Sesame

For other uses, see Sesame (disambiguation).

Sesame (/ssmi/; Sesamum indicum) is a oweringplant in the genus Sesamum. Numerous wild relatives oc-cur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widelynaturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cul-tivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods.Sesame seed is one of the oldest oilseed crops known,domesticated well over 3000 years ago. It was a majorsummer crop in the Middle East for thousands of years,as attested to by the discovery of many ancient presses forsesame oil in the region.*[1] Sesame is drought-tolerantand is able to grow where other crops fail.*[2]*[3]Sesame has one of the highest oil contents of any seed.With a rich nutty avor, it is a common ingredient incuisines across the world.*[4]*[5] Like other nuts andfoods, it can trigger allergic reactions in some people.*[6]The world harvested about 3.84 million metric tonnes ofsesame seeds in 2010. The largest producer of sesameseeds in 2010 was Burma.*[7] The world's largest ex-porter of sesame seeds was India, and Japan the largestimporter.

1 Description

Sesame seedlings

It is an annual plant growing 50 to 100 cm (1.6 to 3.3 ft)

Flower of Sesamum indicum

Sesame in Panchkhal valley, Nepal

Immature capsules

tall, with opposite leaves 4 to 14 cm (1.6 to 5.5 in) longwith an entire margin; they are broad lanceolate, to 5 cm(2 in) broad, at the base of the plant, narrowing to just 1

1

2 3 CULTIVATION

Magnied image of white sesame seeds

cm (0.4 in) broad on the owering stem.The owers are yellow, tubular, 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0 in)long, with a four-lobed mouth. The owers may vary incolour with some being white, blue or purple.Sesame fruit is a capsule, normally pubescent, rectangu-lar in section and typically grooved with a short triangu-lar beak. The length of the fruit capsule varies from 2to 8 cm, its width varies between 0.5 to 2 cm, and thenumber of loculi from 4 to 12. The fruit naturally splitsopen (dehisces) to release the seeds by splitting along thesepta from top to bottom or by means of two apical pores,depending on the varietal cultivar. The degree of dehis-cence is of importance in breeding for mechanised har-vesting as is the insertion height of the rst capsule.Sesame seeds are small. The size, form and colours varywith the thousands of varieties now known. Typically,the seeds are about 3 to 4 millimeters long by 2 millime-ters wide and 1 millimeter thick. The seeds are ovate,slightly attened and somewhat thinner at the eye of theseed (hilum) than at the opposite end. The weight of theseeds is between 20 and 40 milligrams.*[5] The seed coat(testa) may be smooth or ribbed.Sesame seeds come in many colours depending on thecultivar harvested. The most traded variety of sesame iso-white coloured. Other common colours are bu, tan,gold, brown, reddish, gray and black.Sesame seed is sometimes sold with its seed coat removed(decorticated). This is the variety often present on top ofbuns in developed economies.*[8]

2 OriginsSesame seed is considered to be the oldest oilseed cropknown to humanity.*[2] Sesame has many species, andmost are wild. Most wild species of the genus Sesamumare native to sub-Saharan Africa. Sesame Indicum the cul-tivated type,*[9]*[10] originated in India.*[6]*[11]*[12]Charred remains of sesame recovered from archeologi-cal excavations have been dated to 3500-3050 BC.*[13]

Fuller claims trading of sesame between Mesopotamiaand the Indian sub-continent occurred by 2000 BC.*[14]Some reports claim sesame was cultivated in Egypt dur-ing the Ptolemiac period,*[15] while others suggest theNew Kingdom*[16]*[17]*[18]Records from Babylon and Assyria, dating about 4000years ago mention sesame. Egyptians called it sesemt,and it is included in the list of medicinal drugs in thescrolls of the Ebers Papyrus dated to be over 3600 yearsold. Archeological reports from Turkey indicate thatsesame was grown and pressed to extract oil at least 2750years ago in the empire of Urartu.*[5]*[19]*[20]The historic origin of sesame was favored by its abilityto grow in areas that do not support the growth of othercrops. It is also a robust crop that needs little farming sup-portit grows in drought conditions, in high heat, withresidual moisture in soil after monsoons are gone or evenwhen rains fail or when rains are excessive. It was a cropthat could be grown by subsistence farmers at the edgeof deserts, where no other crops grow. Sesame has beencalled a survivor crop.*[3]

3 Cultivation

Sesame output in 2005

Sesame is very drought-tolerant, in part due to its exten-sive root system. However, it requires adequate moisturefor germination and early growth. While the crop survivesdrought as well as presence of excess water, the yields aresignicantly lower in either conditions. Moisture levelsbefore planting and owering impact yield most.Most commercial cultivars of sesame are intolerant ofwater-logging. Rainfall late in the season prolongs growthand increases high harvest-shattering losses. Wind canalso cause shattering at harvest.Initiation of owering is sensitive to photoperiod and tosesame variety. The photoperiod also impacts the oil con-tent in sesame seed; increased photoperiod increases oilcontent. The oil content of the seed is inversely propor-tional to its protein content.Sesame varieties have adapted to many soil types. Thehigh yielding crops thrive best on well-drained, fertilesoils of medium texture and neutral pH. However, thesehave low tolerance for soils with high salt and water-logged conditions. Commercial sesame crops require 90

3to 120 frost free days. Warm conditions above 23 C(73 F) favor growth and yields. While sesame crops cangrow in poor soils, the best yields come from properlyfertilized farms.*[5]*[21]Since sesame is a small at seed, it is dicult to dry itafter harvest because the small seed makes movement ofair around the seed dicult. Therefore, the seeds needto be harvested as dry as possible and stored at 6 percentmoisture or less. If the seed is too moist, it can quicklyheat up and become rancid.*[4]

Processing

After harvesting, the seeds are usually cleaned and hulled.In some countries, once the seeds have been hulled,they are passed through an electronic colour-sorting ma-chine that rejects any discolored seeds to ensure perfectlycoloured sesame seeds. This is done because sesameseeds with consistent appearance are perceived to be ofbetter quality by consumers, and sell for a higher price.Immature or o-sized seeds are removed and used for oilproduction.

4 Production and tradeThe total global harvest was about 3.84 million metrictonnes of sesame seeds in 2010. The largest producer in2010 was Burma (Myanmar), and the top three produc-ers, Burma, India, and China, accounted for 50 percentof global production.*[22]Sesame was grown on over 7.8 million hectares in2010.*[7]The global average yield of sesame seeds was 0.49 met-ric tonnes per hectare in 2010. The table in this sectionpresents the 2010 production (million metric tons) andyields (metric tons per hectare) for the top ten producercountries.The most productive sesame seed farms in the world werein the European Union with an average composite yieldof 5.5 metric tonnes per hectare in 2010; Italy reportedthe best nationwide average yield of 7.2 metric tonnes perhectare.*[7] There is a large yield gap and farm loss dif-ferences between major sesame seed producers, in partbecause of knowledge gap, poor crop management prac-tices and use of technology.The white and other lighter coloured sesame seeds arecommon in Europe, the Americas, West Asia, and the In-dian subcontinent. The black and darker coloured sesameseeds are mostly produced in China and southeast Asia.Africa produces a variety of sesame seeds.Beginning in the 1950s, U.S. production of the crop hasbeen largely centered in Texas, with acreage uctuatingbetween 10,000 to 20,000 acres (40 to 80 km2) in recentyears. The country's crop does not make up a signicant

global source; indeed imports have now outstripped do-mestic production.*[23]

Trade

The world traded over a billion dollars worth of sesameseeds in 2010. The trade volume has been increasingrapidly in the last two decades.Japan is the world's largest sesame importer. Sesame oil,particularly from roasted seed, is an important compo-nent of Japanese cooking and traditionally the principaluse of the seed. China is the second largest importer ofsesame, mostly oil-grade sesame. China exports lowerpriced food grade sesame seeds, particularly to south-east Asia. Other major importers are the United States,Canada, Netherlands, Turkey and France.Sesame seed is a high value cash crop. Sesame priceshave ranged between US$ 800 to 1700 per metric tonbetween 2008 and 2010.*[24]*[25]Sesame exports sell across a wide price range. Qualityperception, particularly how the seed looks, is a majorpricing factor. Most importers who supply ingredient dis-tributors and oil processors only want to purchase scien-tically treated, properly cleaned, washed, dried, colour-sorted, size-graded and impurity-free seeds with a guar-anteed minimum oil content (not less than 40 percent)packed according to international standards. Seeds thatdo not meet these quality standards are considered untfor export and are consumed locally. In 2008, by volume,by premium prices and by quality, the largest exporterwas India, followed by Ethiopia and Myanmar.*[4]*[26]

5 Nutrition and health treatmentsNutritional content

Sesame seeds are a rich source of oil.

For thousands of years, sesame seeds have been a sourceof food and oil. Sesame has one of the highest oil content

4 7 ALLERGY

Sesame is a common source of human nutrition. An exampleis Simit, shown above, a ring-shaped bread coated with sesameseeds. Also called Koulouri or Gevrek, it is common in Turkey,Greece, the Balkans and the Middle East.

of any seed, some varietals exceeding 50 percent oil con-tent compared to soybean's 20 percent. Sesame oil is oneof the most stable vegetable oils, with long shelf life, be-cause of the high level of natural antioxidants (sesamin,sesamolin, and sesamol). Oil from the seed is used incooking, as salad oils and margarine, and contains about47 percent oleic and 39 percent linoleic acid. Sesameseed oil, like sunower seed oil, is rich in Omega 6 fattyacids, but lacks Omega 3 fatty acids. Sesame seed isalso rich in protein, at 25 percent by weight. The ourthat remains after oil extraction is between 35 to 50 per-cent protein, has good eective carbohydrates, and con-tains water-soluble antioxidants (sesaminol glucosides)that provide added shelf-life tomany products. This our,also called sesame meal, is an excellent high-protein feedfor poultry and livestock.*[4]*[5] The addition of sesameto high lysine meal of soybean produces a well balancedanimal feed.*[2]The relative ratio of protein and oil, as well as essentialamino acids and essential fatty acids varies with sesamecultivar as well as growing conditions.In 2008, about 65 percent of the annual sesame crop wasprocessed into oil and 35 percent was used in food. Thefood segment included about 42 percent roasted sesame,36 percent washed sesame, 12 percent ground sesame and10 percent roasted sesame seed with salt.

6 Chemical composition

Sesame seeds contain the lignans pinoresinol andlariciresinol.*[27]

7 AllergySesame seeds and sesame oil are a serious allergen tosome people including infants. In Australia the occur-rence of allergy to sesame seed was estimated to be 0.42percent among all children, while in the United Kingdomthe allergic reaction was found to aect 0.04 percent ofadults. The occurrence of allergy to sesame in patientswith some form of food allergy was found to be muchhigher than in the general population, ranging from 0.5percent in Switzerland to 8.5 percent in Australia. Inother words, allergy to sesame aects a small percentageof overall human population, but sesame allergy is highin people who already show symptoms of allergy to otherfoods.*[6]The symptoms of sesame seed allergy can be classiedinto:

Systemic reactions: Primarily presentinganaphylaxis*[28] characterized by symptomsincluding hives (urticaria), lip and eyelid swelling(angioedema ) sneezing, nasal itching, congestion,rhinorrhea, wheezing, cough, tightness of throat,hoarse voice, diculty in breathing, abdominalpain, unconsciousness, shock with drop of bloodpressure. In the systemic reactions can also beincluded severe reactions like dizziness, drowsiness,chills and collapse as has been reported in patientsafter ingestion of a falafel burger.

Other symptoms: Facial or generalized redness (ushing), hives (urticaria) on smaller or largerparts of the body, swelling of the eyelids, lips orother parts of the face, itching of the eyes or ofthe skin in general, hay fever symptoms in the eyesand eczema. Respiratory symptoms observed in-clude hay fever, asthma, cough, wheeze, or dicultyin breathing. Gastrointestinal symptoms: Itching inthe mouth and/or tongue soon after chewing and in-gesting (Oral allergy syndrome) and abdominal pain.

Amounts as low as 100 mg of sesame seeds or our and3 ml of oil can trigger allergic reactions in severe cases ofsesame allergic individuals. Most patients, however, showallergic reactions after consuming 210 grams of sesameseeds or our. The onset of the symptoms may occurwithin a few minutes up to 90 minutes after ingestion ofa sesame seed product. Most patients had other allergicdiseases such as asthma, hay fever, and eczema, and mostpatients also had a relative with an allergic disease. Morethan two thirds of the patients with sesame allergy alsohad food allergic reactions to other foods.*[6]Prevalence of sesame allergy varies per country. While itis one of the three most common allergens in Israel,*[29]sesame allergy prevalence is considered small relative toother allergens in the United States.*[30]*[31] Some ex-perts consider sesame allergies to haveincreased more

5than any other type of food allergy over the past 10 to 20yearsin the United States.*[28] Such increasing preva-lence led Canada to issue regulations that require foodlabels to note the presence of sesame.*[32]In addition to products derived from sesame such as tahiniand sesame oil,*[33] persons with sesame allergies arewarned to stay away from a broad assortment of pro-cessed foods including baked goods, tempeh, and genericvegetable oil.*[34] In addition to possible food sources,individuals allergic to sesame have been warned that avariety of non-food sources may also trigger a reactionto sesame, including adhesive bandages, cosmetics, haircare products, perfumes, soaps and sunscreens, drugs,some fungicides and insecticides, lubricants, ointmentsand topical oils, and pet food.*[34]*[35]At least one study found thatstandard skin and bloodtesting for food allergies doesnt predict whether a childhas true sesame allergy.*[28]*[36] In which case, a foodchallenge under the direction of a physician may be re-quired to properly diagnose a sesame allergy.There appears to be cross-reactivity between sesame al-lergens and peanut, rye, kiwifruit, poppy seed, and var-ious tree nuts (such as hazelnut, black walnut, cashew,macadamia and pistachio).*[35]*[37]

8 Cuisine

Rolled khao phan with black sesame seeds. Similar cuisines arefound in Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and East Asia.

Sesame seed is a common ingredient in various cuisines.It is used whole in cooking for its rich nutty avour.Sesame seeds are sometimes added to breads, includingbagels and the tops of hamburger buns. Sesame seedsmay be baked into crackers, often in the form of sticks.In Sicily and France, the seeds are eaten on bread (called"celle ssame", sesame thread). In Greece the seeds arealso used in cakes.Fast-food restaurants use buns with tops sprinkled withsesame seeds. Approximately 75% of Mexico's sesamecrop is purchased by McDonald's*[38] for use in theirsesame seed buns worldwide.*[39]

Sesame seeds are commonly added to bakery and creative con-fectionery across the world. Above are sesame infused basketsfrom Israel.

Bread sticks with sesame seeds.

Til-patti - a delicacy from Rajasthan (India) made from sesameseeds heavily loaded to sugar syrup. The mix is cast very thin,semi-translucent disk.

In Asia, sesame seeds are sprinkled onto some sushi stylefoods. In Japan whole seeds are found in many salads and

6 9 ETYMOLOGY

baked snacks and tan and black sesame seed varieties areroasted and used to make the avouring gomashio. EastAsian cuisines, like Chinese cuisine use sesame seeds andoil in some dishes, such as dim sum, sesame seed balls(Chinese: ; pinyin: mtunpinyin or ; Can-tonese: jin deui), and the Vietnamese bnh rn. Sesameavour (through oil and roasted or raw seeds) is also verypopular in Korean cuisine, used to marinate meat andvegetables. Chefs in tempura restaurants blend sesameand cottonseed oil for deep-frying.Sesame, or simsimas it is known in East Africa, isused in African cuisine. In Togo the seeds are a mainsoup ingredient and in the Democratic Republic of theCongo and in the north of Angola, wangila is a deliciousdish of ground sesame, often served with smoked sh orlobster.Sesame seeds and oil are used extensively in India. Inmost parts of the country, sesame seeds mixed withheated jaggery, sugar or palm sugar is made into ballsand bars similar to peanut brittle or nit clusters and eatenas snacks. In Manipur (India) black sesame is used in thepreparation of Thoiding and in Singju (a kind of salad).Thoiding is prepared with ginger and chili and vegeta-bles are used in the spicy Singu dish. In Assam, blacksesame seeds are used to make Til Pitha and Tilor laru(sesame seed balls) during bihu. In Punjab and TamilNadu (both in India), a sweet ball called "Pinni" () inUrdu and 'Ell urundai' in Tamil,Ellunda"() inMalayalam,Yellunde(sesame ball, usually in jaggery)in Kannada and tilgul in Marathi is made of its seedsmixed with sugar.Also in Tamil Nadu, sesame oil used extensively in theircuisine, Milagai Podi, a ground powder made of sesameand dry chili is used to enhance avor, and is con-sumed along with other traditional foods such as idli. InTamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, sesame oil is used as apreservative, as well as to temper the heat of their spicyfoods, pickles and condiments.Sesame seed cookies and wafers, both sweet and savory,are popular in places like Charleston, South Carolina.Sesame seeds, also called benne, are believed to havebeen brought into 17th century colonial America byWestAfrican slaves. Since then, they have become part of var-ious American cuisines.In Caribbean cuisine, sugar and white sesame seeds arecombined into a bar resembling peanut brittle and sold instores and street corners.Sesame is a popular and essential ingredient in manyMiddle Eastern cuisines. Sesame seeds are made intoa paste called tahini (used in various ways, includinghummus bi tahini) and the Middle Eastern confectionhalvah. Ground and processed, the seeds is also used insweet confections.In South Asia, Middle East, East Asian cuisines, popularconfectionery aremade from sesamemixed with honey or

syrup and roasted into a sesame candy. In Japanese cui-sine goma-dofu () is made from sesame paste(Tahini) and starch.Mexican cuisine refers to sesame seeds as Ajonjol. It ismainly used as a sauce additive, such as mole or adobo.It is often also used to sprinkle over artisan breads andbaked in traditional form to coat the smooth dough, es-pecially on whole wheat at breads or artisan nutritionbars, such as alegras.In Sicilian cuisine, what are commonly called Italiansesame seed cookiesare known as giuggiuleni (plural,pronounced ju-ju-LAY-nee). A giuggiulena (singular)usually refers to a cookie, while a giurgiulena usuallyrefers to a nougat-like candy, often made as a Christmasfood. Both are alternative spellings for sesame seedin the Sicilian language.Sesame oil is sometimes used as a cooking oil in dier-ent parts of the world, though dierent forms have dif-ferent characteristics for high-temperature frying. Thetoastedform of the oil (as distinguished from thecold-pressedform) has a distinctive pleasant aroma and taste,and is used as table condiment in some regions, especiallyin East Asia. Toasted sesame oil is also added to avorsoups and other hot dishes, usually just before serving, toavoid dissipating the volatile scents too rapidly.Although sesame leaves are edible as a potherb,*[40]recipes for Korean cuisine calling for sesame leavesare often a mistranslation, and really mean perilla.*[41]

9 Etymology

The word sesame is from Latin sesamum, borrowed fromGreek ssamonseed or fruit of the sesame plant, bor-rowed from Semitic (cf. Hebrew sumsum, Arabic simsim,Aramaic shmshm), from Late Babylonian *shawash-shammu, itself from Assyrian shamash-shamm, fromshaman shamm plant oil.From all the 3 roots above, words with the generalizedmeaningoil, liquid fatare derived, e.g., Sanskrit taila[]. Similar semantic shifts from the name of an oilcrop to a general wordfat, oilare also known for otherlanguages, e.g.,olivehas given rise to Englishoil.Upon ripening, sesame fruit capsules split, releasing theseeds with a pop. It has been suggested that this is rootof the phrase "Open Sesame" in the historic fable of AliBaba and the Forty Thieves in One Thousand and OneNights. The opening of the capsule releases the treasureof sesame seeds.*[46]

710 LiteratureMain article: Open Sesame (phrase)

In the story of "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves", thephrase "Open Sesame" magically opens a sealed cave.The origin of the phrase is unclear.Sesame seeds are also used conceptionally in Urdu lit-erature, in the proverbs "til dharnay ki jagah na hona";meaning a place so crowded that there is no room for asingle seed of sesame, and "in tilon mein teil nahee" ( ); referring to a person who ap-pears to be useful but shan't be of much use (selsh) whenthe time comes, literally meaning: there is no oil (left) inthis sesame.

A simit is a small circular Turkish bread with sesameseeds

Thai workers harvesting sesame Chicken covered in Mexico's chocolate spice molesauce with sesame seeds

Dry sesame seeds Sesame seed balls are very popular treats in EastAsia

A sesame seed hamburger bun Tahini - Sesame seeds paste sesame shrub with ower. vaniyamblam, kerala sesame stem, vaniyambalam, kerala India owers. kerala, India

11 See also Za'atar

12 References[1] Open Sesame, Haaretz

[2] RaghavRam, David Catlin, JuanRomero, andCraig Cow-ley (1990). Sesame: New Approaches for Crop Im-provement. Purdue University.

[3] D. Ray Langham. Phenology of Sesame. AmericanSesame Growers Association.

[4] Ray Hansen (August 2011).Sesame prole. Agricul-tural Marketing Resource Center.

[5] E.S. Oplinger, D.H. Putnam, et al. Sesame. PurdueUniversity.

[6] Sesame Allergy. Institute of Food Research, UnitedKingdom.

[7] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(2012). Production Crops: sesame seeds.

[8] D. Ray Langham (2008). GROWTH AND DEVEL-OPMENT OF SESAME. American Sesame GrowersAssociation.

[9] T. Ogasawara, k.Chiba, m.Tada in (Y. P. S. Bajaj ed ).Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Volume 10. Springer,1988. ISBN 3540627278.

[10] Proceedings of the Harlan Symposium 1997- The Originsof Agriculture and Crop Domestication Retrieved 2012-06-17

[11] Dorothea Bedigian(Editor) (2010). Sesame: The genusSesamum. CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-3538-9.

[12] D Zohary, M Hopf - Domestication of Plants in the OldWorld: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants inWest Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley Oxford UniversityPress, 2000 ISBN 0198503563 Retrieved 2012-06-17

[13] D Bedigian and J R Harlan - Retrieved 2012-06-17

[14] D Q Fuller (University college London) - - Further Evi-dence on the Prehistory of Sesame 2003

[15] I Shaw - Oxford University Press, 2003 ISBN0192804588 Retrieved 2012-06-17

[16] Charles Freeman - Egypt, Greece, and Rome: Civilizationsof the Ancient Mediterranean Oxford University Press, 29Apr 2004 ISBN 0199263647 Retrieved 2012-06-17

[17] M Serpico & R White - (editors; P T Nicholson, IShaw-translator). Ancient Egyptian Materials and Tech-nology. Cambridge University Press, 23 Mar 2000. ISBN0521452570.

[18] A R David - Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt Ox-ford University Press, 28Oct 1999 ISBN 0195132157 Re-trieved 2012-06-17

[19] Sesame Coordinators. Sesame. Sesaco.[20] Frederic Rosengarten (2004). The Book of Edible Nuts.

Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486434995.

[21] TJAI (2006). Sesame: high value oilseed. ThomasJeerson Agriculture Institute.

[22] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(2012).Food and Agricultural commodities production:Countries by commodity.

[23] Growing Sesame: Production tips, economics, and more.

[24] Oil seed prices and futures. Commodity Prices. July2010.

[25] Mal Bennett. Sesame. Ag Market Research Center.[26] Sesame Export Statistics. Food and Agriculture Or-

ganization of the United Nations. 2011.

8 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[27] Lignan contents of Dutch plant foods: a database in-cluding lariciresinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol andmatairesinol. Ivon E. J. Milder, Ilja C. W. Arts, Bettyvan de Putte, Dini P. Venema and Peter C. H. Holl-man, British Journal of Nutrition (2005), 93: 393-402,doi:10.1079/BJN20051371

[28] Charlene Laino. Sesame Allergies on the Rise in U.S.:Sesame Seed Allergy Now Among Most Common FoodAllergies. WebMD Health News.

[29] Aaronov, D., et al (Dec 2008). Natural history offood allergy in infants and children in Israel. An-nals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 101 (6): 63740.doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60228-1. PMID 19119709.

[30] Ben-Shoshan M, Harrington DW, Soller L, et al. (June2010). A population-based study on peanut, tree nut,sh, shellsh, and sesame allergy prevalence in Canada. The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 125(6): 132735. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2010.03.015. PMID20451985.

[31] US prevalence of peanut and sesame allergy.

[32] Regulatory Impact Analysis Statement: Project 1220Enhanced Labelling for Food Allergen and GlutenSources and Added Sulphites.

[33] Sesame Allergy.

[34] Canadian Food Inspection Agency: Sesame Allergy.

[35] The Online Allergist: Sesame Allergy.

[36] Permaul P, et al (Nov 2009). Sesame allergy: role ofspecic IgE and skin-prick testing in predicting food chal-lenge results. Allergy and Asthma Proceedings 30 (6):64348. doi:10.2500/aap.2009.30.3294. PMC 3131114.PMID 20031010.

[37] Sesame seed allergy.

[38] Charlene Laino (March 16, 2009).Sesame Seed AllergyNow Among Most Common Food Allergies. Washing-ton, DC: WebMD Health News.

[39] Reuters (October 27, 1992). McDonalds Now Ex-porting from Mexico. The Toledo Blade.

[40] Sesamum indicumPlants For A Future database report

[41] Spice Pages: Sesame Seeds (Sesamum indicum)

[42] Webster's Dictionary.Denition: Teel, Sesame. Web-ster's, Multilingual Thesaurus Translation.

[43] Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)". Gernot Katzer's SpicePages.

[44] L. Soukiassian's dictionary, p. 673

[45] Sesame Seed Oil Methods of Extraction and itsProspects in Cosmetic Industry: A Review.

[46] Peter Griee.Sesamum indicum L.. Food and Agri-culture Organization of the United Nations.

13 Bibliography Bedigian, D. (1984). Sesamum indicumL.Crop ori-

gin, diversity, chemistry and ethnobotany (Ph.D. the-sis). Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois.

Bedigian, D. (1985). Is e-gi-i sesame or ax?".Bulletin on Sumerian Agriculture 2: 159178.

Bedigian, D. (1988). "Sesamum indicum L. (Ped-aliaceae): Ethnobotany in Sudan, crop diversity,lignans, origin, and related taxa. In Gold-blatt P., Lowry P.P. Modern Systematic Studies inAfrican Botany. AETFAT Monographs in System-atic Botany 25. St. Louis, MO: Missouri BotanicalGarden. pp. 315321.

Bedigian, D. (1998).Early history of sesame cul-tivation in the Near East and beyond. In Dama-nia A.B., Valkoun J., Willcox G., Qualset C.O. TheOrigins of Agriculture and Crop Domestication. TheHarlan Symposium. Aleppo: ICARDA. pp. 93101.

Bedigian, D. (2000). Sesame. In Kiple K.F.,Ornelas-Kiple C.K. The Cambridge World Historyof Food I. Cambridge University Press. pp. 411421.

Bedigian, D.; Koroec-Koruza, Zora (2003).Evolution of sesame revisited: domestica-tion, diversity and prospects. Genetic Re-sources and Crop Evolution 50 (7): 779787.doi:10.1023/A:1025029903549.

Bedigian, D. (2003).Sesame in Africa: origin anddispersals. In Neumann K., Butler A., Kahlhe-ber S. Food, Fuel and Fields Progress in AfricanArchaeobotany. Africa Praehistorica. Cologne:Heinrich-Barth-Institute. pp. 1736.

Bedigian, D. (2004). Conspectus of Sesa-mum. Annex III. IPGRI. Descriptors for Sesame(Sesamum spp.) (PDF). Rome: International PlantGenetic Resources Institute. pp. 6163.

Bedigian, D. (2004). History and loreof sesame in Southwest Asia. EconomicBotany 58 (3): 329353. doi:10.1663/0013-0001(2004)058[0330:HALOSI]2.0.CO;2.

Bedigian, D. (2006).Assessment of sesame and itswild relatives in Africa. In Ghazanfar S.A., Been-tje H.J. Taxonomy and Ecology of African Plants,their Conservation and Sustainable Use. Kew: RoyalBotanic Gardens. pp. 481491.

Bedigian, Dorothea (2010). Sesame: The GenusSesamum. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden.ISBN 978-0-8493-3538-9.

914 External links Sesamum indicum in Flora of Pakistan Katzer's Spice Pages: Sesame pharmacographica indica page 42

10 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses15.1 Text

Sesame Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame?oldid=638327438 Contributors: Kowloonese, Danny, Rmhermen, Heron, N8chz,Hfastedge, Llywrch, Menchi, Paul A, Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, Emperorbma, Janko, Ike9898, Radiojon, Nv8200p, PuzzletChung, Donar-reiskoer, Qwm, Ambarish, Diberri, MPF, Lupin, Aphaia, Henry Flower, Sheizaf, Rick Block, Cheekyal, Ans, Macrakis, Mackeriv,Jonathan Grynspan, PDH, Mpi, Wiml, Sam Hocevar, Burschik, Fg2, Clemwang, Jiy, Discospinster, Robertbowerman, Aranel, Aqua008,Pjrich, Kwamikagami, Jpgordon, Vortexrealm, Dungodung, Hesperian, Pharos, Dowcet, Riana, Weft, Scott5114, Melaen, Ffbond, Dnaber,Ghirlandajo, Axeman89, Stemonitis, Angr, Pekinensis, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Richard Barlow, Humbads, Rjwilmsi, Gamesmasterg9, Ad-justing, Feydey, Himasaram, Oxydo, Rahuldoes, Eubot, Gary Cziko, RexNL, Kenmayer, Drvgaikwad, DVdm, Gdrbot, WriterHound,YurikBot, Waitak, Huw Powell, Kiscica, RussBot, Qwertzy2, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, Whiteheadj, NawlinWiki, Curtis Clark, Grafen,Badagnani, THB, CaliforniaAliBaba, Gyuen, Besselfunctions, Chriswaterguy, Thelb4, Garion96, Katieh5584, Groyolo, DVD R W,Okkadiroglu, SmackBot, Moeron, KnowledgeOfSelf, Sanjay ach, Unyoyega, Pgk, Super Mario, Kintetsubualo, HalfShadow, Eug, An-war saadat, Chris the speller, RDBrown, Oli Filth, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Ioscius, SundarBot, Adamantios, Abrahami,MrPMonday, Richard001, NaySay, BiggKwell, Zzorse, AThing, MrDarwin, Kuru, Ergative rlt, Gobonobo, Generic69, Beefball, Syrcatbot,Mohamed Abdel Mageed, JYi, Iridescent, Dockingman, J Di, Gilabrand, Tawkerbot2, MightyWarrior, Joostvandeputte, Markjoseph125,NickW557, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Studerby, Smallwalkman, Tawkerbot4, Christian75, Pipatron, Krylonblue83, JamesAM, Edwardx,Eleuther, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, SummerPhD, Flibjib8, Leafeater, Demandby, Paul144, Curwin, JAnDbot, Deective, Nthep, Hut 8.5,A12n, Soulbot, Sodabottle, Jessicapierce, LorenzoB, Beagel, Nevit, S3000, Jerem43, J mareeswaran, MartinBot, Genghiskhanviet, YaronK., R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Paulmcdonald, DBlomgren, Extransit, Whitebox, Skumarlabot, Acalamari, Epibase, Levydav, Idioma-bot,Signalhead, VolkovBot, Dave Andrew, Flyingidiot, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, WatchAndObserve, Voorlandt, JhsBot, ACEOREVIVED,Lamro, SQL, Dictioneer, Angelastic, SieBot, Coee, Andrarias, Lucasbfrbot, LeadSongDog, Soler97, Editore99, Elcobbola, Oxymoron83,Samatarou, BlackRain1975, Fratrep, Phoneuser, Diego Grez, Gkazi1, Geodanny, Timeastor, Literaturegeek, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot,Seanwal111111, Akk7a, Kanguole, Fasibr, CoolIdeas, Drsrisenthil, DhananSekhar, Rui Gabriel Correia, DumZiBoT, Footage, Jytdog,Dthomsen8, Ost316, Mifter, MystBot, Addbot, Pop goes mick vick, Williams94086, ChenzwBot, Aacugna, Numbo3-bot, Lachlach, FirstLight, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Jkrishnaswamy, Mullookkaaran, AnomieBOT, Nutriveg, Jabber456, Rubinbot, Cavarrone, Astroanu2004, Ot-toTheFish, Citation bot, Newarh, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, Nnivi, ChildofMidnight, Sellyme, Anna Frodesiak, Linguoboy, Mike-hockey27, Cresix, Basharh, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Jean.artegui, D'ohBot, Hirpex, Louperibot, ClickRick, Citation bot 1, Krish Dulal,Lars Washington, Ndkartik, ZhBot, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Alph Bot, Onef9day, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Manikan-thag, Heracles31, ScottyBerg, Moswento, Wikipelli, Comesturnruler, EWikist, Erianna, Coasterlover1994, Nayansatya, ClueBot NG,Dvellakat, Sindhbadh, Jamison Lofthouse, Pokemonblackds, Rezabot, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Titodutta, Gomada,Traper Bemowski, PhnomPencil, ApostleVonColorado, Kendall-K1, Jahnavisatyan, NotWith, Tomertreves, Thingstofollow, ChrisGualtieri,Til bardaga, Zacharic, Largehole, Wywin, Drmukesh tripathi, DudeWithAFeud, Anrnusna, GreatJustice, Cactus mead, Monkbot, Ax-Man207, Omerelmagboul, Yelena.au1, Hassankana and Anonymous: 297

15.2 Images File:2005sesame_seed.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/2005sesame_seed.PNG License: CC BY-SA

3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Stefan4 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Anwar saadat at EnglishWikipedia

File:Athens15_tango7174.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Athens15_tango7174.jpg License: GFDLContributors: Own work Original artist: Tango7174

File:Bread_Sticks_With_Sesame.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Bread_Sticks_With_Sesame.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from ru.wikipediaOriginal artist: . Original uploader was Ingvar-fed at ru.wikipedia

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

File:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg License:Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domainContributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp

File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Myanmar.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Flag_of_Myanmar.svg License: CC0 Con-tributors: Open Clip Art Original artist: Unknown

File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors:The burnt orangecolor in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, orCMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pan-tone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band isplain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF.Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p.

File:Flag_of_Nigeria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Flag_of_Nigeria.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Flag_of_Somalia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Somalia.svg License: Public domainContributors: see below Original artist: see upload history

15.3 Content license 11

File:Flag_of_Sudan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Sudan.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: www.vexilla-mundi.com Original artist: Vzb83

File:Flag_of_Uganda.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg License: CC0 Contribu-tors: From the Open ClipArt Library website. Original artist: tobias

File:Flag_of_the_People'{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

File:Flower_of_Sesamum_indicum.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Flower_of_Sesamum_indicum.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mullookkaaran

File:Khao_phan_nga_muan.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Khao_phan_nga_muan.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Takeaway

File:PikiWiki_Israel_14731_Sesame_Baskets.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/PikiWiki_Israel_14731_Sesame_Baskets.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: meir yifrach via the PikiWiki - Israel free image collection project Originalartist:

File:Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Sa_white_sesame_seeds.jpg License:CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sanjay ach

File:Sesame_in_Hainan_-_05.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Sesame_in_Hainan_-_05.JPG Li-cense: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anna Frodesiak

File:Sesame_oil.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Sesame_oil.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: Mariko GODA

File:Sesamum_indicum_NP.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Sesamum_indicum_NP.jpg License:CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krish Dulal

File:Sesamum_indicum_seedlings.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Sesamum_indicum_seedlings.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Traper Bemowski

File:Til-Patti_2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Til-Patti_2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:Own work Original artist: Crunchyheart

File:Wikispecies-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Image:Wikispecies-logo.jpg Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi-

15.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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