Muell.) Randell[verification needed]
Senna wislizeni – Wislizenus' Senna, Shrubby Senna
[edit]Footnotes
1. Hébert et al. (2004) refer to "Cassia emarginata", which today is either of Chamaecrista pilosa,Rambling Senna (S. bicapsularis) or Senna candolleana. The last does not occur in their study area; given the general importance of Senna species and the lack of records for Chamaecrista species as foodplants in the study area, S. bicapsularis seems to be the plant in question. See also Brower (2006).
Detail Penelitian Obat Bahan Alam
Judul PenelitianPenetapan Kadar Sennosida B Daun dan Buah Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Varietas TinnevellyPenelitiEvelyn Yolanda P.Midian SiraitMoesdarsonoAbstrakTelah dilakukan penetapan kadar sennosida B daun dan buah Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Var. Tinnevelly yang ditanam di Indonesia, serta daun Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Var. Tinnevelly yang beredar dalam perdagangan Farmasi di Eropa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kadar sennosida B daun Cassia angustifolia var. Tinnevelly yang beredar dalam perdagangan farmasi di Eropa lebih besar daripada kadar sennosida B daun Cassia angustifolia var. Tinnevelly yang ditanam di Indonesia, sedangkan buah Cassia angustifoliavar. Tennevelly yang ditanam di Indonesia mengandung sennosida B yang memenuhi persyaratan DAB 9.KeteranganSkripsiTahun1990Tempat PenelitianDept. Farmasi ITBIsolasiDalam penelitian dilakukan penetapan kadar sennosida B daun dan buah Cassia angustifoliaVahl. Varietas Tinnevelly yang ditanam di Indonesia, serta daun Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Varietas Tinnevelly yang beredar dalam perdagangan farmasi di Eropa. Analisis kuantitatif dilakukan dengan metode spektrofotodensitometri dan metode yang tercantum dalam DAB 9. Metode Spektrofotodensitometeri: terlebih dahulu dilakukan pembuatan kurva kalibrasi dengan mengukur noda pembanding Sennosida B pada berbagai volume penotolan pada kromatogram lapis tipis dengan spektrofotodensitometer. Kemudian noda pada kromatogram lapis tipis diukur dengan spektrofotodensitometer. Kadar noda dihitung dengan kurva kalibrasi. Metode yang tercantum dalam DAB 9: Absorpsi sennidin B (aglikon) diukur dengan spektrofotometer ultraviolet-visibel. Kadar sennosida B dihitung menurut rumus: A . 1,25/m , dengan A = absorpsi pada panjang gelombang 515 nm, m = simplisia dalam gram. Dengan metode Spektrofotodensitometri: kadar sennosida B pada daun Senna Tinnevelly yang beredar dalam perdagangan farmasi di Eropa sebesar 2,5%; daun Senna yang ditanam di Indonesia sebesar 1,78%; buah Senna yang ditanam di Indonesia 2,55%.
Dengan metode yang tercantum dalam DAB 9: kadar sennosida B pada daun Senna Tinnevelly yang beredar dalam perdagangan farmasi di Eropa sebesar 2,46%; daun Senna yang ditanam di
Indonesia sebesar 1,36%; buah Senna yang ditanam di Indonesia 2,48%.
Bagi mereka yang mengutip hasil penelitian ini wajib menuliskan sumbernya Sekolah Farmasi ITB http://bahan-alam.fa.itb.ac.id
Obat Peluntur Lemak DAUN SENNAPosted by admin on January 24th, 2011
Daun senna atau Cassia angustifolia, tanaman perdu dari daerah Arab atau Afrika Utara. Sejak 3500 tahun yang lalu, tanaman ini sudah digunakan untuk mengobati kaum bangsawan dan elite. Popularitas daun sena sebagai herba meningkat ketika tanaman ini menyebar ke Eropa. Selama berabad-abad daun senna sudah digunakan sebagai obat untuk menghilangkan sembelit, penyakit yang disebabkan oleh konsumsi makanan berkualitas buruk. Jika sembelit berlanjut, akan menjadi racun bagi tubuh. Karena mengandung komponen anthraquinon atau sennosida seperti glikosida dianthrone,naftalene glikosida dan hidroksianthrasen, daun senna sering digunakan untuk mengatasi konstipasi. Senosida mempercepat gerakan hasil pencernaan di usus sehingga menaikkan volume hasil pencernaan dan meningkatkan gerakan peristaltik usus sehingga air yang terserap usus terserap oleh usus sedikit dan feces tetap lembek. Daun senna sangat efektif dalam melarutkan lemak dan racun untuk mengembalikan kebugaran tubuh, efeknya akan terasa 10-12 jam berikutnya.SENNA nama asli dari teh daun jati cina adalah tanaman asli Afrika, Timur Tengah (khususnya Mesir dan Sudan). Pertama kali diperkenalkan pada abad ke-9 karena efek medisnya oleh ahli medis Arab, Serapion dan Sesue yang kemudian memberinya nama dalam bahasa Arab dan menggunakannnya sebagai laxative atau obat pencahar. FARMAKOLOGI KLINIK Waktu aksi senna berkisar antara 8-10 jam, sehingga sebaiknya diminum pada waktu malam. Senosida dapat menghilangkan keluhan konstipasi pasien (irritable bowel syndrome). Pada dosis terapi tidak ditemukan adanya gangguan kebiasaan waktu defekasi; dapat melunakkan tinja dan meningkatkan kecepatan transit makanan dalam kolon melalui peningkatan gerakan peristaltik. Senosida sedikit diserap pada bagian atas saluran gastrointestinal.
Herbal Medicine
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Senna pod (fruit)
Latin Name: Senna alexandrinaPharmacopeial Name: ennae fructus acutifoliae, Sennae fructus angustifoliaeOther Names: Alexandrian senna pod, Tinnevelly senna pod
Overview Description Chemistry and Pharmacology Uses Contraindications Side Effects Use During Pregnancy and Lactation Interactions with Other Drugs Dosage and Administration References Additional Resources
Overview
Sennas areherbaceous subshrubs and both varieties used, Alexandrian and Tinnevelly, have desert origins (Bruneton, 1995). Alexandrian senna is native to northern and northeastern Africa, growing wild in semidesert and sudanosahelian zones of Africa, including Egypt, Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, and Sudan. It is cultivated in the valley of the Nile in Sudan, southern China, and India. Tinnevelly senna is native to southern India and northeastern Africa, grows wild in southern Arabia, on the coast of East Africa from Mozambique to Somaliland, and Asia. It is now cultivated on a large scale in southern and northwestern India and in Pakistan (Bruneton, 1995; Iwu, 1990; Leung and Foster, 1996; Remington et al., 1918; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994). The Tinnevelly senna of commerce is obtained mainly fromIndia, and Alexandrian is obtained mainly from Egypt and Sudan (BHP, 1996; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994).
Senna is the most widely used anthranoid drug today and has been used for centuries in Western and Eastern systems of medicine as a laxative, usually taken as a tea or swallowed in powdered form (Bradley, 1992; Leung and Foster, 1996; Der Marderosian, 1999).
Besides its wide use in conventional Western medicine, senna leaf remains an important drug used in traditional Chinese medicine and traditional Indian Ayurvedic and Unani medicine (IP, 1996; Kapoor, 1990; Karnick, 1994; Tu, 1992). Its name is derived from the Arabic sena. Its medical use was first described in the writings of Arabian physicians Serapion and Mesue in the ninth century C.E. (Chevallier, 1996; Grieve, 1979; Der Marderosian, 1999; Remington et al., 1918). Today, senna leaf and fruit are official in national pharmacopeias worldwide, including those ofAustria,China, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, India, Japan, Russia, Switzerland, the United States, the European Pharmacopoeia, and many others (BP, 1988;Bradley, 1992; DAB 10, 1991; IP, 1996; JP XII, 1993; AB, 1981; Ph.Eur.3, 1998; Ph.Fr.X, 1994; Ph.Helv.VII, 1987; Ph.Hg.VII, 1986; Tu, 1992; USP XXII, 1990; USSR X, 1973; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994).
In Germany, senna leaf, Alexandrian senna pod, and Tinnevelly senna pod are licensed as Standard Medicinal Teas available only in the pharmacy, official in the German Pharmacopoeia, and approved in the Commission E monographs.They are used alone and in more than 110 prepared drugs, mostly laxatives and biliary remedies (BAnz, 1998; Bradley, 1992; Braun et al., 1997; DAB 10, 1991;Meyer-Buchtela, 1999; Wichtl and Bisset, 1994).In the United States, senna leaf, fruit, and extract are used in OTC laxatives (e.g., Correctol®, ExLax®, Senokot®, Smooth Move®).
Modern human studies have investigated the use of senna for severe constipation (Pers and Pers, 1983), for chronic constipation in long-stay elderly patients (Kinnunen et al., 1993; MacLennan and Pooler, 1974; Passmore et al., 1993), for constipation in childhood (Perkin, 1977; Sondheimer and Gervaise, 1982), for managing morphine-induced constipation (Ramesh et al., 1998), for bowel preparation prior to intravenous urography (Bailey et al., 1991), to improve colonoscopy preparation with lavage (Ziegenhagen et al., 1991; Ziegenhagen et al., 1992), for preparation prior to radiographic examination of the colon (Brouwers et al., 1980; Slanger, 1979), in management of constipation in the immediate postpartum period (Shelton, 1980), in management of postoperative constipation in anorectal surgery (Corman, 1979), to improve the visibility of abdominal organs in ultrasound examination (Heldwein et al., 1987), for disorders characterized by slow intestinal transit time or constipation (Bossi et al., 1986), and as a laxative for terminal cancer patients treated with opiates (Agra et al., 1998).
The approved modern therapeutic applications for senna are supportable based on its history of use in well establishedsystemsof traditional and conventional medicine, extensive phytochemical investigations, in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies in animals, and human clinical studies.
Pharmacopeial grade senna leaf must consist of the dried leaflets of Alexandrian or Tinnevelly senna, or a mixture of both species.It must contain not less than 2.5% of hydroxyanthracene glycosides, calculated as sennoside B. Botanical identification must be confirmed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC), macroscopic and microscopic examinations, and organoleptic evaluation. The stomatal index (a calculation of the percentage of stomata—holes in the leaf's skin through which the plant breathes—comprising the number of epidermal cells, including the stomata, each stoma being counted as one cell) for Alexandrian senna is 10–15, usually 12.5 and for Tinnevelly senna it is 14–20, usually 17.5 (BP, 1988; IP, 1996; Ph.Eur.3, 1998; Tu, 1992). The Japanese Pharmacopoeia additionally requires a purity standard of not more than 5.0% rachis (the main axis of the compound leaf) and fruits contained in the senna leaf (JP XII, 1993). The French Pharmacopoeia additionally requires a test for absence of known adulterants, namely Cassia auriculata(Bruneton, 1995; Ph.Fr.X, 1994). The ESCOP monograph requires the material to comply with the European Pharmacopoeia (ESCOP, 1997).
Pharmacopeial grade senna leaf standardized dry extract (Sennae folii extractum siccum normatum) must be manufactured from European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur.) grade Sennae folium in accordance with the Ph.Eur. Extracta monograph. It must contain minimum 5.5% and maximum 8.0% hydroxyanthracene glycosides calculated as sennoside B with reference to the dry extract, with an allowed deviation of 10% (Ph.Eur.3, 1998).
Pharmacopeial grade senna pod must consist of the dried fruit of Alexandrian or Tinnevelly senna, or both.It must contain not less than 3.4% (Alexandrian senna pod) and not less than 2.2% (Tinnevelly senna pod) hydroxyanthracene glycosides, calculated as sennoside B. Botanical identification must be confirmed by TLC, macroscopic and microscopic examinations, and organoleptic evaluation (BP, 1988; IP, 1996; Ph.Eur.3, 1998). The Japanese Herbal Medicines Codex, however, requires not less than 2.2% of total anthraquinone glycosides calculated as sennoside A (JHMC, 1993). The ESCOP monographs require the material to comply with the European Pharmacopoeia (ESCOP, 1997).
Description
Alexandrian senna pod consists of the dried fruits of Cassia senna L. (C. acutifolia Del. [syn. S.alexandrina]) [Fam. Fabaceae] and their preparations in effective dosage. Tinnevelly senna pod consists of dried fruits ofC. angustifolia Vahl and their preparations in effective dosage. [Currently accepted nomenclature for both cultivars
is Senna alexandrina Miller.] Sufficient pharmacological-toxicologic studies are available for preparations containing 1.4–3.5% anthranoids (calculated as sum of individually determined compounds), equivalent to 0.9–2.3% potential rhein, 0.05–0.15% potential aloe-emodin, and 0.001–0.006% potential emodin. The preparation must conform to the currently valid pharmacopeia.
Chemistry and Pharmacology
Senna pod contains 2.2–3.5% hydroxyanthracene glycosides, mainly sennosides A and B, which are rhein-dianthrones, and smaller amounts of sennosides C and D, which are rhein-aloe-emodin-heterodianthrones; naphthalene glycosides; flavonoids (derivatives of kaempferol and isorhamnetin); mineral matter; mucilage (galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, galacturonic acid); polyol (pinitol); sugars (glucose, fructose, sucrose) (Bradley, 1992; Bruneton, 1995; ESCOP, 1997; Leung and Foster, 1996; Newall et al., 1996).
The Commission E reported 1,8-dihydroxy-anthracene derivatives have a laxative effect. This effect is due to the sennosides, specifically their active metabolite in the colon, rheinanthrone. The effect is caused by inhibiting stationary and stimulating propulsive contractions in the colon. This results in an accelerated intestinal passage and, because of the shortened contact time, a reduction in liquid absorbed through the lumen. In addition, stimulation of the active chloride secretion increases the water and electrolyte content of the stool.
Systematic studies pertaining to the kinetics of senna pod preparations are not available. However, it must be supposed that the aglycones contained in the drug are already absorbed in the upper small intestine. Theb-glycosides are prodrugs that are neither absorbed nor cleaved in the upper gastrointestinal tract. They are degraded in the colon by bacterial enzymes to rheinanthrone, the laxative metabolite. The systemic availability of rheinanthrone is very low. Animal experiments revealed that less than 5% is passed in the urine in oxidized form or conjugated form as rhein and sennodine. The major amount of rheinanthrone (more than 90%) is bound to the feces in the colon and excreted as polymers.
Active metabolites, such as rhein, infiltrate in small amounts into the milk ducts. A laxative effect on nursing infants has not been observed. The placental permeability for rhein is very small, as was observed in animals.
Drug preparations (i.e., preparations from whole senna pod) have a higher general toxicity than the pure glycosides, presumably due to
the content of aglycones. Experiments with senna leaf preparations are not available. A senna extract showed mutagenic toxicity in vitro; the pure substance, sennoside A, B, was negative. An in vivo study with a defined extract of senna pod revealed no mutagenicity. Preparations with an anthranoid content of 1.4–3.5% were used (calculated as the sum of specific individual compounds) that were potentially equivalent to 0.9–2.9% rhein, 0.05–0.15% aloe-emodin, and 0.001–0.006% emodin. The results appear to be also applicable for specific senna leaf preparations. Some positive results have been observed for aloe-emodin and emodin. A study for carcinogenicity was performed with an enriched sennoside fraction containing about 40.8% anthranoids, of which 35% were sennosides (calculated as sum of the individually determined compounds), equivalent to about 25.2% of the calculated potential rhein, 2.3% potential aloe-emodin, and 0.007% potential emodin. The tested substance contained 142 ppm free aloe-emodin and 9 ppm free emodin. The study was conducted over 104 weeks. Rats received up to 25 mg/kg body weight and showed no substance-dependent increase of tumors.
Uses
The Commission E approved the internal use of senna pod for constipation.
The World Health Organization (WHO) approves senna pod for short-term use in occasional constipation (WHO, 1999).
The British Herbal Compendium indicates its use for constipation and conditions in which easy defecation with soft stools is desirable, such as anal fissure or hemorrhoids (Bradley, 1992). ESCOP indicates it for short-term use in cases of occasional constipation (ESCOP, 1997). The German Standard License for senna pod tea indicates its use for constipation; conditions in which easy bowel evacuation with soft stools is desirable, for example, in cases of anal fissures, hemorrhoids, and after recto-anal operations; for bowel clearance before X-ray examinations; and before and after abdominal surgery (Bradley, 1992).
Contraindications
Intestinal obstruction, acute intestinal inflammation, e.g., Crohn's disease, colitis ulcerosa, appendicitis, abdominal pain of unknown origin. Children under 12 years of age.
Side Effects
In single incidents, cramp-like discomforts of the gastrointestinal tract. These cases require a dosage reduction.
With chronic use or abuse: Disturbance of electrolyte balance, especially potassium deficiency, albuminuria and hematuria. Pigment implantation into the intestinal mucosa (pseudomelanosis coli) is harmless and usually reverses on discontinuation of the drug. Potassium deficiency can lead to disorders of heart function and muscular weakness, especially with concurrent use of cardiac glycosides, diuretics, or corticosteroids.
Use During Pregnancy and Lactation
During the first trimester of pregnancy, senna pod preparations should be used only if a therapeutic effect cannot be obtained with a change in diet or through the use of swelling laxatives. Active metabolites, such as rhein, infiltrate into the milk ducts. A laxative effect on nursing infants has not been observed.
Interactions with Other Drugs
In cases of chronic use or abuse, loss of potassium may potentiate cardiac glycosides and have an effect on antiarrhythmic medications. Potassium deficiency may be exacerbated by simultaneous administration of thiazide diuretics, corticosteroids, or licorice root.
Dosage and Administration
Unless otherwise prescribed: 0.6–2.0 g (corresponding to 20–30 mg hydroxyanthracene derivatives calculated as sennoside B) per day of cut or powdered fruit or dried extracts for teas, decoctions, cold macerates, or elixirs. Liquid or solid forms of medication exclusively for oral use. The correct dosage is the smallest dose necessary to maintain a soft stool.
Note:The form of administration should be smaller than the daily dose.
Dried pods (powdered or whole): 0.6–2.0 g.
Infusion or decoction: 0.6–2.0 g in 150 ml warm or hot water for 10 to 30 minutes.
Cold macerate: 0.6–2.0 g in 150 ml cold water for two to three hours, strain, then heat before drinking.
Fluidextract 1:1 (g/ml): 0.6–2.0 ml.
Elixir: 0.6–2.0ml sweetened fluidextract.
Dry hydroalcoholic extract (5.5–8.0% hydroxyanthracene glycosides): 0.25–0.55 g.
Special caution for use: Stimulating laxatives must not be used for more than one to two weeks without medical advice.
Overdosage: Electrolyte and fluid imbalance.
Special warnings: Use of a stimulating laxative for longer than the recommended period can cause intestinal sluggishness.
This preparation should be used only if no effects can be obtained through changes in diet or use of bulk-forming products.
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Additional Resources
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This material was adapted from The Complete German Commission E MonographsTherapeutic Guide to Herbal Medicines. M. Blumenthal, W.R. Busse, A. Goldberg, J. Gruenwald, T. Hall, C.W. Riggins, R.S. Rister (eds.) S. Klein and R.S. Rister (trans.). 1998. Austin: American Botanical Council; Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications.
1) The Overview section is new information.
2) Description, Chemistry and Pharmacology, Uses, Contraindications, Side Effects, Interactions with Other Drugs, and Dosage sections have been drawn from the original work. Additional information has been added in some or all of these sections, as noted with references.
3) The dosage for equivalent preparations (tea infusion, fluidextract, and tincture) have been provided based on the following example:
Unless otherwise prescribed: 2 g per day of [powdered, crushed, cut or whole] [plant part]
Infusion: 2 g in 150 ml of water Fluidextract 1:1 (g/ml): 2 ml Tincture 1:5 (g/ml): 10 ml
4) The References and Additional Resources sections are new sections. Additional Resources are not cited in the monograph but are included for research purposes.
This monograph, published by the Commission E in 1994, was modified based on new scientific research. It contains more extensive pharmacological and therapeutic information taken directly from the Commission E.
Excerpt from Herbal Medicine: Expanded Commission E MonographsCopyright 2000 American Botanical CouncilPublished by Integrative Medicine Communications Available from the American Botanical Council.
