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SFCC Report - The use of nano- and other emerging technologies
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Skills for Climate Change
The use of nano‐ and other emerging technologies to support
environmentally‐responsible construction and building services
Report and recommendations
Prepared by the Institute of Nanotechnology
31 July 2012
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Contents
Executive Summary 3
Introduction 5
Trends and needs in the use of novel technologies to create “smart buildings” 6
What is included under the term “construction”? 6
What are “smart buildings”? 6
Economic and social drivers 7
The political landscape 7
Improving societal benefits 10
Meeting the needs of a demographically‐ageing population 10
Economic trends in building and building materials 11
Potential barriers to implementation 15
Overview of nano‐ and other emerging technologies available for the construction and building services and engineering sectors 16
What is nanotechnology? 16
Descriptions of building products utilising nanotechnology 17
Technology Readiness Levels 37
Environmental impacts 39
Managing risks and addressing health and safety issues 43
Facilitating the skills required to implement novel technologies 52
The creation of new learning tools 54
References 58
Appendix A: Example of employer questionnaire 60
Appendix B: Responses to questionnaire 61
Appendix C: Draft “core” NVQ Level 3 module on nanotechnologies 66
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The use of nano‐ and other emerging technologies to support environmentally‐responsible construction and building services
Executive Summary
Construction is one of the largest sectors and employers in the UK. According to the UK
Government’s Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS), the UK construction industry
comprises more than 300 000 firms employing over 2 million people in a multitude of roles. The
construction sector is defined as one which embraces the construction materials and products;
suppliers and producers; building services manufacturers, providers and installers; contractors, sub‐
contractors, professionals, advisors and construction clients and those organisations that are
relevant to the design, build, operation and refurbishment of buildings1. BIS also estimates that the
UK construction sector contributed 8.3% of the nation’s GVA (Gross Value Added) in 2008.
In the UK, the use of buildings is estimated to account for about 50% of total CO2 emissions.
Construction activity itself contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use the most
energy and create the highest CO2 emissions in the UK from a specific sector and contribute also to
other forms of pollution.
The Federation of Master Builders (FMB), an organisation representing thousands of small and
medium‐sized (SME) member building companies in the UK, believes that the building industry
should be a lead player in the move towards a low‐carbon built environment and has made policy
recommendations to government and opinion formers to enable builders to play a constructive role
in contributing to greener, more energy‐efficient building. The FMB also plans to work closely with
the UK Government to support the UK’s new “Green Deal” building energy efficiency initiative to the
benefit of the economy, consumers and the environment.
The objective of the additional research carried out in the current study has been to examine
whether emerging technologies, such as nanotechnology, can make a contribution towards a low‐
carbon and environmentally‐friendly construction and building services industry. The use of
nanomaterials and nanotechnologies is becoming widespread across a range of industry sectors and,
according to an inventory by the US Project for Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN), there were some
1,317 nanotechnology‐containing consumer products on the US market in March 2011, an increase
of 521% in the five years since March 20062.
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Over recent years, a range of materials and products containing nanomaterials or based on
nanotechnologies have appeared in the construction sector and, in general terms, are aimed at
providing novel high‐performance materials, improving the efficiency of buildings, reducing material
consumption, reducing energy consumption and energy loss, facilitating the capture and storage of
renewable energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and contributing to “smart” and networked
homes and other buildings. An overview is provided in this report of a number of different materials
and products that can contribute towards meeting these objectives across a range of applications.
While the UK is amongst the leaders in terms of nanotechnology research and whilst degree and
postgraduate courses in various aspects of nanotechnology are becoming established at university
level, there is a scarcity of information, learning resources and training materials available at
vocational training levels (e.g. NVQ Levels 1 to 4) and below, and almost none on the subject of
applying such technologies to “green construction”. In this context, the UK’s Nanotechnology
Strategy of 2010 (reviewed in greater depth later in this report) concludes that
– “people with sufficient skills in this high‐value, high‐skilled, knowledge‐based market are
essential to drive innovation and sustain the development of nanotechnologies. Currently the
two most important barriers to the supply of skilled people are the lack of adequate training
programmes and the high cost of those that do exist”
– there is a need to work with the relevant sector skills councils and UK Commission for
Employment and Skills to identify longer term skills needs in advanced sectors and ways in
which these needs can be addressed;
Taking into account the novel technologies emerging within the construction and building services
sector, this report identifies some of the knowledge gaps that exist and makes recommendations
towards the development of training and learning tools that could contribute to addressing these
skills gaps and which could complement other emerging initiatives. These proposed tools include:
– the continued development of a “core module” for NVQ levels 2 and 3 addressing the
application of nanotechnologies to the construction, facilities management, and energy and
utilities sectors, and inclusion in this module of reference to sustainable construction and use
of nanotechnologies towards achieving a low‐carbon industry footprint
– Possible NVQ level 1 to 3 modules on specialist applications of emerging technologies
– the development of online self‐learning materials based on the adaptation of existing
materials developed by the Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham College
– development of Newham College’s “Discovery Lab” concept into a “Discovery Lab Academy”
– the development of existing Institute of Nanotechnology materials into “training for trainers”
course materials covering nano‐ and other emerging technologies
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Introduction
The construction sector has an annual turnover of almost €1000 billion in the European Union,
employs around 30 million people, and accounts for about 10% of European GDP. Buildings also
represent 42% of the energy use and 35% of greenhouse gas emissions in Europe3. In the UK, the use
of buildings is estimated to account for about 50% of total CO2 emissions: construction itself
contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use the most energy and create the highest
CO2 emissions from a specific sector in the UK, together with other forms of pollution. The
sustainable building association (AECB) have claimed that government figures on the energy
performance of houses greatly underestimate the levels of CO2 reduction that could be achieved by
building energy efficient buildings. It is clear, therefore, that an environmentally‐friendly approach in
the construction of highly energy‐efficient buildings will be crucial for a future development towards
a sustainable construction.
Nanotechnologies are increasingly being applied in construction to reduce energy consumption,
improve the efficiency of building and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These uses include
applications as diverse as lightweight, strong and self‐healing concrete; self‐cleaning surfaces; flexible
solar panels for sustainable energy capture; surfaces that can absorb and break down NOx pollutants
in the air; UV/IR blocking materials; and low energy, light‐emitting walls and ceilings.
Due to the global economic downturn since 2008, the growth of nanotechnologies now exhibits a
more evolutionary pattern that was previously predicted with some downward adjustment in earlier
market forecasts. Lux Research’s 2009 global nanotechnology market forecast4 decreased by 4% as
compared to its 2007 estimates but, nevertheless, still predicts a global market for nanotechnology‐
enabled products of around $2.5 trillion by 2015. Policymakers are often especially interested in the
economic development effects of new technologies, such as nanotechnologies and their impact on
low‐carbon products and technologies, including impacts on jobs and wages. According to a 2012
OECD5 paper, it is widely expected that new employment will be generated through research,
manufacturing, delivery, use, and maintenance related to green nanotechnology products and
processes, and associated industries and services, although predicting the number of new jobs is
difficult. Existing workers may shift into green nanotechnology activities as conventional products are
replaced, although the metrics for determining such activities are complex. However, according to a
recent paper by Teizer et al6, while some construction industry sectors follow research and
development in nanotechnology, the industry does not take on a leadership role. They suggest that,
with proper knowledge of the potential products and techniques offered through an investment in
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nanotechnology, the construction industry may potentially improve the efficiency of its processes
and offer better products to clients.
Trends and needs in the use of novel technologies to create “smart buildings”
What is included under the term “construction”?
Figure 1. Construction – a massive sector (Image: G Herrmann: www.sxc.hu)
The construction industry is defined in accordance with the UK Standard Industrial Classification of
Economic Activities 20077. This industry definition includes general construction and allied
construction activities for buildings and civil engineering works. It includes new work, repair,
additions and alterations, the erection of prefabricated buildings or structures on the site and also
construction of a temporary nature.
General construction includes the construction of entire dwellings, office buildings, stores and other
public and utility buildings, farm buildings etc., or the construction of civil engineering works such as
motorways, streets, bridges, tunnels, railways, airfields, harbours and other water projects, irrigation
systems, sewerage systems, industrial facilities, pipelines and electric lines, sports facilities etc. This
work can be carried out on an own account or on a fee or contract basis. Portions of the work and
sometimes even the whole of the practical work can be subcontracted out. Also included is the repair
of buildings and civil engineering works.
What are “smart buildings”?
There are many definitions of “smart buildings”. One description that perhaps encapsulates the
concept of “smart building” well in the context of this report is from the electronics and engineering
company Siemens “…only solutions which create the greatest synergies between energy efficiency,
comfort and safety and security will be sustainable over the long term … solutions that turn buildings
into living organisms: networked, intelligent, sensitive and adaptable”. Another important attribute
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of smart buildings is that they can monitor and adapt to the needs of their occupants and link to
external services such as utilities, healthcare and social care services.
Economic and social drivers
The political landscape
United Kingdom: Government initiatives
UK Nanotechnology Strategy 2010
The UK Nanotechnology Strategy8 was developed by the UK government and published in 2010. This
strategy, which looked at the strategic opportunities for nanotechnologies in the UK, stated that
- nanotechnologies are important to the future of the UK because of their potential to improve
many types of consumer products
- nanotechnologies could also help us address universal challenges such as global warming and
food sustainability
- the worldwide transition towards the greater use of nanotechnologies is a significant economic
opportunity for the UK. The global market in nano‐enabled products is expected to grow from
$2.3 billion in 2007 to $81 billion by 2015.To fully meet this opportunity, the UK will need to build
upon its existing commercial strengths in nanotechnologies.
- the UK is ranked third in the world, after the US and Germany, when it comes to the number of
nanotechnologies companies operating. The European Commission completed a study of the
economic development of nanoscale technology in 2006. According to this the UK was:
- fourth in terms of number of patents applied for in the area of nanotechnologies, after
the US, Japan, and Germany;
- very strong in nano‐optics, placed third after the US and Japan;
- fourth on nanoscale materials after the US, Japan and Germany.
In its subsequent report “Nanotechnology: a UK Industry View, 2010”, the Mini‐ITG that contributed
to the content of the Strategy went on to conclude:
“People with sufficient skills in this high‐value, high‐skilled, knowledge‐based market are essential to
drive innovation and sustain the development of nanotechnologies. Currently the two most important
barriers to the supply of skilled people are the lack of adequate training programmes and the high cost
of those that do exist”
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In the section of the report entitled “Raising Awareness and Education” (Action 2.9) the UK
Nanotechnology Strategy states:
“The skill requirements of the nanotechnologies sector will be addressed through a range of
complementary Government policies, as outlined in Government’s framework for higher education
“Skills for Growth” (www.bis.gov.uk/skillsforgrowth) and “Higher Ambitions”
(www.bis.gov.uk/higherambitions).”
These proposed targets and measures included:
- making 35,000 additional advanced apprenticeships available for 19‐30 year olds over the next
two years to meet technical skills needs in advanced manufacturing sectors;
- measures to make the adult skills and higher education systems more responsive to the needs of
employers;
- resources for skills focused on areas of the economy which can do the most to drive growth and
jobs, including science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) at higher education
level;
- working with the relevant sector skills councils and UK Commission for Employment and Skills to
identify longer term skills needs in advanced sectors and ways in which these needs can be
addressed;
- RDAs addressing skills supply for growth sectors, such as nanotechnologies, in their skills
strategies, so that skills provision is responsive to regional strategic economic needs.
The “Green Deal”
The Government’s flagship “Green Deal” policy9 is aimed at helping the owners of homes and
businesses to improve the energy efficiency of their properties at no upfront cost, thereby helping to
cut carbon emissions and lower energy bills.
The Green Deal will enable many businesses to set up as Green Deal providers and offer consumers
the finance to carry out energy‐efficiency retrofit work on their property. Repayment for the work
will then be covered by the energy bill savings that result. The Energy Act 2011 sets out the financing
mechanism and legal framework for the Green Deal. Importantly, this legislation allows the cost of
the work to be attached to the building rather than the individual, so when a person moves house
they no longer have to make the repayments. The first work to be carried out under the Green Deal
is expected to start in autumn 2012.
United Kingdom: Industry initiatives
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The Federation of Master Builders (FMB), the largest trade association in the UK construction
industry, has some 10 000 members UK‐wide. As the voice of small to medium sized enterprises
(SMEs) in the construction industry, the FMB has recognised the role construction can play in
creating a more sustainable Britain and is committed to ensuring that government objectives for
sustainability are practical. The FMB believes there are four key drivers to bring about a low carbon
built environment:
the need to minimise waste across the industry;
the need to reduce carbon emissions from housing and other buildings through innovation in
materials and process;
the need to create sustainable communities and a sustainable work force; and
the need to give as much specific and practical advice as we can, directed to real design and
site activity.
The FMB is states that the building industry should be a lead player in the move towards a low
carbon built environment and aims to achieve this by outlining policy recommendations to
government and opinion formers to enable builders to play a full and constructive role in building the
new greener, more energy efficient Britain. The FMB is also working closely with the UK Government
to make sure the Green Deal initiative can be delivered successfully and can capture the benefits for
the economy, consumers and the environment.
Germany
As long ago as May 2004, the Times Higher Education Supplement10 reported on initiatives in
Germany to launch an “apprenticeship offensive”, where a particular potential for apprenticeships in
the growth areas of microsystems technology, nanotechnology and biotechnology was identified.
The then German Minister for Education and Research, Edelgard Bulmahn, underlined the urgency of
the situation, referring to the growing demand for skilled workers and technicians, saying “The
experts have all agreed that, without effective efforts in the area of training, by the year 2015, in the
age group 35 to 45, we will have a shortage of 3.5 million skilled workers.”
Switzerland
In Switzerland, the Innovation Society, St.Gallen, with the support of several Swiss Federal Offices
(OPET, FOEN, FOAG) launched the “Swiss Nano Cube” project11 in 2009 together with the Swiss
Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (SFIVET) and partners from industry. The
Swiss Nano‐Cube is an interactive knowledge and education gateway for micro and nanotechnology
for use in vocational and grammar schools. The goal of Swiss Nano‐Cube is to awaken interest for
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technological and natural scientific topics among young people, thereby imparting knowledge about
practice‐relevant knowledge of nanotechnology for apprentices. Although being a key technology
with a huge potential and diverse application opportunities, teaching material and education and
formation offers for nanotechnology are scarce. Many teachers have not dealt with nanotechnology
in their education and the Swiss Nano‐Cube project is therefore intended to bridge this gap.
Improving societal benefits
The application of novel technologies to construction is expected to contribute significantly towards
a number of societal benefits including the following:
– affordability
– self‐sufficiency in energy, e.g. heat exchange, lighting, solar/heat energy
– a better quality of life
– aesthetic improvement
– improved building life cycles
– improved maintenance schedules
– decreased environmental impact
– increased use of sensors and networking, e.g. for utilities monitoring
– better coatings for windows, roofs, and facades
– increase R‐value glass
– control of pathogens in the home
– decay‐ and insect attack‐resistant woods and composites
– improved structural integrity
– improved performance of components such as adhesives, sealants and paints
Meeting the needs of a demographically‐ageing population
According to the Office for National Statistics12, in the UK life expectancy at birth has now risen to
78.2 years for men and to 82.3 years for women, and this trend of increased life expectancy is
expected to continue due to continuing improvements in healthcare and living standards. On a global
basis, a report by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development13 suggests the cost of
caring for the elderly could treble by 2050.
The OECD further estimates that 10% of people in OECD countries will be more than 80 years old by
2050, up from 4% in 2010 and less than 1% in 1950, and that OECD member countries are spending
1.5 % of GDP on long term care. An illustration of the predicted changes in population age for men
and women is given in figure 2.
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Figure 2. Changes in population age distribution 2004‐2050
Due to pressures on healthcare systems and budgets that this dramatic increase in an ageing
population will bring in the UK, there is an increasing focus on providing a range of technology‐driven
and networked services, especially in the fields of patient monitoring and developing "smart homes"
that provide a range of sensing, monitoring and communication systems to enable elderly people to
live, and to continue to have a high quality of life, in the comfort of their own homes whilst
remaining in touch with carers and healthcare professionals. Such solutions also allow scarce
healthcare and social care resources to be targeted where and when they are required with a
potential for massive consequent savings on costs.
Economic trends in building and building materials
A variety of factors contribute to the overall short, medium and long‐term costs of building materials.
Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between some of these parameters and the sections that follow
describe the potential economic impacts of a number of nano‐based construction materials and
technologies.
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Figure 3: Construction materials: needs analysis
Construction materials
With a production volume of more than 14 billion tons per year, concrete is the most widely‐used
man‐made material on earth. Nano‐enhanced cement and concrete have not yet become
commonplace construction standard materials although they potentially offer a number of significant
advantages over traditional materials.
Since many of the benefits of “nanoconcrete” are environmental, the likelihood of increased
legislation aimed at lowering the carbon footprint of manufacturing (around 5% of global CO2
emissions are claimed to originate from cement and concrete production) and other advantages
such as savings in materials (e.g. an estimated saving in cement of around 35‐45%) and in operational
time are likely to play an important role in increasing market penetration.
According to data presented at a 2007 US workshop sponsored by the US National Concrete
Pavement Technology Center and the National Science Foundation14, one significant need in
concrete construction is to significantly increase reliability. It is estimated that up to 10% of concrete
placed in a given year fails prematurely or is below standard from the beginning. Considering that
concrete construction is a US$700 billion dollar industry worldwide, even a small reduction in the
such problems, many of which could be addressed by use of nano‐based materials, would amount to
significant economic savings and performance benefits
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Water and waste water
The market for nano‐enabled water and wastewater applications is predicted to reach US$6.6 billion
by 2015, up from US$1.6 billion in 20075.
Self‐cleaning glass
The market for the coating of flat glass for low emissivity was estimated at US$1 billion in 201015 .
The market for electrochromatic glass is expected to reach US$218.3 million in 2013.
Insulation materials
Aerogels, in substitution for denser foam‐based insulation, are estimated to comprise a US$646.3
million market by 201316, although their initial applications are expected to be as insulation in gas
and oil pipes, medical devices, and aerospace rather than insulation materials in building
construction.
The higher current cost of these materials, relative to conventional building materials, may be a
factor in initial market uptake by the construction industry, although they ultimately promise higher
levels of performance.
Sealants and adhesives
This category of nano‐enabled products was worth €1.9 billion to the European construction industry
in 2009 and it is estimated that around 10% of adhesives and sealants contain nano‐fillers.17
Nanocomposites
In 2011 the global consumption of nanocomposites was US$920 million and 138,389 metric tonnes18.
With a compound annual growth rate of 19% in unit terms and of 21% in value terms, the market for
nanocomposites is predicted to grow to 333,043 metric tonnes with a value of about US$2.4 billion
by 2016.
While the majority of these nanocomposites are currently used in packing and automotive
applications, applications in other sectors are also increasing due to the advantages nanocomposites
offer over conventional materials.
Technical textiles
The current global market for technical textiles is around US $127 billion (23.77 million tonnes). It is
currently estimated19 that construction textiles amount to about 10% of the total technical textiles
market, corresponding to about US $12.7 billion, with a growth rate) of around 5% per year.
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Solar energy and photovoltaics
Nanotechnology‐enabled solar cells and photovoltaic applications are frequently highlighted as
potential growth markets. Lux Research’s estimate of the global market for nano‐enabled solar cells
for 2011 was US$1.2 billion.20
Energy storage
The use of nanotechnology in energy storage was estimated to be a US$3.7 billion market by 2011
according to Lux Research (2007)20.
Low‐power organic light‐emitting diode (OLED) lighting
While there is limited OLED production at present, major manufacturers are gearing up for
production and a global market of around US$10.6 billion is estimated by 2020.21
Plastics electronics and flexible displays
IDTechEx predicts that the plastic electronics market will be worth around US$ $63.28 by 2022.22
Applications are likely to include flexible displays (sometimes referred to as e‐paper), electronic RFID
tags, intelligent packaging, bio‐sensors, disposable electronics and intelligent textiles.
Site remediation
In the U.S. there are between 235 000 and 355 000 sites that require cleanup at an estimated cost of
between €115 and 168 billion. In Europe an estimated 20 000 sites need to be remediated, and
another 350 000 potentially contaminated sites have been identified by the European Environment
Agency. Nano Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) is emerging as a new option for the treatment of contaminated
soil and groundwater. Due to their small size, the particles are much more reactive than granular iron
which is conventionally applied in reactive barriers and can be used for in situ treatment. nZVI
effectively reduces chlorinated organic contaminants (e.g. PCB, TCE, PCE, TCA, pesticides, solvents),
inorganic anions (perchlorate) and to remove dissolved metals from solution (e.g. Cr(VI), U(VI)).23
Biosensors
A Frost and Sullivan market analysis suggests that the global revenue for the biosensors market will
continue to exhibit strong growth and will rise from $6.72 billion in 2009 to €14.42 billion by 2016. 24
Annual revenue growth rates are likely to be in the region of 12% to 14% by 2016.
The UK government estimates a £12.4 million market impact over 20 years impact for sensors for
carbon monoxide (CO) detection alone.
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Potential barriers to implementation
There are a number of potential barriers to the implementation of nanotechnologies in the
construction and building services sectors:
– lack of awareness of developments in the application of nanotechnologies to building materials
and products amongst architects, civil engineering and construction contractors, and the owners
and users of buildings;
– lack of knowledge of the benefits, often long‐term, of nano‐enabled products, over traditional
materials, including benefits concerning environmental impact;
– cost implications: while in the long‐term they may be cost‐effective and bring additional benefits,
nano‐based products may be more expensive initially than traditional products and short‐term
cost savings may be a disincentive to their use;
– fears over the safety of nano‐based materials in manufacturing, use and at end‐of‐life;
– underpinning the previous points, a lack of education about nano‐enabled materials and
products at various levels in the sector chain.
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Overview of nano‐ and other emerging technologies available for the
construction and building services and engineering sectors
What is nanotechnology?
Nanotechnology is a branch of science and engineering that studies and exploits the unique behavior
of materials at a size scale of approximately 1 to 100nm (nanometers). One nanometre (1nm) is 10‐9
m (one billionth of a metre or about 10 000th the diameter of a human hair). At this minute size
scale, the properties of matter can change dramatically due to a variety of physical effects, and these
novel characteristics can endow materials and products with many useful new properties.
The British Standards Institution (BSI) defines the nanoscale as being “where one or more dimensions
are in the order of 100nm or less”, so a nanomaterial may be a surface or other structure as well as a
particle.25
Nanotechnology is also usually taken to mean materials or surfaces that are intentionally altered or
manipulated at the nanoscale (1nm to +/‐ 100nm) to provide useful new properties. These novel
properties at the nanoscale can frequently be harnessed to provide increased functionality and
performance to materials and products.
One important point worth reinforcing is that natural nanomaterials are ubiquitous in the
environment and constantly interact with the human body which has evolved over hundreds of
thousands of years in the presence of such materials.
In the case of novel nanomaterials, there is a clear need for thorough research to characterise their
properties, identify any hazards associated with them, assess and manage risks, and undertake
risk/benefit analyses to establish whether they are safe to use in products and whether any
precautions are required for their use. Further information on risk and safety is provided later in this
report together with a table (table 2) providing examples of benefits and risks of some materials used
in the construction sector.
There is sometimes also apprehension over nanotechnology due to lack of understanding of what it
represents: it is a development of existing technologies in that it essentially represents the ability to
intentionally manipulate materials at the nanoscale using novel tools and processes. In this sense
nanotechnology can be considered an “enabling technology”.
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Figure 4: Graphical representation of nano‐, micro‐ and macroscales (Image: Massey University, NZ)
The following sections provide an overview and brief description of some of the emerging products
and materials based on nanotechnology that are increasingly being utilised in construction.
Nano‐concrete and cement
The application of silica nanoparticles has enabled cement and concrete products to be developed
that are significantly lighter than conventional concrete (up to 40% less dense), have improved
viscosity and rheology, are lower in porosity and therefore have lower permeability and better wear,
have good strength characteristics, can enable a substantial reduction in materials, and which can
also offer other economic benefits such as reduction in operational time. Other nanomaterials can
also be added to produce products such as concrete paving slabs that can photocatalyse nitrogen
oxides and other urban pollutants.
Case study
In 2009 the contractor Acciona, a Spanish energy and infrastructure company committed to sustainability, used a
nanosilica‐containing concrete in the construction of a liquefied gas tank domed roof in Cartagena, Spain. The design
requirements called for high‐strength structure with low shrinkage and an absence of flaws and fissures, good
mechanical properties because of the pressures caused by the sloping design and good workability of the concrete to
fill the steel reinforcement matrix. The use of the nanosilica‐based concrete
– reduced the total amount of cement needed;
– diminished plastic retraction and the risk of fissures;
– improved its mechanical and flow properties;
– provided low permeability;
– gave high resistance (25 MPa in only 12 hours; 40 MPa in 2 days; 50 MPa in 7 days; 60 MPa in 28 days);
– provided a cost reduction of 12% in materials as well as further savings, e.g. shorter construction time.
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High‐performance self‐cleaning glass and smart glazing
Self‐cleaning Surfaces
Architectural glass is a widely‐ used material in modern buildings. The use of sheet glass as facade
cladding is widespread in non‐residential buildings. However, ordinary window panes become easily
soiled due to the intrinsic hydrophilic (“water‐attracting”) nature of glass.
Figure 5. Normal (left) vs. self‐cleaning (right) glass
A common approach to overcome such soiling has been based on hydrophobic (“water‐hating”) and
super‐hydrophobic coatings using silanes. However, such hydrophobic coatings have to be placed on
the outer glass pane where they are exposed to atmospheric conditions and mechanical strain which
finally leads to degradation of the protective layer.
A completely different, nanoscale, approach is based on the photocatalytic properties of titanium
dioxide (TiO2). TiO2 is a common white pigment which is used in paints, but is also an efficient UV
absorber. This property can be exploited in active coatings which are able to break down dirt through
the production of free radicals. TiO2 is a compound semiconductor which exists in three different
chemical forms known as anatase, rutile and brookite forms. The anatase form, in particular, exhibits
photocatalytic properties which makes it a suitable candidate for self‐cleaning photocatalytic
coatings which are activated by UV radiation.
A number of companies are producing such self‐cleaning glass for construction use which is self‐
cleaning. The leading UK‐based glass manufacturer, Pilkington PLC, has developed a self‐cleaning
glass called Pilkington Activ™ which has an incorporated hard, dual action surface coating with
hydrophilic and photocatalytic properties, based on a 15nm (nanometre) layer of TiO2. Organic and
inorganic deposits on the surface of the glass are broken down by sunlight through photocatalysis
and, because the surface is hydrophobic, are readily washed away by rain or by simple hosing. The
effects are continuous and last the lifetime of the glass.
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Figure 6. Photocatalytic breakdown of dirt on glass by sunlight
The same photocatalytic principle has also been applied to clay roof tiles where a self‐cleaning
functionality is also activated by sunlight preventing the growth of unwanted lichens or mildew.
Low‐emissivity (low‐E) coatings
Glass facades allow the construction of transparent and lightweight structures. However, the
comparatively high transmittance for visible light and infrared light (IR) of sheet glass is a major
disadvantage. The high transmittance of IR causes a large heat transfer into the building which makes
additional air conditioning necessary. However, it is possible to maintain a high transmittance for
visible light and lower the reflectivity infrared selectively. Such coatings are referred to as "low‐e" or
"low emissivity" coatings. A typical low‐e coating is based on layers of thin silver nanocoating (around
30nm or less) surrounded by dielectric layers. Silver loses its metallic appearance when deposited as
an ultra‐thin nanocoating. Low‐e coatings can be applied to large area sheet glass using physical
vapour deposition techniques.
Smart glazing
Besides passive functional coatings, switchable dynamic coatings for glass have also been
investigated intensively. Windows with a dynamic transmittance are often referred to as “dynamic
glazing” or “smart glazing”. They are divided into active and passive systems, whereby the active
coatings can be switched by pushing a button and the passive ones for example react to changes in
temperature (thermochromic coatings) or light incidence (photochromic coatings).
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Figure 7. Electrochromic glass
Electrochromic glazings can alter their transmittance when a small voltage is applied to the
electrochromic coating. Gaschromic glazings change their transmittance in the presence of suitable
gases. In the case of tungsten oxide (WO3) coatings, hydrogen is the element responsible for the
transmittance, which can be varied continuously between 1 and 75 %. The inner surface of the
insulating glazing units is coated with nanoscale tungsten oxide. This invisible film takes on a deep
blue colour when it comes into contact with the smallest amounts of hydrogen. The colour is
bleached away if oxygen is introduced.
Polymer‐dispersed liquid crystal (PDLC) glazings allow switching between a transparent and an
opaque state. Such glazings do not alter the overall transmission but, rather, switch between a non‐
diffuse and diffuse transmission, and are often used in privacy glass.
Another approach is based on strong anisotropy (directional dependence) in absorption by some rod‐
like nanoparticles. This technique is called a suspended particles device (SPD). SPDs allow switching
between a bright and a dark state by applying a voltage. The comparatively high cost of smart glazing
has, however, limited its wide use so far (privacy glass costs approximately €1700 per square metre).
Anti‐reflective coatings
The efficiency of photovoltaic cells suffers from reflection from the smooth silicon surface with only
around two‐thirds of the incoming light being absorbed by an untreated silicon solar cell. Several
approaches for reflection reduction have been developed. A common anti‐reflective coating (ARC) is
based on a single quarter‐wavelength layer made of silicon nitride (SiNx).
A more sophisticated, biomimetic technique is based on a low‐reflectivity, regular micro‐structure
found in many insect compound eyes. For example, the compound eyes of moths have regular low‐
reflectivity conical structures of about 300 nm on their surfaces that help protect the insect from
being seen by nocturnal predators. In order to mimic these natural structures, several different
approaches have been carried out.
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For small areas, imprinting techniques have been investigated intensively. For larger areas, the use of
spin‐coating and etching have also been reported. However, since the production of regular pillars or
conical protrusions at the nanoscale is cost‐intensive, porous layers and other microstructures are
under investigation. The use of a sol‐gel technique (a cheap and low‐temperature technique where a
“sol” (or solution) gradually evolves towards the formation of a gel‐like system containing both a
liquid phase and solid phase) to produce a microporous coating through a simple dipping process is
one such promising approach towards producing a broadband anti‐reflective coating which is
available at reasonable cost.
An alternative approach is based on a layer stack with alternating high and low refractance materials.
This technique is widely used for anti‐reflective coatings for optical purposes but has also been
investigated for use on photovoltaic cells. Commonly‐used materials include SiO2, with a
comparatively low refractive index, and TiO2 with high refraction. The alternating layers are
deposited by physical vapour deposition.
Precautions in handling
Because of the need to protect the coatings in these various types of highly‐functionalised glass,
special care and training is required during its processing, handling and installation.
Insulation materials
The heating and lighting of buildings within the EU are responsible for the largest share of the total
energy consumption (around 42%). Although improved thermal insulation is available on the market
and the number of “passive” houses is constantly growing the vast majority of European households
still have poor energy efficiency. Thermal insulation is based on the combination of porous materials
and the fairly low thermal conductivity of air whereby the free flow of the enclosed air is inhibited.
The thickness of the insulating layer determines the overall performance which is measured in terms
of thermal resistance or thermal transmittance. The density of the material is an important measure.
The lower the density of the insulating material, the more air is enclosed and the lower the thermal
transmittance will be.
There are a number of novel thermal insulation materials based on nanomaterials which have very
high specific insulative performance and which can achieve results equivalent or superior to
traditional products but with substantially lower thickness. Examples include insulation materials
based on so‐called aerogels and nano‐foams, vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) and phase change
materials (PCMs). Because of the much reduced bulk of these materials they are highly suitable for
renovation and retrofitting projects, as well as for new builds, and, as such, are likely to be used by
many trainees working in these sectors as they are introduced to the wider market.
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Aerogels
Aerogels, sometimes also called “frozen smoke”, have the lowest thermal conductivity of all
materials. Aerogels are virtually made of air with a porosity of up to 99.5% and specific surface areas
of more than 1000 m²/g. Silica aerogels are normally produced in a sol‐gel process. They are a very
light but brittle material which is expensive to manufacture. This has prevented a broader use of
aerogels so far.
Vacuum insulated panels (VIPs)
Vacuum insulation panels (VIPs) are heat insulating panels that are enclosed in a metallic foil and
evacuated. The core material of these panels often consists of fumed silica which is a porous material
with low thermal conductivity and the panels offer thermal conductivities as low as 0.004 W/mK at a
typical pressure of 10mbar.
Figure 8. Vacuum insulated panels
VIPs offer a 5‐10 times better performance than traditional insulating material, but are more
expensive to produce. VIPs can be used to reduce the overall insulation thickness and to improve the
energy efficiency of buildings.
Phase change materials
Phase change materials (PCMs) are latent heat storage devices capable of storing energy in a phase
change. Rooms equipped with phase change materials ensure a more constant room temperature.
PCMs are able to store heat during the day when temperatures rise and to release heat at night
when the room is cooling down. Wax enclosed in micro‐capsules melts at a certain temperature: the
latent heat stored in the liquid wax is released upon solidification ensuring a pleasant indoor climate.
The phase change temperature can be chosen adapting the PCM to a desired temperature. PCMs can
contribute to ensure better comfort and towards reducing energy costs for air conditioning.
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Nanostructured self‐cleaning surfaces and applied nano‐ surface treatments
Nanotechnology has been applied in a number of ways to produce surface that are self‐cleaning.
Glass with an incorporated self‐cleaning layer has already been described above. Another strategy
has to been to follow a biomimetic approach. The leaves of a number of plants, notably those of the
lotus flower (Nelumbo spp.), exhibit a so‐called lotus effect or very high level of water repellence
(superhydrophobicity). Dirt particles are picked up by water droplets and, due to a complex micro‐
and nanoscopic architecture of the leaf surface, this water simply rolls off in droplets and does not
adhere to the surface (see figure 9).
Figure 9. “Lotus effect” – water droplet on a leaf
Although often referred to "nano", the lotus effect is rather based on micro‐ than on nanostructures.
So‐called biomimetic approaches attempt to reproduce these naturally‐evolved characteristics in
man‐made materials, typically by altering the surface topography or other surface architecture of the
material. Such materials are already being used in aeronautical engineering to reduce contamination
and drag of surfaces and can also be applied in other sectors.
It is highly likely that the application of nanotechnology and nanomaterials will underpin future
biomimetic approaches where designs evolved by nature are incorporated into man‐made products.
An overview of these principles together with some practical examples may therefore be of value in
the training of young workers working with such novel materials.
Self‐cleaning properties can also be imparted to construction products by applying a variety of
surface treatments based on the nanoscale properties of materials and it is likely that trainees will
also work with or in proximity to these materials. Examples of commercialized products include
transparent photocatalytic coatings based on titanium dioxide nanoparticles that can be used to coat
masonry products, glass, tiles and facades to prevent the build‐up of dirt, particularly in urban
environments.
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Sealants and adhesives
A number of nanomaterials are already added to adhesives and sealants, including:
– nanosilica: used as a thickening agent with thixotropic properties, i.e. it can become less viscous
and flow under certain conditions
– nanoscale precipitated calcium carbonate: control of rheology, stiffness, impact resistance and
weatherability
– silane‐based products for sealing and waterproofing woods
– titanium dioxide: e.g. as a pigment
Nano‐sealants typically contain silica or other ceramic nanoparticles, or a nanopolymer, and organise
themselves to form a coating and bond with the surface after application. They can be used to seal a
wide range of materials, including metals, glass, ceramics, electronics, synthetic and natural
materials. If the surface is smooth and non‐absorbent, the nanoparticles combine with the surface,
and repel any contaminants or liquids. If the treated surface is porous, the nanoparticles fill up the
pores from the inside. Dirt, liquids or biological contaminants cannot then get into the surface and
are simply repelled.
Paints and applied protective coatings, e.g. wood treatments and anti‐corrosion products
Nanoparticle‐containing paints
Paints have become a major application area for nanomaterials. Nanoscale titanium dioxide has been
used for many years as a pigment in paints and to provide better optical and covering properties and,
more recently, a variety of specialist paints have been appearing on the market that utilise
nanomaterials to provide a variety of useful characteristics. Examples include:
– the use of nanosilver to produce antibacterial paints;
– the use of nanosilica in paints that can help regulate room temperature and prevent heat loss;
– the incorporation of ceramic nanoparticles to produce paints that are highly scratch‐resistant;
– nanosilica‐based anti‐graffiti paints that prevent the graffiti layer sticking to the surface to be
protected.
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Figure 10. A nano‐enabled antibacterial and anti‐mould paint
A facade paint exhibiting a “lotus effect”, as described earlier, came onto the market as long ago as
1999 and a facade binder based on nanocomposites was introduced in 2005. Silica nanoparticles are
embedded in an organic polymer matrix and this nanocomposite binder offers an increased elasticity
and durability for facade paints.
Anti‐corrosion coatings
Anti‐corrosion coatings are of importance where metals have to be protected in harsh environments,
e.g. in offshore construction. There are many types of both metallic, e.g. galvanised, or painted, e.g.
fusion‐bonded epoxy‐based, polypropylene‐based, anti‐corrosion coatings. Novel painted or sprayed
products increasingly incorporate nanotechnology such as an inorganic nanoparticle matrix to
provide a robust and durable surface.
Coatings for wood
Wood, unlike metals and concrete, is a biological material that presents its own set of characteristics
and challenges in protection. It is, for example, heterogeneous, porous, biodegradable, sensitive to
UV radiation and hygroscopic. Novel wood coatings and protection products may therefore
incorporate a variety of nanomaterials to improve protection, e.g. aluminium oxide (hardness,
abrasion‐ and scratch resistance), iron oxide (UV protection), silver (antimicrobial), titanium dioxide
(UV protection, anti‐microbial), zinc oxide (UV protection, anti‐microbial) and silica (hardness,
abrasion‐ and scratch‐resistance, and waterproofing).
Nanocomposites and reinforced polymers
A nanocomposite material is a solid combination of bulk matrix material such as a polymer and one
or more nano‐dimensional phases. The components differ in their properties due to dissimilarities in
structure and chemistry. Nanocomposites differ from conventional composite materials mainly due
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to the very high surface to volume ratio of the reinforcing (nanoscale) phase. This large surface area
means that a relatively small amount of nanoscale reinforcement can have a significant effect on the
macroscale properties of the composite. Nanocomposites are found widely in nature, for example in
the structure of bone.
Figure 11. Graphical representation of a polymer‐clay nanocomposite (Image: Osaka University
The mechanical, electrical, thermal, optical, electrochemical and catalytic properties of the
nanocomposite will differ from those of the component materials and can provide advantages over
the parent materials such as strength, lightness, durability and other characteristics. Nanocomposites
are widely used in the aeronautical, automotive and other engineering sectors and are beginning to
make an impact in the construction sector.
There are potentially thousands of combinations of matrix materials and nanofillers available with a
very wide range of physical and mechanical properties. Examples of nanocomposite construction
products include PVC nanocomposites used in windows and doors, and in large diameter piping and
other applications requiring rigidity, nanocomposites incorporating nanoclays for fireproofing,
cellulose based nanocomposites in insulation and asphalt‐based nanocomposite roofing.
In view of the increasing use of nanocomposites, training needs are envisaged that provide an
overview of the benefits, properties, selection, use and maintenance of these materials.
Functionalised textiles
Nanomaterials can be incorporated into textiles in a variety of ways to provide them with novel or
advantageous properties and it is also possible to change the surface characteristics of textiles, or the
fibres that they are made from, at the nanoscale by novel processes such as low‐temperature plasma
treatments. Benefits that can be gained include imparting special self‐cleaning abilities (e.g. by
altering the hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity of the fabric surface), durability and wear resistance
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characteristics (e.g. by incorporating silica nanoparticles), resistance to microorganisms (e.g. by light
(e.g. by incorporating nanoscale titanium dioxide) and integrating sensors and electronics into
textiles (for example by using carbon nanotubes or other conducting nanomaterials).
Figure 12. Nano‐treated waterproof textile
Construction textiles
Construction textiles play an important role in the modernization of infrastructures, offering
advantageous properties such as lightness, strength and resilience, resistance to creep, and
degradation from chemicals, sunlight and pollutants. Examples where functionalized textiles may be
used in construction and in facilities management include geotextiles, linings, carpets, tiles and
interior furnishings and decoration. In some cases, sensors may also be incorporated into such
materials (e.g. pressure sensors and security sensors in “smart buildings”).
Their use can provide an aesthetic improvement for new and refurbished buildings, and new textile
materials and innovative techniques for their deployment offer huge potential in the construction of
eco‐friendly buildings that combine great design freedom with lightness and economy.
Construction textiles are increasingly finding their way into architecture, both indoors and outdoors,
for surface and hidden applications. Besides tapestries and curtains, textiles are used in roofing,
insulation and cladding; in sun, water, wind, fire and noise protection; in floor and concrete
reinforcement; in UV and electromagnetic shielding; in diffused lighting using integrated LED and
other electroluminescent materials.
High strength, high modulus textile fabrics can be used as a replacement for more traditional
materials. The mechanical properties of fabrics made, for example, with aramide or carbon and glass
fibres, combined with cross‐linking resin systems to form a composite, provide civil engineers with a
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range of new materials that offer high strength and/or high stiffness in relation to their weight, and
extreme flexibility in design and use. Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) is a composite material with
performances comparable to steel reinforced concrete, giving lightweight structures with high
durability and high quality surfaces.
Innovative membranes made from composites, including textile reinforcement, can offer added
value in both technical and aesthetic terms. New coatings and fillers, frequently derived from
nanotechnology, are being tested, producing textile membranes combining acoustic and thermal
insulation, efficient energy management, controlled light transmission and easy cleaning and
decontamination qualities. Other applications include use in self‐healing concrete, localized crack
repair, the reinforcement of critical walls, or the wrapping of existing columns, protection against
earthquake or hurricanes, explosive incidents, or for military/defence purposes.
New trends driven by forward‐thinking architects are providing new opportunities for textiles in
construction. For example, an exterior envelope textile facade can be used to add a high profile,
visible and dramatic effect with translucence, resembling glass. Other approaches are directed
towards a building “skin” combining visible and performance features, like thermal control, water
and dirt repellency, light transmission and acoustic absorption.
Sun and weather protection as well as light and temperature regulation are the main requirements
for textiles applications in sport facilities. ETFE fluoropolymer membranes allow 98% light
transmission, water repellency, insulating properties controlling interior temperature and humidity
of large sport buildings. Around 80% of newly built or refurbished stadiums worldwide have textile
roofs and/or claddings.
Inflatable buildings
Another specialist application of textiles in architecture is inflatable buildings. High performance
inflatable buildings are characterized by a unique design and construction giving them unrivalled
portability and speed of deployment combined with the strength and rigidity of a metal framed
structure able to withstand wind and snow loads. Each structure is typically comprised of two layers
of a fire retardant composite textile connected together. The cavity formed between the layers is
pressurized with air producing an extremely rigid structural element which allows large spans to be
achieved whilst keeping the overall weight of the structure to a minimum. The replacement of steel
cables with textile belts and ropes for tensioning and load transfer can eliminate corrosion problems
and facilitate installation.
Geotextiles
Geotextiles form part of a group of materials known as geosynthetics and are special fabrics made
for use in geological situations. Geotextiles, usually in the form of woven, nonwoven and knit fabrics,
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have to meet specific requirements such as strong mechanical properties, filtration ability and
chemical resistance so that they can perform basic functions such as reinforcement, separation,
drainage and filtration. They are flexible, extremely robust, easy to install, and generally allow
solutions that are less expensive than traditional construction methods. The use of geotextiles can
save money by considerably reducing construction times, material and maintenance costs.
Geotextiles are designed for use in civil engineering applications such as erosion control, landslide,
soil stabilization, road construction, embankments, dams, and retaining walls. Nonwoven geotextiles
are often used as protection layers for geomembranes in containment structures (e.g. landfill, water
storage, etc.) where it is required that the geotextile prevents localized stress cracking of the
geomembrane by stone projections over the long‐term usage of the constructed facility.
The most common fibre polymers used for the manufacture of geotextiles are polypropylene,
polyethylene, polyester, and less frequently, polyamide. The use of more specialized materials is
limited, because geotextiles have to be produced in large quantities and economically.
Training needs
While many nano‐enhanced textiles will require few special training needs, others, e.g. those with
embedded sensors or electronics, may require specific knowledge and training in terms of handling,
installation or maintenance.
Energy capture systems
Solar energy capture
The use of material properties at the nanoscale underpins the latest generation of solar energy
capture systems. There are a number of solar cell types using different technologies, many of which
are increasingly at the nanoscale, such as semiconductor junctions, thin film technologies, quantum
dots (a type of nanocrystalline semiconductor), silicon nanostructures, polymer cells and dye‐
sensitised cells, all of which work by converting solar energy photovoltaically (hence the alternative
term “photovoltaic cell”).
While early generation solar cells were limited in their efficiency, the latest “third generation” thin
film devices, have a combination of a theoretical 30‐60% conversion efficiency, an ability to utilise
sunlight at varying angles, and low cost materials and manufacturing processes. Other recent
innovations include the development of flexible solar panels for buildings, portable rollable flexible
solar panels that can be transported and stored for use.
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Figure 13. Flexible solar energy panel
A further current area of research is into flexible energy‐capturing and converting coatings based on
nanotechnologies, that can be applied to the exterior surfaces of buildings and which, with the
simultaneous application of modern battery technologies, enable the building itself to act as its own
“power station”.
In terms of training, there will be needs for basic knowledge about how different solar energy
capture systems work, how they combine with smart processors to utilise and store energy in
electrical form and, in many cases, export excess energy to the national grid. From a practical point
of view, there are clear training needs for the installation and maintenance of such systems.
Kinetic energy capture
Various forms of kinetic energy capture exist, e.g. hydroelectric schemes, wind energy (both large
scale and micro‐generation), and wave and tidal energy systems. Nanotechnology can have a
facilitating role in all of these systems including the use of advanced manufacturing and construction
materials, surface coatings, corrosion prevention, control systems, sensors and measurement
systems. Examples include hydrophobic and self‐cleaning nanocoatings for wind turbine blades, high
strength, lighter carbon nanotube‐containing composites for wind turbine blades, high‐performance
paint protection systems, and high‐performance and high‐storage capacity fuel cells for the storage
of captured energy.
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Figure 14. Pavegen energy‐generating tile
Novel kinetic energy systems, such as the UK company Pavegen’s energy‐capturing floor tile, have
also been recently developed that can be installed in areas where there is a high level of pedestrian
activity in order to generate electricity which can be stored and used for a variety of applications.
There are a diverse range of materials, products and processes employed in this sector that can be
supported by nanotechnologies and hence a mix of generic and more specific training needs.
Energy storage
Fuel cells and energy storage
In both solar and kinetic energy capture, there is a need for energy storage as the energy generation
process may be discontinuous. Electrical energy is difficult to store in large quantities. One potential
solution is to convert into and store this energy as hydrogen, which can then be used as a fuel source
for a fuel cell. For example, with wind energy, in particular windy periods the excess energy
generated by a wind farm could be converted into hydrogen and stored for use in a number of
applications, or to power fuel cells. The use of nanomaterials (e.g. nanoscale metal hydrides) allows
for smaller and lighter fuel cells and more efficient hydrogen storage.
Nanomaterials can also improve fuel cell performance by increasing the conductivity of the
electrolyte, the use of carbon nanotubes can produce battery electrodes that are ten times thinner
and lighter and which have higher conductivity. In addition fuel cells require a catalyst such as
platinum, which is very expensive. By using platinum nanoparticles or nanoparticles of other suitable
catalytic materials costs can be lowered.
Much of the research into battery design has been focused onto the use of nanomaterials to produce
smaller and lighter batteries for use in an increasingly wide range of consumer and professional
products. However, the use of nanomaterials can also improve the performance and storage capacity
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of traditional types of battery where size is less of a concern and the ability to store large quantities
of energy is more important.
Fuel cell and advanced battery technologies are likely to become more important with an increased
focus on green energy production and young trainees or apprentices will be likely to encounter such
technologies in a number of settings across construction, facilities management and utilities, in terms
of manufacture, installation and maintenance.
Low‐power lighting
High‐efficiency OLED‐based lighting and displays
Figure 15. Flexible OLED lighting panel
Organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs) provide high‐contrast and low‐energy displays that are rapidly
becoming the dominant technology for advanced electronic screens. They are already used in some
cell phone and other smaller‐scale applications. Current state‐of‐the‐art OLEDs are produced using
heavy‐metal doped glass in order to achieve high efficiency and brightness, which makes them
expensive to manufacture, heavy, rigid and fragile. Using a layer of tantalum oxide of thickness
around 70 nanometres (nm) it is now possible to produce OLEDs on flexible plastic which opens up a
whole new range of potential energy‐efficient, flexible and impact‐resistant lighting and display
applications. Because of the potentially ubiquitous application of such systems it is likely that young
trainees will encounter them in manufacturing, installation and maintenance situations.
Flexible and printed electronics
Various low‐cost printing methods can be used to create electrical circuits and devices on various
substrates. Electrically‐conductive inks are deposited on the substrate, creating active or passive
devices, such as thin film transistors or resistors. Printed electronics are expected to facilitate
widespread, low‐cost electronics for a wide range of applications such as flexible displays and smart
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labels. In a similar way to OLEDs, the application of nanotechnologies is underpinning the
development of printed and flexible electronics.
Conductive inks may be inorganic, containing dispersions of inorganic nanoparticles such as silver,
gold or copper, or novel organic conjugated polymers with conducting, semiconducting,
electroluminescent, photovoltaic and other properties.
Due to the potentially widespread application of printed electronics, trainees are likely to be involved
in their manufacture, installation and use.
Water treatment and site remediation
Case study
Veolia Water, a major water supplier in the UK, uses nanofiltration technology to treat drinking water at its Méry‐sur‐
Oise treatment plant in France. It uses nanoscale FILMTECTM membranes supplied by a subsidiary of Dow Water
Solutions (a subsidiary of The Dow Chemicals Company).
The same FILMTECTM technology has also been utilised at a desalination plant in Perth, Western Australia and enable
cost effective desalination of 144 000 m3 of water per day (some 17% of Perth’s total water needs).
The use of the FILMTECTM technology has reduced the cost of desalination to a level where it is now often an acceptable
option.
In the construction and utilities sectors, the remediation of groundwater contamination and other
site remediation activities have become increasingly important in the UK due to the limited
availability of sites and the need to comply with legislation. In Europe as a whole, over 20 000 sites
require groundwater remediation.
The traditional approach to remediation has been to use granular iron as a permeable reactive
barrier but, with the application of nanotechnology, it is now possible to inject nano zero valent iron
(nZVI) into the ground. nZVI has a massively increased surface area, reaction rates that are 25 to 30
times faster than previous methods, and a much greater absorption capacity.
Other benefits include reduction of treatment time and costs, reduction of exposure for workers and
the environment, reduced equipment costs due to the in‐situ nature of the treatment, and effective
treatment of a wide range of contaminants.
Trainees in these sectors are likely to encounter these new types of nanomaterial‐based remediation
treatment and there are potential training needs in both how these treatments work, methods and
in health and safety aspects.
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Dust reduction technologies
A variety of solutions are available for dust reduction which are of importance in construction,
facilities management and utilities activities. A novel solution, based on nanotechnology, works by
using an ecologically‐safe, biodegradable, liquid copolymer to stabilize and solidify soils or aggregates
to help prevent erosion and suppress dust. Once applied to the soil or aggregate, the long
nanoparticulate copolymer molecules coalesce forming bonds between the soil or aggregate
particles and cross‐linking. As the water dissipates from the soil or aggregate, a durable and water
resistant matrix of flexible solid‐mass is created. Once cured, the product becomes completely
transparent, leaving the natural landscape appearing untouched.
Trainees may be involved in the application of such systems and knowledge and training in how they
work, and of health and safety aspects, is therefore appropriate.
Pollution control, e.g. O3, CO, NOx, SO2, VOCs, particulate matter (PM)
Despite a substantial decrease in many air pollutants since 1990, a significant proportion of the EU
population live in cities where EU air quality limits, for the protection of human health, are exceeded.
Air pollutants include:
– ozone (O3)
– particulate matter (PM1, PM2.5, PM10)
– carbon monoxide (CO)
– nitrogen oxides (NOx)
– sulphur dioxide (SO2)
– volatile organic compounds (VOC)
Figure 16. Industrial pollution (Image: Rybson, www.sxc.hu)
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High levels of air pollutants can seriously affect those people with existing respiratory or cardiac
diseases and so is a major public health issue. Coatings such as nanoscale titanium dioxide can help
to break down these molecules through photocatalysis. Innovative façade materials with
photocalaytic activity have been developed in recent years including anti‐soiling and anti‐staining
paints and mortars incorporating titanium dioxide nanoparticles.
Another recent development has been to coat concrete paving slabs in titanium oxide nanoparticles
to help break down nitrogen oxides by catalysis in urban environments polluted by traffic. Carbon
capture from the burning of fossil fuels can be reduced by the use of nanomembrane filters in
scrubbing systems and these are reported to use much less energy than conventional capture
systems.
Case study
Air Clean® nitrogen oxide‐reducing paving slabs, developed by FCN Betonelemente, are coated in TiO2 nanoparticles.
Their effectiveness has been tested by the Fraunhofer Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology IME in
Schmallenberg.
Testing on a 230 m strip of road in Segrate area of Milan in Italy found an average 60% decrease in NOX
concentrations compared to an untreated section. The slabs were also tested in Erfurt, Germany, to ascertain whether
they would also work in regions with less natural sunshine. The Fraunhofer Institute scientists found that there was
still a 20% reduction in NO2 and up to 38% reduction in NO using the optimised paving slabs.
It is thought that this level of reduction in NOX could substantially improve urban air quality if such a product were
deployed on a wider basis.
Nanofiltration systems are also being increasingly used to remove a range of pollutants from drinking
water. A trial using nanofiltration at a water plant in France proved very successful in terms of
eliminating organic matter and pesticides and reducing the taste of chlorine (important to
customers). The operating costs, in comparison to traditional methods, were lower than expected.
Those trainees working in the facilities management utilities sectors are likely to encounter an
increasing variety of nanomaterial‐ or nanotechnology‐based pollution control systems and
knowledge of how they work and their installation and maintenance is therefore desirable.
Biosensors
Biosensors increasingly employ sensing surfaces based on the application of nanotechnologies or
nanomaterials. A typical sensor comprises a sensing surface which may be based on a biological
material, derivative or biomolecule, or an artificial biomimetic surface; a transducing system
(electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric or other mode of operation) that converts the reaction
between the analyte and the biosensor surface to a signal; and a means of processing the signal.
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Biosensors can be networked and distributed widely in the environment, can be used for a huge
range of measurements or detection of a huge range of analytes, including pollutants, gases,
indicators of air or water quality, in “smart homes” and in security applications (see below).
Biosensors may also be incorporated into other systems. A recent example, now in development at
Strathclyde University, is the use of aligned, conductive carbon nanotubes in a highly‐durable surface
coating based on fly ash which could potentially be used in highly‐demanding applications such as
bridge‐building and offshore construction as an indicator of early structural failure. This nano‐based
system is expected to cost 1% of other existing solutions.
Because of their ability to be used in a wide range of networked applications across many activities in
construction, facilities management and energy and utilities operations, it is very likely that trainees
will be involved in the installation, operation and maintenance of biosensor networks. Knowledge of
their principles of operation will therefore be useful.
Biosensors in safety and security applications
Biosensors also increasingly feature as part of security and safety systems, e.g. for the detection of
workplace contaminants and noxious compounds, monitoring air quality and in security screening
systems, and as such, may be frequently encountered in construction and facilities management
settings.
Training needs
In terms of training, all of the products and processes described above are likely to be encountered
by trainees, apprentices and others in NVQ levels 1 to 4 training. Some materials and products also
have their own special needs and precautions in terms of preparation, application and maintenance.
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Technology Readiness Levels
Many of the nanotechnology‐enabled products and materials described in the previous sections are
already available on the open market. Others are at earlier stages of development, e.g. at proof of
concept or prototype stage, or are in limited scale production, but may nevertheless be reasonably
expected to become available in the near future.
Indications of “technology readiness levels” (TRLs) are therefore provided in table 1 as a general
guide to the stage of development and commercialisation of a range of nano‐enabled materials and
products.
Table 1. Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs) for some nano‐enabled technologies for construction
Technology Readiness Level (TRL)
Problem identified but no solution
Principles under‐stood
Proof of concept reached
Realistic demonstr‐ation
System prototype
Limited scale product‐ion
Mass scale exploit‐ation
Nano‐concrete and nano‐cement
Nanocomposites
Nano‐functionalised textiles
Nano‐ adhesives and sealants
Nano‐containing paints & coatings
Nano‐enabled self‐cleaning glass
Nano‐ cleaning agents
Nano‐ insulation materials
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Nanoscale solar capture systems
Kinetic energy harvesting systems
Nano‐ energy storage systems
Low power (e.g. OLED) lighting
Printed/flexible microelectronics
Nano‐enabled site remediation
Dust reduction technologies
Nanoscale pollution control
Nano‐enabled biosensor systems
39
Environmental impacts
Global warming and its consequences
Figures from the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change website26 state that:
– the Earth’s surface has warmed by about 0.8°C since 1900 and by around 0.5°C since the 1970s;
– the average rate of global warming over the period 1901 to 2010 was about 0.07 oC per decade;
– more than 30 billion tonnes of CO2 are emitted globally each year by burning fossil fuels;
– average global temperatures may rise between 1.1°C and 6.4°C above 1990 levels by the end of
the current century.
Furthermore the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) concluded that it is very likely (with more than 90% probability) that most of the
observed global warming since the mid‐20th century is due to the observed increase in human‐
caused greenhouse gas concentrations.27 Even if all greenhouse gas emissions were to stop now, the
world is already “committed” to around 0.6 (+/‐ 0.3)°C of further warming. If no action is taken to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, temperatures will rise even further. These temperature changes
will not be uniform over the globe. Higher latitudes, particularly the Arctic, are likely to see larger
temperature increases.
As resultant changes occur, e.g. due the melting of the arctic ice cap, the average sea level could rise
by 18 to 59 centimetres, or more, by the end of the century. This is not likely to be a uniform change
around the world: in some regions, rates are up to several times the global mean rise, while in other
regions sea levels are falling. Many low‐lying areas and many inhabited small islands are particularly
vulnerable to sea‐level rise and millions of people living in these regions could be put at greater risk
of flooding with some small islands could even become uninhabitable.
Further likely changes include an increased frequency of extreme weather events such as heat waves
and heavy rainfall throughout this century. Droughts may become more intense in some regions with
the impacts of these changes likely to be worst in developing countries. These countries are often the
most vulnerable and have the lowest capacity to adapt to a changing climate.
Further likely consequences of climate change include:
– loss of biodiversity as habitats are lost or change and species are unable to adapt;
– acidification of the world’s oceans as CO2 levels rise;
40
– decreases in the yield of major cereal crops in all the main areas of production resulting in an
increased risk of hunger and malnutrition in the poorest regions of the world;
– uncertainties in the availability of water for drinking and irrigation in some regions. Coupled with
higher temperatures, this could lead to an increased frequency of droughts;
– serious health implications for millions of people, particularly those with low ability to adapt to
climate change, such as increases in malnutrition and consequent disorders; deaths, disease and
injury due to heatwaves, floods, storms, fires and droughts; and altered distribution of infectious
disease vectors.
Several more recent scientific reports warn of the possibility of more abrupt climate change due to
factors such as:
– possible slowdown or disruption of the North Atlantic ocean conveyor (thermohaline)
circulation (see figure 17);
– changes in the carbon cycle;
– further, rapid loss of sea ice, including melting of glaciers and the Greenland and West
Antarctic ice sheets, leading to long‐term and irreversible sea level rise.
While there are uncertainties attached these changes, the risks may become significant for global
temperatures 2 to 3˚C or more above pre‐industrial levels.
Figure 17. Thermohaline circulation
The costs of climate change
The Stern Report suggests the costs of climate change could be enormous.28 The report estimated
that not taking action could cost from 5 to 20% of global gross domestic product (GDP) every year. In
comparison, reducing emissions to avoid the worst impacts of climate change could cost around
1% of global GDP each year.
41
The contribution of the construction industry
As stated in the introduction to the report, in the UK, the use of building accounts for about 50% of
total CO2 emissions: construction itself contributes around another 7%. Together these activities use
the most energy and create the highest CO2 emissions for an industry sector in the UK, together with
other forms of pollution.
Meeting the low carbon agenda
“Green Deal”
The UK Government’s Energy Act of 2011 includes provisions for the new “Green Deal”29, which is
intended to reduce the cost of carbon emissions by revolutionising the energy efficiency of British
buildings.
The Green Deal introduces new, innovative financial mechanisms that eliminate the need to pay
upfront for energy efficiency measures and instead provide reassurances that the cost of such
measures can be covered by savings on electricity bills.
Energy Company Obligation (ECO) Scheme
A new obligation on energy companies will be integrate with the Green Deal, allowing supplier
subsidies and green deal finance to come together for the benefit of the consumer.
UK Green Building Council
The UK Green Building Council is an organisation that campaigns for a sustainable built environment.
It seeks to promote refurbishment, “zero carbon” for new buildings, sustainable project
development, linking to international best practice, and “green skills” for the construction industry
through education and training. It also seeks to influence government policy on sustainable
development and in promoting green business.
Challenges for the environment in the short, medium and long term
Waste
According to DEFRA, the quantity of waste sent to landfill from the construction industry in 2004 was
about 100 million tonnes.30 This is more than three times the amount of domestic waste collection
(28 million tonnes) and rose from about 70 million tonnes in 2000. Sustainably building proponents
estimate that this is equivalent to one house being buried in the ground for every three built and that
it is an important consideration when the embodied energy of a building is being calculated.
42
Furthermore, increasing regulations concerning waste disposal from construction, including common
products like gypsum plasterboard and mineral wool insulation which are now labelled as hazardous,
sometimes necessitates special disposal.
Environmental legislation
A number of manufacturing sectors, including construction, have their own product‐specific
legislation or regulations and these vary widely in the level of intervention by authorities and control
of how materials are used in products. None of these regulations were specifically drafted with
nanotechnology or nanomaterials in mind although some have since been reviewed in the light of
the potential impact of nanotechnologies.
Chemicals
Europe
Chemical substances are regulated in Europe by the 2007 Registration, Evaluation and Authorization
of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation31. In 2008, the European Commission argued that, although there
are no specific provisions in REACH referring to nanomaterials, the definition of a “chemical
substance” covers nanomaterials and that the registration dossier should include data on the specific
properties, classification and labelling of the nanomaterial together with any additional risk
management measures.
While companies are urged to use existing REACH guidelines the Commission, together with its
Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly‐Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) and others, has
pointed out that these may not be appropriate for assessing risks associated with nanomaterials.
Mass threshold limits as set by REACH are also questioned as being appropriate for nanomaterials.
While the REACH Regulation covers the regulation of chemicals in nanomaterial form, the position
for companies in terms of registration, evaluation and authorization aspects still remains unclear at
this stage. Recommendations concerning implementation issues are also being made by national
authorities on the basis of their ongoing experience.
USA
The US Toxic Substances Control Act (TCSA)32 requires manufacturers of new chemical substances to
provide specific information to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for review prior to
manufacturing or introducing them into commerce. The EPA has the authority to review and
regulate nanomaterials through a procedure called “significant new use rules” (SNURs). This is a
notification asked of companies for significant new use of existing chemicals.
43
Under SNURs, the EPA can require premarket notification similar to those required for new chemicals
and can limit the uses of nanomaterials, limit their release to the environment, require workers to be
protected, and ask for tests to generate health and environmental effects data.
Electrical and Electronic Equipment
The use of materials in electrical and electronic equipment is addressed by the Restriction of
Hazardous Substances (RoHS) Directive.33 A revised text of the Directive was adopted on 27 May
201134 and, whilst a widely‐debated ban on asbestos‐like long multi‐walled carbon nanotubes and
nanosilver was not included, nanomaterials will, at the insistence of the European Parliament, come
under future scrutiny as further scientific evidence becomes available, in line with parallel
developments under REACH and the Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE)35.
Managing risks and addressing health and safety issues
Most of the issues arising in relation to the responsible development of nanotechnologies are
common to any emerging technology. Nanotechnology is still, however, a relatively “young”
technology and the most important current safety issues mainly concern the possible harmful effects
of non‐degradable “free” engineered nanomaterials (i.e. nanomaterials that are not bound into a
substrate but, rather, may be breathed in, ingested or otherwise be taken up into the body or pass
into the environment).
However, potentially revolutionary (and beneficial) applications of nanotechnology, sometimes using
novel nanomaterials, are under development, and the need to address these during the training of
young workers should already be anticipated. There are still many knowledge gaps in relation to
nanomaterials, and important challenges to the governance of nanotechnologies include:
- insufficient scientific knowledge about the characteristics and behaviour of some nanomaterials,
including data on exposure and hazards;
- lack of standardised definitions;
- lack of standardized methodologies to manage environment, health and safety (EHS) issues;
- difficulties for regulation to keep pace with scientific developments, the emergence of new
products and applications, and increasing commercialisation of nanotechnologies;
- lack of knowledge, in some cases, about how nanotechnologies and nano‐based are regulated;
- limited exchange of information amongst various stakeholders along the value chain and beyond;
44
- uncertainties, in some instances, about public acceptance, resulting from a lack of transparency
about EHS and ethical legal and social issues (ELSI);
- weaknesses in education concerning nanotechnologies.
Further perspectives on hazards, risks and risk management
Hazards, risks and risk management
In addressing some of these questions, particularly with regard to training aspects, a distinction
should be made between a hazard, a potential source of harm, and a risk, which is generally defined
as the likelihood of harm occurring and, if so, the severity of the harm. There may, for example, be a
greater risk involved in the use of materials containing free nanoparticles that in the use of a product
where any nanomaterial is locked into the products. In addition, risks normally need to be assessed
and, where appropriate, mitigated during the whole lifecycle of a product, from its inception,
through manufacturing, to use, and ultimately to final disposal of that product at its end‐of‐life.
In addition, all novel technological activities carry some element of risk (to health or to the
environment) and, generally, a risk management process will balance the mitigation of such risks
against the benefits of the material or product. These are elements that need to be addressed in any
educational and training initiatives bearing in mind that the target group are likely to be involved in
the handling and use of such materials and will require a basic understanding of these principles.
Table 2 provides an overview of some of the benefits and potential risks of nano‐enabled materials
and products that may be encountered in the construction, building services and related sectors.
COSHH Regulations
In the UK, the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002 (as amended)36
require employers to control substances that are hazardous to health and address aspects such as
– finding out what the health hazards are in relation to a substance
– determining possible routes of exposure to hazardous substances
– deciding how to prevent harm to health (risk assessment)
– providing control measures to reduce harm to health
– making sure they are used
– keeping all control measures in good working order
– providing information, instruction and training for employees and others
– providing monitoring and health surveillance in appropriate cases
– planning for emergencies
As for “traditional” materials, the Regulations also cover working with materials and products based
on nanotechnology.
45
Table 2. Examples of benefits and risks for some nano‐enabled products used in construction
Category Nanomaterial Products/Uses Benefits Risks
Cleaning products Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
(sometimes in combination with nanoparticulate zinc oxide)
Self‐cleaning surfaces and glass, window cleaning products, stain resistant textile coatings
Improve ease of cleaning, reduce cleaning associated costs
Incorporated within the textile fibres.
Potential of nanomaterials to leach , e.g. from textiles
Colloidal micelles Soaps and cleaners Bio‐based and biodegradable
No risks as naturally based substances.
Silver nanoparticles
Antibacterial coatings for surfaces and textiles, antibacterial paint, cleaning and disinfection solutions, washing machines, and children’s toys/products.
Improve hygiene levels and reduce infection rates particularly in high‐risk areas such as hospitals and schools.
Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.
Transport Silver nanoparticles
Air filtration systems
Significant reduction in viruses, bacteria and fungal spores, and odour concentrations.
Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.
46
Nanostructured composites and metals
Aircraft bodies Weight reduction leading to improved fuel efficiency and reduced emissions
No risk
Nanostructured surfaces
Coatings Non‐toxic solutions to reduce fouling
No risk
Copper oxide nanoparticles
Antifouling paints Reduction in fouling
Evidence of toxicity to aquatic environment.
Cerium oxide nanoparticles
Fuel additives Reduces fuel consumption and harmful emissions.
In a number of studies has been indicated as potentially harmful (lung and liver toxicity indicated in rat/mice studies) in their free particle form. Uncertainties remain over form of nanoparticles on emission from vehicles.
Metal oxide nanoparticles
Coatings for windows
Improved anti‐fogging, abrasion resistance, and UV protection properties.
Incorporated within coating so exposure potential is very low if applied according to instructions for use.
47
Energy Lithium titanate nanoparticles
Batteries for use in laptops, electric bikes, and electric vehicles.
Reduced charge time, longer lifetime and higher performance.
Coated onto electrodes within the battery therefore very low risk of exposure.
Functionalised nanoparticles
Wind turbine blade coatings
Reduced surface friction and fungus formation to improve power output.
Embedded within silicon matrix so exposure risk is very low.
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
Dye sensitised solar cells
Improved efficiency and not dependent on the angle of light.
Embedded within a film within the solar cell so exposure risk is very low.
Carbon nanotubes Wind turbine blades, fuel cell electrodes
Stronger and lighter blades for improved efficiency, thinner and lighter electrodes with higher performance.
Incorporated into a plastic resin, or coated onto component within fuel cell so exposure risk is very low.
Palladium nanoparticles
Fuel cell catalyst Reduced material cost and improved performance.
Embedded in a matrix and confined in final product so very low exposure potential.
Metal hydride nanoparticles
Hydrogen storage Smaller and lighter storage solutions.
48
Textiles Silver nanoparticles
Antibacterial textiles
Reduce odour, prevent infection, and address fungal infections.
Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound or released during wear; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.
Nanoclay Fire‐resistant textiles
Nanoclay‐based coating renders textiles fire‐resistant
Applied to textile so risk is low.
Silica and metal nanoparticles
Durable textiles and clothing
Greater improved abrasion resistance and wear properties
Applied to textile so risk is low.
Construction Silicon oxide aerogels
Thermal insulation in buildings
Improve energy efficiency of buildings.
Not found to be toxic or carcinogenic; however, they are mechanical irritants with continued exposure.
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
Low emissivity windows or window coatings
Reduce heat transfer through windows to allow for better building temperature control and reduced energy requirement.
Incorporated within thin films or coatings. Small risk of exposure if material is degraded.
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Nanosilica, carbon nanotubes
High performance concrete
Improved strength and crack resistance.
Historically a link to silicosis; however, nanomaterials will be incorporated within the concrete mix so the exposure potential is low. The exposure potential may rise during demolition situations.
Silicon dioxide nanoparticles
Scratch resistant coatings for floors and furniture
Reduce wear and tear to extend lifetime.
Incorporated within thin films or coatings. Small risk of exposure if material is degraded.
Electronics Nanostructured gold thin film
Displays Size and weight reduction, reduced glare and low power consumption.
Nanoscale silver Coatings for electronic equipment such as laptops
Antibacterial action.
Potential risk if nanoparticles are unbound; evidence of aquatic toxicity. Knowledge gaps remain regarding human toxicity.
50
Carbon nanotubes Transistors, Random Access Memory, display screens.
Higher speed transistors, more memory storage, lower power consumption and costs, replace finite materials, and lightweight, bright and thin displays.
Bound to surface or embedded within material within product so low risk of exposure.
In their airborne free form concerns over asbestos‐like behaviour in lungs.
Nanowires Electrodes for flat panel displays such as in ‘heads up’ car windscreen displays.
Allows displays to be flexible and thinner than current technologies.
Nanowires are bound to substrate material and therefore potential for exposure is very low.
Gold nanorods and nanoparticles
Data storage Potential to store 10TB on disc similar to DVD, increased flash memory storage.
Bound to substrate material within product so exposure risk is very low.
Security Zinc oxide nanorods
Gas sensors High sensitivity and low cost production.
Carbon nanotubes Sensors for toxic gases or fire, explosives detection
Much higher sensitivity than existing technologies
Bound and contained within sensor so exposure risk is low.
In their airborne free form concerns over asbestos‐like behaviour in lungs.
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Shear thickening fluids
Body armour, helmets
Flexible and easy to wear compared with existing bulky and uncomfort‐able protective clothing.
Environmental monitoring & remediation
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
Building coatings/paints for air pollution absorption,
Reduce air pollutant levels particularly in urban areas.
Bound within a matrix material so limited risk of exposure.
Nanostructured membranes
Water filtration, desalination, and carbon capture.
Improvement and provision of clean drinking water, and reduction in carbon emissions from fossil fuel power plants.
No risk as contain no nanomaterials/nanoparticles
Nano zero valent iron (NZVI)
Groundwater and soil remediation
Improved performance, reduced treatment time and cost, in situ so reduced equipment costs, effective targeting against host of contaminants.
Free particles but within a slurry, limited risk due to degradation of particles; however, potential impacts are unclear and bacterial toxicity has been suggested.
Nanoscale metals/metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, magnetic nanoparticles
Wastewater remediation
Much more efficient for removal of contaminants such as heavy metals, hormones, organic matter and nitrates.
Free particles therefore potential for release into environment and human exposure.
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Facilitating the skills required to implement novel technologies
Skills and training gaps in relation to nanotechnology and construction
A recent Learning and Skill Improvement Service (LSIS) feasibility study on nanotechnologies and
NVQ Level 1 to 3 training identified a number of potential training needs for the construction sector.
These are summarised below in table 3.
Table 3: Summary of nanotechnology‐enabled products and possible training needs
Sector
Type of nanotechnology‐enabled product
Possible training needs
Construction and related sectors
Nano‐ concrete and cement
Nanocomposites and reinforced polymers
Self‐cleaning glass
Self‐cleaning surface treatments
Nano‐structured surfaces, e.g. for water repellence
Insulation materials, e.g. aerogels and nanofoams
Paints and other applied protective coatings, e.g. wood treatments, anti‐corrosion products and concrete coatings
Fire protection products
Sealants and adhesives
Functionalised textiles
Solar energy capture
Kinetic energy capture
Large‐scale building‐integrated energy capture and storage
Fuel cells
Energy storage
High‐efficiency OLED‐based lighting and displays
Flexible and printed electronics
General note: There is a degree of overlap between the products and skills required in this sector and those in related sectors, e.g. the facilities and energy/utilities sectors. Therefore, there will probably be a core of training needs that are common to such related sectors, as well as products and processes. However there will be other training needs that are more sector‐specific.
Core training needs
- what is nanotechnology?
- why nanotechnology improves the performance of these products
- benefits over traditional products
- working with nanomaterials ‐ what does the user need to know?
- nanomaterials ‐ fixed in products or free?
- how nanomaterials can get into the body and potential exposure routes
- what are the risks, if any, in manufacture, use and disposal at end of life?
- any preparatory treatments needed?
- special precautions to be taken with each type of products
- what to do in case of exposure to
53
Site remediation products
Dust reduction products
Pollution control, e.g. e.g. O3, CO, NOx, SO2, VOCs, particulate matter (PM)
Sensors
Widely‐distributed and networked sensors as part of an integrated energy management system
Monitoring of structural integrity
Security applications
Cleaning agents
Anti‐bacterial coatings and surface treatments
Anti‐graffiti treatments
materials or accidents
- reporting on incidents or problems
- applicable legislation and standards
- the precautionary principle – implications?
Product‐ or site‐specific training needs
- how to use the product effectively and safely
- product safety sheets
- specific product risks
- specific precautions and safety measures
Dividing above into class and on‐site training units
One outcome of the LSIS feasibility study has been to recommend the creation of a “core module”
addressing essential general aspects of nanotechnologies as indicated under the column “possible
training needs” in the table above for NVQ levels 1 to 3. This core module, which has been
formulated in the first instance for the construction, facilities management and energy/utilities
sectors, would also be potentially useful for other industry sectors seeing the introduction of
nanotechnology‐based materials and products. The draft module is attached for information in
Appendix C.
The LSIS feasibility study goes on also to recommend the possible creation of additional modules
addressing particular nanotechnology‐based products or processes for individual specialist
subsectors as further training gaps and needs are identified.
Current teaching competencies
Studies to date suggest that there is little detailed knowledge of nanotechnologies and
nanomaterials outside of university level teaching despite the fact that apprentices, trainees and
workers at NVQ levels 1 to 3 in the construction and related sectors are very likely to come into
contact with a wide range of nanotechnology‐based materials or products in their working
environment (see the list of nanotechnology‐containing products described earlier in this report).
At an LSIS project reporting meeting on 4 July 2012 in Birmingham, discussions between the author
of this report and a number of representatives of different UK Colleges of Further Education and
skills councils concerning the LSIS feasibility study on nanotechnologies suggested that there was
54
little existing knowledge of the impending impacts of nanotechnologies across a variety of sectors
amongst trainers at NVQ levels 1 to 3.
However, when alerted to examples of some of the current and emerging uses of nanotechnologies
in manufacturing and in products, there was also enthusiasm for the development of basic learning
and training tools both for trainers and trainees, and general support for the outcome of the LSIS
project concerning nanotechnology and apprentice training materials in the construction, facilities
management and energy/utilities sectors.
The creation of new learning tools
General
There are already some excellent learning tools available for young people concerning climate
change such as the Department for Energy and Climate Change’s “My 2050”, an interactive web‐
based resource where the young person can visualise the impact of a variety of different measures
and solutions on a hypothetical outcome. 37
There are also a number of emerging web‐based educational resources concerning
nanotechnologies, including games, although there is still a notable absence of the topic from
educational curricula at pre‐university level.
The LSIS study revealed only one pre‐existing training module covering nanotechnologies, developed
by Edexel aimed primarily at laboratory technicians at NVQ level 4.
Existing learning tools for nanotechnologies to reduce climate change
No specific learning resources concerning the application of nanotechnologies to reducing climate
change, and to addressing the low‐carbon agenda, in relation to construction‐based activities have
been identified below university level within this study and it is suggested, on the basis of the
technologies identified in this report and discussions with industry and training professionals, that
there are knowledge gaps in this area.
Furthermore, there appears to be a mismatch between the emergence of such technologies onto the
market, the UK Government’s conclusion in 2010 that around 35 000 additional advanced
apprenticeships should be made available for 19‐30 year olds over the next two years to meet
technical skills needs in advanced manufacturing sectors, and the availability of suitable training and
learning materials and initiatives.
55
A need for several levels of learning/training materials
Employer feedback
From the perspective of companies operating in these sectors, several key needs have emerged,
namely:
– information on novel construction products and processes, how they work and the principles
underpinning their use, that can used by senior staff engaged in the design and specification
of buildings;
– case studies on the use of new materials and products: the construction and building services
industries claim to be open to new materials and processes but, at the same time, are
strongly customer‐focused and therefore depend on the availability of relevant data and
information on new materials, products and processes, especially concerning their
performance, benefits and safety , at a professional level before investing in their use;
– for trainees at apprenticeship level, it is suggested that there is a need for basic information
about new technologies, materials and products at a “in‐context” learning level, i.e.
understanding the characteristics, properties and benefits of those materials and products at
the level at which they may handle, install or maintain them and that are necessary for them
to work safely and effectively with the products. A detailed understanding of the underlying
science is seen as less important at this level.
Online vs. written learning materials
Amongst those contacted as part of this research, the majority expressed a preference for the
development of web‐based learning materials.
Developing new learning and training tools
The development of several types of learning and training tools are therefore recommended, as
detailed in the following sections.
Proposals for learning and training resources concerning the application of
nanotechnologies to reducing climate change and to addressing the low‐carbon agenda
“Core” nanotechnology training module at NVQ levels 1 to 3
Those interviewed as part of this study supported the development of training materials for
construction and related sector trainees that address emerging technologies at NVQ levels 1 to 3, as
proposed in the recent LSIS feasibility study, and one outcome of that project will be the
56
development of a core module addressing basic concepts and understanding, benefits and risks,
health and safety aspects, and other important “horizontal” aspects of nanotechnology,
nanomaterials and nanomaterial‐containing products that are common to a number of industry
sectors and which could be incorporated into existing training programmes (see Appendix C). As
outlined in the current study, emerging technologies such as nanotechnology underpin many new
approaches that could support sustainable construction and help reduce CO2 emissions. Such
sustainability aspects are referred to in the proposed core module and a draft version of module is
attached to this report (Appendix B) for information.
Specialist nanotechnology training modules
The LSIS report further suggested that there may be scope to develop further training modules,
possibly at NVQ levels 3 and 4, on more specific aspects of how nanotechnologies can contribute to
specific industry sectors and to specialist products and solutions used in those sectors. Again,
sustainability could form a key underlying element of the content of such modules.
Online self‐learning materials
Most of the organisations consulted expressed enthusiasm for the development of web‐based, self‐
learning materials. An internet search reveals little such material covering emerging technologies
such as nanotechnologies as a support to sustainable construction and building services, especially at
the level of training young people.
A number of learning/training materials were, however, developed by the Institute of
Nanotechnology for a 2010 initiative by Newham College of Further Education in relation to
engagement with local SMEs across a number of sectors. These materials include slides for self‐
learning covering:
– an introduction to nanotechnology
– nanotechnology applications in construction
– nanotechnology applications in cleaning and decorating
– nanotechnology applications for the environment
– nanotechnology applications in the energy sector
It is proposed that these learning materials which are available as sets of self‐explanatory slides,
which are pitched towards basic awareness of the technologies involved across a range of
applications and which do not require any prior specialist knowledge, could be readily adapted and
updated as a resource to support the Skills for Climate Change project with the agreement of the
Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham College, and could be made available online through SFCC.
57
“Discovery Lab Academy”
Newham College of Further Education currently hosts and operates a resource called the “Discovery
Lab”. The Discovery Lab was initially set up as a resource and space to showcase and demonstrate a
range of passive and active radio frequency identification (RFID) and communications technologies. It
has since been extended to showcase other emerging technologies, such as nanotechnology, and has
a wide range of nanotechnology products on display that can be viewed and used in “hands‐on”
practical exercises by students and other visitors. The concept has proved popular and the Discovery
Lab has received many national and international visitors from the FE sector, including interest from
Saudi Arabia, as well as local and visiting SMEs and Newham’s own students.
Newham College is keen to extend the Discovery Lab concept and is planning to establish a
“Discovery Lab Academy” that is open to membership from other FE colleges and external bodies
and which can provide a useful, practical learning resource.
It is proposed that a future Discovery Lab Academy could also develop further practical resources,
practical exercises and materials that could support the Skills for Climate Change Initiative is a way
complementary to other proposed tools.
“Training the trainers” courses
The Institute of Nanotechnology has run a successful series of nanotechnology training courses since
December 2007 across several sectors. More recently, the Institute of Nanotechnology and Newham
College of Further Education collaborated, in February 2012, in presenting a one day training course
at Newham entitled “The Smart Building of the Future” with attendees from the UK and Europe. The
course addressed the application of nanotechnology and other emerging technologies to the
construction sector and showcased a number of technologies aimed at energy capture, energy
efficiency and smart materials.
It is proposed that, on the basis of this experience, that similar courses, facilitated through Newham
College and involving appropriate external experts as presenters, could be offered to those
responsible for NVQ‐level training in colleges of further education to raise awareness of technologies
aimed at environmentally‐sensitive construction and related technologies.
58
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19. ObservatoryNano Briefing No. 33, March 2012, Nano‐enabled Textiles in Construction and Engineering,
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Appendix A Skills for Climate Change – Example of Employer Questionnaire
Name: Company:
Job role: Date:
Yes No Not
sure
1. Does your company have a policy on reducing environmental impact? □ □ □
2. Are you aware of any nanotechnology‐based products used in your sector? □ □ □
3. If so, does your company use them in its professional activities? □ □ □
4. Do you know how novel technologies, e.g. nanotechnologies (or other),
can help reduce environmental damage? □ □ □
5. Does your company recruit and train young people at NVQ levels 1 to 3? □ □ □
6. If so, do these young people go through an apprenticeship scheme? □ □ □
7. Does their training include elements on the application of novel technologies? □ □ □
8. Would new learning materials on technologies for “green building” be useful? □ □ □
9. If so, in what form?
9.1 “Core” NVQ‐level training module(s)? □ □ □ 9.2 Specialist NVQ‐level training modules? □ □ □ 9.3 Written learning materials? □ □ □ 9.4 Online self‐study materials? □ □ □
10. If developed, would your company encourage trainees to use such materials? □ □ □
11. Do you think the UK should develop such training:
11.1 To help meet its environmental and “low carbon footprint” targets? □ □ □
11.2 To be competitive with other countries? □ □ □
12. Do you have any further comments or questions? □ □ □
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
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Appendix B Responses to questionnaire
Companies and organisations contacted
Most of the questionnaires were completed by telephone discussion, although several companies
refused to answer by telephone and were sent the questionnaire by email. The following companies
and organisations were contacted:
– Federation of Master Builders (construction industry association representing several
thousand small and medium‐sized building companies)
– Home Builders Federation (construction industry association – it’s building company
members account for around 80% of new homes built)
– O’Keefe Construction
– United House
– BAM Construction
– Interserve
– Laxcon Construction
– Cliden Construction
– Avondale
– Oakside Construction
– Jacobs Construction
– Barratt
– Balfour Beatty
– Abbotts Building Contractors
– Incommunities
Feedback
The following graphics summarise the feedback received. In some cases comments were received
and are appended against the relevant question.
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1. Does your company have a policy on reducing environmental impact?
Comment. All the companies and organisations
contacted stated they had a policy on reducing
their, or their members’, environmental impact.
2. Are you aware of any nanotechnology‐based products used in your sector?
Comment. Where “yes”, for more familiar
nanomaterial‐containing products such as
paints. One company felt that the industry
needed to grasp such novel technologies in
order to meet new challenges.
3. If so, does your company use them in its professional activities?
Comment. Some companies stated they did not
know of any nanotechnology‐based products
but, when given some examples, stated that they
had handled such products, e.g. lightweight
concrete, self‐cleaning glass, specialist paints.
4. Do you know how novel technologies, e.g. nanotechnologies (or other),
can help reduce environmental damage?
Comment. Some companies were aware of
some new products that could reduce
environmental impacts but did not necessarily
link these with nanotechnology. Case studies
of successful applications were felt to be
useful.
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5. Does your company recruit and train young people at NVQ levels 1 to 3?
Comment. Some companies only take a few
apprentices because they recruit mainly
graduates and some others do not take on
apprentices themselves but are aware that
their subcontractors do so and have an interest
that they are properly trained.
6. If so, do these young people go through an apprenticeship scheme
7. Does their training include elements on the application of novel technologies?
8. Would new learning materials on technologies for “green building” be useful?
Comment. A major industry federation felt that
additional learning materials for “green building”
would be useful to complement its own initiatives
on sustainable building. Such materials would be
useful at both senior and lower levels: the latter
especially should be “in context” to the roles young
trainees have. Case studies were also deemed very
useful.
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9.1 If so, as (a) “Core” NVQ‐level training module(s)?
Comment. Most respondents felt that this was an
excellent initiative with one company hoping that it
would be available “as soon as possible”.
9.2 If so, as specialist NVQ‐level training modules?
9.3 If so, as written learning materials?
Comment. Some respondents felt that it was
important to retain a level of formality in training.
9.4 If so, as online self‐study materials?
Comment. One respondent stressed the value of
having CPD‐accredited training in novel
construction technologies available for its staff.
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10. If developed, would your company encourage trainees to use such materials?
11.1 Do you think the UK should develop such training to help meet its environmental and “low carbon
footprint” targets?
11.2 Do you think the UK should develop such training to be competitive with other countries?
12. Do you have any further comments or questions?
(See comments as appended against specific questions above)
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Appendix C Draft “core” NVQ Level 3 module on nanotechnologies
Note. As developed within LSIS Nanotechnology Feasibility Study (July 2012)
Title:
Level: 3
Credit Value:
Learning outcomes
The learner will [‘know, understand or be able to do’ as a result of completing the unit]
Assessment Criteria
The learner can [The means by which the achievement of the learning outcomes are measured and through which the unit grade is derived
1. Understand the concept of Nano‐science
Describe the concept and history of nanoscience
Describe the terms; nanoscience, nanoscale, and nanotechnologies
Explain the importance of nanotechnology for the future
2. Understand the Health & Safety Aspects of
Nanotechnologies
2.1 Describe Rules & Regulations related to the manufacture of nano‐based products 2.2 Describe how to safely handle nano‐based products 2.3 Describe safe storage of nano‐based products 2.4 Describe safe disposal of nano‐based products
3. Understand the benefits of nano‐based technologies
3.1 Describe five benefits of nano‐based products 3.2 Describe how nano‐based products can enhance five different types of existing materials 3.3 Explain the difference between the generations of nano‐based products 3.4 Describe any environmental benefits of nano‐based technologies
4. 4.1 Give three examples of different nano‐based products
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Know commercially available nano‐based products available in the consumer market
available to the average consumer 4.2 Explain how nano‐science has enhanced these products 4.3 Explain the benefits and/ or dangers of these products to the consumer
5. Know nano‐based technologies and applications of
these technologies in your industry sector
5.1 Give three examples of nano‐based products available in your industry sector 5.2 Explain how nano‐science has enhanced these products 5.3 Explain the benefits of the three examples given within your industry sector
Additional information about the unit
Unit purpose and aim(s)
This unit gives learners the opportunity to extend their knowledge of an area of science that is enabling new technologies in their industry sector, their properties and applications.
Unit expiry date
Details of the relationship between the unit and relevant national occupational standards or other professional standards or curricula (if appropriate)
Assessment requirements or guidance specified by a sector or regulatory body (if appropriate)
Support for the unit from a sector skills council or other appropriate body (if required)
Location of the unit within the subject/sector classification system
Name of the organisation submitting the unit Pearson
Availability for use
Unit available from
Unit guided learning hours 60
Delivery and assessment guidance
This is a brief summary of any specific requirements necessary for the unit
Delivery
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Ideally, this unit would be delivered using a combination of theory, video content, practical demonstrations, hands‐
on lab experiments, and investigative assignments.
To enable learners to understand the concept of nano‐science and nanotechnologies through theory and video
content.
To enable learners to understand through practical demonstrations and hand‐on lab experiments;
Through investigative assignments, enable learners to understand and identify nano‐based products available for
their industry sector, the benefits of these products and their application within their industry sector.
Tutors should ensure that learners are aware of any hazards and safe working practices associated with the use of
nano‐based products during laboratory or practical sessions.
The learning outcomes are designed to be integrated acres a range of assignments. For employed learners,
assignments could be designed to reflect aspects of their work. The use of industrial visits can also be used to
enhance learners’ knowledge of processes and implementation carried out by companies in their industry sector.
Centres should have access to an appropriate range of specialist equipment and products for lab experiments.
Learners will require instruction in the safe handling and storage of products and equipment.
Additional notes on possible content:
1.1 History and concepts of nanotechnology
– early theoretical predictions of the possibility of working at the nanoscale, e.g. Richard Feynmann “There's
Plenty of Room at the Bottom” (1959)
– first use of the term “nanotechnology” (Norio Taniguchi, Tokyo, 1974)
– Eric Drexler “Machines of Creation” (1986)(Note. Some of the predictions therein also contributed to some
later fears of potential uses/misuses of nanotechnology).
1.2 Terms and definitions
– BSI PAS 71 and PAS 131 to136 provide definitions of all three terms plus other useful nanotechnology definitions for different sectors
– another useful definition describes nanotechnology as “intentionally altering or manipulating materials or structures at the nanoscale (1nm to +/‐ 100nm) to give new properties. These novel properties at the nanoscale can frequently be harnessed to provide increased functionality and performance to materials and products”. This definition has the advantage of conveying nanotechnology as a purposeful activity that seeks to achieve a useful result.
1.3 Importance of nanotechnology
– nanotechnology is an example of an “enabling technology” that can complement existing technologies by providing a huge range of new materials and products with enhanced and societally useful properties
– can contribute to innovation in an incremental, ground‐breaking and sometimes “disruptive” way (description of a “disruptive technology” would also be useful here)
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– can contribute to greater efficiency of processes because of high reactivity of materials at the nanoscale
– can contribute to a reduction in the use of some raw materials, e.g. cement
– can contribute strongly towards greater sustainability and reduced environmental impact
2.1 Applicable Regulations
– sector‐specific product legislation and Directives, e.g. Medicinal Products, Medical Devices, Construction Products, Food Safety, Packaging, REACH (chemicals), etc.
– Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
– Chemical Safety Data Sheets
– guidance in support of legislation
– industry guidelines for good practice and responsible care
– EU and UK initiatives on responsible innovation
2.2 Safe handling
– manufacturers' instructions for use
– Safety Data Sheets
– applicable risk management procedures
– HSE guidance
– where appropriate personal protective equipment and specific work guidelines
2.3 Safe storage
– specific guidelines for hazardous materials (e.g. COSHH)
– manufacturers' instructions for use
– Safety Data Sheets
2.4 Safe disposal
– specific risks at end‐of‐life or disposal (e.g. from lifecycle analysis or from product‐specific regulations)
– recommendations for safe disposal, e.g. from manufacturers or Safety Data Sheets
3.1 Benefits of nano‐based products
– specific examples should be chosen that are relevant to the sector the trainee is studying in
– examples could include the following themes:
– improvement in the efficiency of chemical processes due to small particle size, increased surface area available and greater reactivity
– reduction in the amounts of material needed due to greater reactivity
– more efficient products using less energy and resources
– highly‐functionalised materials and surfaces, e.g. for use in membranes, as highly‐specific detecting elements in sensors or biosensors, to impart additional functionality, e.g. self‐cleaning or hard‐wearing surfaces, etc.
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– improvements to existing products, e.g. concrete, sunscreens, paints, cleaning agents, sports goods, packaging, medicines, etc.
– the development of novel classes of products, e.g. high‐performance nanocomposites, nanofoams and aerogels, phase‐change materials, nanoscale drug carriers, etc.
– contributions towards environmental improvement and combating climate change, e.g. novel low‐energy materials, energy capture (e.g. third generation flexible solar panels), printed electronics, low‐power OLED lighting, etc.
3.2 Enhancements due to nanotechnology
– specific examples should be chosen that are relevant to the sector the trainee is studying in
– examples could include the following themes:
– improving performance/efficiency, e.g. insulating materials, coatings, etc.
– improving carbon footprint/environmental performance/use of energy
– decreasing the amount of the material required, e.g. cement and concrete, highly targeted drugs, etc.
– avoiding the use of hazardous or expensive materials, e.g. catalysts
– improving durability and life, e.g. diamond‐like coatings, nano‐treated textiles
3.3 Generations of nanotechnology products
– broadly, nanotechnologies can be categorised into several “generations” with increasing complexity such as:
– “passive” nanomaterials: including simple nanoparticles and materials containing them such as coatings and nanocomposites, imaging agents, paints, etc.
– “active” nanomaterials: e.g. those that can respond to an energy input or which are designed to interface with biological systems, e.g. some drug delivery systems that release a drug under certain physical or chemical conditions, scaffolds for regenerative medicine, nanoscale electronic systems, etc.
– “self‐assembled” or “programmed” nanosystems, e.g. nanomaterials that can form templates for the assembly of other nanomaterials, self‐assembling bio‐nanosystems, biomimetic nanosystems. There are relatively few commercial examples of these at present but there is research interest, e.g. in materials that could potentially be used in the regeneration of tissues or organ function (bone is an example of a natural self‐assembled bio‐nanosystem) and biomaterials assembled with the help of DNA templates.
3.4 Environmental benefits due to nanotechnology
Could include the following direct and indirect contributions:
– reduced use of materials, e.g. cement production accounts for some 5% of global CO2 emissions. For example nanosilica‐containing concrete can substantially reduce the use of such materials
– reduction in energy usage, e.g. nano‐based insulation materials, low‐heat transfer paints
– enhancement of sustainable energy‐capturing systems, e.g. third generation photovoltaic cells, micro‐scale wind and kinetic energy capture
– improvement to fuel cells, batteries and other energy storage systems
– remediation of contaminated sites and groundwater, e.g. through use of nano zero valent iron
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– nanomembranes for water filtration and desalination systems
– nanomaterials and filters for CO2 capture
– reduction in maintenance, e.g. self‐cleaning glass and other surfaces
– nanomaterial additives to aid fuel efficiency
– reduction in the use of current hazardous materials
– treatments to improve the life of materials, e.g. nanoscale wood treatments and anti‐corrosion coatings for metals
– pollution‐reducing materials, e.g. building products that can photocatalyse nitrogen oxides in the urban environment
4.1 Nano‐based consumer products
– a wide range of possible and easily‐obtainable examples available in areas such as
– cosmetics (sunscreens, liposomal carriers)
– sports goods (carbon nanotubes in tennis and squash racquets and golf club shafts, quantum‐tunnelling composites as switches for personal entertainment and communications in skiwear), water‐resistant coatings for sports shoes)
– textiles (enhanced‐wear, stain‐ and water‐resistant fabrics, nanosilver‐treated antibacterial materials)
– household paints
– products for automotive paint and screen treatment
4.2 Nano‐enhancement of consumer products
– a variety of possible modes of action depending on material or product. Trainee should investigate these.
4.3 Benefits and/or risks for the consumer
– the trainee should investigate the benefits and possible risks in the context of the examples chosen. The following are themes that could be explored and which could be useful in explaining risk and benefit:
– are there free nanomaterials in the product or are they bound into the product and therefore unlikely to come into contact with the body or environment?
– at what stage(s) in the lifecycle of the product are there like to be risks of exposure?
– is there a hazard present (possibility of harm to people or to the environment)?
– what is the likelihood of harm occurring and, if so, how serious are the likely consequences (risk)?
– have efforts been made to reduce the risk?
– how can the benefit be assessed?
– has a balance between risks and benefits been made and, if so, what are the criteria for the acceptability of any risks?
5. Sector‐based, nanotechnology‐enhanced products
– to be chosen in the context of the sector in which the trainee will be working. The lists in 1.1 to 4.3 above can form a starting point.
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