Shaping Light T I-Libre

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Shaping Light: practice and theory in Renaissance architecture

Howard Hibbard Forum New York, Columbia University

The Department of Art History and Archaeology

October 6th 2009

Prof. Sergio BettiniSchool of Architecture

University of Parma (Italy)[email protected]

www.studiobettini.com

This afternoon I am going to talk about the practice and theory of lighting inItalian Renaissance architecture. I am going to report on the first results of abiannual investigation carried out in the School of Architecture of ParmaUniversity. An excerpt will be published in the next issue of the Andrea

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from Urbino but now housed in the Pinacoteca di Brera, was a criticism to thescanty illumination of the venue which was housing it at that time, the churchof S. Bernardino built Francesco di Giorgio Martini. A drawing by FedericoBarocci [2] gives us an idea of the original location of the Pala daMontefeltro as well as the original appearance of S. Bernardino before therealization of a seventeenth century-choir. The space of the crossing [3-4],made up of three apses ( tricora ) is illuminated only by the openings in thedome: a little cupola on top of the dome and three rectangular windows with a

little column in the middle.

Some decades later, Bramante drew on the lateral illumination proposed byPiero in Urbino and used it in the choir of S. Maria del Popolo [5] , opening awindow in one of the coffers of the barrel vault of the choir. We find thissolution again in his project for S. Pietro [6], as testified, among othersources, by Baldassare Peruzzi in a drawing. Bramante may have derivedthe idea of piercing the barrel vault from his observation of the ambulatory ofthe mausoleum of Santa Costanza [7-9] . Roman architecture offered in thiscase as well a considerable source of useable solutions.

The evolution of various important architectural types during the thirteenthand fourteenth century also involved problems of lighting. We can analyze the

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It is well known that one of the criticisms about the project designed byGiuliano da Sangallo for St. Peters [24] compared to the parchment planpresented by Bramante [25] concerned in fact the lack of light in thechurch.

Now let us analyze some theoretical writings to find out to what extentancient and modern architectural theory interacted with function and practice.Our remarks will be limited to a selection of passages from Vitruvius, Alberti,

Serlio and Scamozzi.


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2 Vitruvius and the hypaethral temple

In ancient literature reflections on light are linked to real examples. This isalso true for Renaissance literature, as it goes back to the ancient sources.We are going to see how Renaissance writers interpreted ancient examplesand whether or not their interpretations were correct. We are also going toconsider how Renaissance architects, using ancient buildings as a startingpoint, formulated theories about light and building-models in order to apply

them to contemporary buildings.

The De architectura by Vitruvius, the most ancient architecture treatise thathas survived to the present day (also known as The Ten books onarchitecture ), was carefully studied during the Italian Renaissance and dealsabundantly with questions relating to illumination.

In the first book the writer introduces the problem of the exposure to light (i.e. the orientation) of parts of buildings depending on their purpose:bedrooms and libraries must have luminous openings ! facing the east, bathrooms and winter apartments will face the west, while pinacothecaeand spaces that need a uniform light will face the north, as this part of thesky does not receive either more light or more shadow according to the

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[28] . They were the courtyards of Roman houses and fell within the moregeneral category of cava aedium: Vitruvius defines the atrium as theinternal space within yards, while the cava aedium are defined as thecovering and the supports of the atrium. It seems that every Renaissancewriter understood the two terms in this way, except for Leon Battista Alberti.

The main characteristic of the atrium is intimately connected with itsillumination. Without it, rooms would receive light only from facades. For this

reason, we can understand why among many proposed etymologies for theword atrium there is one that come from Greek: athrios , meaning clear,bright.

Vitruvius lists five types of courtyards tuscanicus , corinthius , tetrastylos ,displuviatus , testudinatus that were variously interpreted by Renaissancewriters. We do not have enough time to deal with this topic extensively, butthe type that guaranteed the best illumination of the surrounding rooms wasthe displuviate . It was typical of northern and rainy regions and it had ainclined roofs on all four sides. The difficulties maintaining these roofs causedits early disappearance and consequently its misfortune in later treatises.Palladio illustrates it imprecisely (completely closed) in the Vitruvius commented by Daniele Barbaro (1567) [29] , but omits it from his Quattro

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Athens. This is the only known work built by the Roman architect MarcoCossuzio as was the only example of an hypaetral temple known to Vitruvius.

The first drawn reconstruction of the hypaethral temple was made by theanonymous author of the Vitruvio ferrarese , (Vitruvius from Ferrara ) whichshows the opening in the roof as a big projecting square with an upperskylight and three blind frontal aediculae [34-35] . The anonymous early-sixteenth-century author seems to take great pains over the problem of

illumination in his reconstruction of temple elevations; he considers it soimportant that he applies the hypaetHral solution to the Parthenon as well (c.94 r ).

They way to understand the central hypaethral opening derived from theexperience acquired when building courtyards as well as their sewerage anddraining systems, as guessed by Daniele Barbaro . His reconstruction of the

Athenian temple with a double vertical order of columns in the cella seems tobe very close to the modern archeological reconstructions [36] .

The topic of light in temple architecture excited great interest in thenineteenth century because it gave scholars the excuse to postulate the wideuse of the hypaethral type in ancient times. During a conference on the

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III. Leon Battista Alberti: the aesthetics and perception of light

The interest Alberti showed in light concerned not only practical issuesregarding illumination, but also embraced problems linked to scientificinquiries, aimed at controlling, imitating and reproducing lighting effects.These natural manifestations included the effects of light on nature, theemotions light arouse in men and the symbolic-religious meanings entailed byit. For the latter Leon Battista used as inspiration not only ancient texts but

also medieval traditions and beliefs.

In the treatise sulla Pittura (On Painting , 1435) Alberti listed several typesof light, mentioning the problem for the first time in art theory and proposing,as shown by Barasch, a sort of aesthetics of light. He formulated thefunctional concept of light in painting. This meant the reproduction of thethree-dimensional illusion of embossed shapes with shadows in painting. Thisillusion could be achieved through the precise disposition of black and white.It is important to highlight that Alberti did not consider black and white ascolors, but as gradations in light: they were used to define the balancebetween light and shadow. He also streesed that projected shadows varyaccording to the source of the light, while natural light renders shadow as tallas the body, fire makes them bigger. Later he added some remarks on

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In Leon Battistas opinion an excessive amount of light in the interior (of thechurch) disoriented worshippers, thwarting the feeling of reverence provokedby darkness. Light had to pass through little windows placed in the upperpart of the aisle, while from below it had to filter through only from the frontdoor. Artificial illumination had to be limited as well in order to reduce thedeterioration of vestments that fade because of the exposure to fire .

Artificial lights (candles and candlesticks) had to be placed along the aisle soas to emphasize the architectural space.

Alberti was fully aware of the expressive role of light in to help usunderstand architectural space. A fundamental role was given to the clothing(covering), as he will demonstrate in the basilica of S. Andrea in Mantua [40-41] . The barrel vaults of this church enable light to spread throughradiation and to produce a balanced and glancing illumination that is ideal forspotlighting the continuum of a space inspired by ancient models.

In chapter 14 of his seventh book, while talking about the basilica and itsnatural analogy with temples, Alberti explains that internal illumination waspossible thanks to a sort of clerestory placed at the highest level. I would liketo conclude my analysis of this text by observing (as previously done by

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IV. Sebastiano Serlio: towards a hierarchy of luminosity

At the beginning of his Terzo libro (Third Book, Venice 1540) on Romanantiques, Sebastiano Serlio begins his treatise with a matchless descriptionof the Pantheon [46-47] , portraying it exclusively from the point of view of itsillumination.

Serlio explains that celestial light [48] , coming from above, embracesthe space homogeneously and is perfect for illuminating sculptures,

architectural reliefs and paintings, while the chapels below need a secondarylight . Serlio is the first author who establishes a hierarchy of light spots, asCharles Davies previously noted.

The Pantheon, and with it the various centralized buildings dating back tothe late ancient and Romanesque periods, as well as the projects for S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini , raise the issue of illumination for chapels or forside-niches. It is important to note that among the projects for S. Giovanni wefind the one designed by Baldassarre Peruzzi, who was Serlios master [49] .

Furthermore, there is the problem of the filtered illumination of churchambulatories. Serlio reports the example of the Temple of Bacchus , i.e.the mausoleum of Santa Costanza in Rome [50] , but does not meditate onthe spatial and lighting issues raised by ambulatories. This point had been a

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The later Tempio Rotondo [53] has four chapels that are off the naos (that

is to say they are extradossed) and are placed along two perpendicular axes.Thanks to this solution it is possible to measure and control light inside thechapels more effectively. In this way chapels are illuminated sideways.

In another example of an octagonal shape [54] Serlio hypothesizes apyramidal glazed skylight whose oblique sides are meant to help the snow

slide off and to avoid the formation of ice in oprder to increase internalillumnination.

In the Settimo libro (Seventh book) this issue is expanded and Serlioanalyses the chromatic valences of plastered materials and surfaces that areaimed at enhancing the structural function of architectural elementsdepending on the perspective plan. In a picture ! from a Corintian work [55] Serlio states a good rule for the use of colours in architecture: if, in theforeground, there is a series of veined-marble columns and in the backgroundthere is a bright wall, the observer receives a false impression of the differentfaade plans. Chromatic gradation, he explains, should match withperspective depth. For this reason excellent painters paint the pictures thatare closer to our eyes in lighter shades .


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V. Vincenzo Scamozzi and the project of light

Vincenzo Scamozzi worked with his father Giandomenico on thecompilation of a copious index of Serlios Rules (1584) where he indicatedthe sections on light. His treatise, the Idea dellarchitettura universale (Theidea of universal architecture) was started around 1590, but was published inVenice in 1615. it is the first architecture text with a section specificallydedicated to light designing. If for some issues this text is considered as the

last Renaissance treatise, for light-related problems it is the prelude to a newand spectacular use of light during Baroque, as shown by Charles Davies(2001).

Scamozzi states that despite natural light being the one and only light , itcan be much modified , precisely in six different types .

The first type is the celestial light , that is the light we see in the open.The second kind is the sharp perpendicular light i.e. that enters

courtyards and domes like the Pantheon and spreads to the ground withoutobstacles.

The third type is the sharp horizontal light that comes frontally from doors,windows and arcades to illuminate rooms, reception rooms and other placesof the house.

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1 - Piero della Francesca, Pala Montefeltro.Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera.

2 - Federico Barocci, Interior of S. Bernardino church, with theoriginal location of the Pala Montefeltro. Florence, Uffizi, 245Ar.


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3 - S. Bernardino church . Urbino


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6 - Donato Bramante, Choir of S. Maria del Popolo , Rome.

5 - Baldassarre Peruzzi, drawingof a window in one of the coffersof the barrel vault in Bramantesproject for St. Peter , Vatican.


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Mausoleum of S. Costanza, Rome:

7 - general view;8-9 - ambulatory.


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10-11 - Villa Medici at Poggio a Caiano (Prato): views from above and the front


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Villa Medici at Poggio a Caiano .

12 - hall

13 - first floor14 - lateral facade with the hollow toilluminate the hall


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Villa Madama , Rome

15 - view from above16 - plastic model

17 - drawing by Antonioda Sangallo il Giovane


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Villa Pisani , Bagnolo di Lonigo (1542-45)18 - front (unfinished) towards the garden19-20 - hall with a double height


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Palazzo Ducale , Urbino 21 - general view of the two-wing-faade22 - ground floor23 - two-wing-faade with the small windows of thestaircase


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St. Peter in Vatican 24 - Bramantes project, parchment plant ( piano di pergamena ). Uffizi, GDS, U 1Ar25 - Giuliano da Sangallos project. Uffizi, GDS, U 8Ar.


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26 - S. Serlio, The Pantheon door , III book, 1540, p. 10. 27 - S. Serlio, The Doric door , IV book, 1537, p. XXIIIr.


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VITRUVIODe architectura, book VI

atria = cortili

CAVA AEDIUM

Covering and supports of courtyard

ATRIUM Inner space of the courtyard(athrios = clear, bright)

CORTILIRoman houses

tetrastylos displuviatus testudinatustuscanicus corinthius

28 - The vitruvian cortili (atria ).


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29 - Daniele Barbaro, I dieci libri dell'architettura di M.Vitruvio ! , Venezia, Francesco Marcolini, 1556, VI, p. 213:cavaedium displuviatum .


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30 - Eleusi, Telesterion, the opaia reconstruction with the shutter.From: F. Noack, Eleusis: die Baugeschichtliche Entwicklung des Heiligtumes , with works by J.

Kirchner, A. Korte e A. K. Orlandos, vol. I, Berlin 1927 , fig. 72 a p. 166.


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Cosa, Capitolium 31 - plan32 - side elevation, restored33 - roof timbers, restored.

From: Cosa 2. - The temples of the arx , Roma 1960 (Memoirsof the American Accademy in Rome, 26), pp. 90-102 e figg.71,72,74.


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34-35 - Reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Jupiter in Athens ,Vitruvio ferrarese (Vitruvius M. Pollio, Architectura. opus imperfectumincipit enim a libro septimo) , Ferrara, Biblioteca Ariostea, cart. Sec. XVI,fol. Figurato, Classe II, n. 176, cc. 5r, 47v.


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36 - Daniele Barbaro, I dieci libri dell'architettura di M. Vitruvio ! , Venezia, Francesco Marcolini, 1556, III, p.102: reconstruction of the Temple of Olympian Jupiter in Athens (hypethros).


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38-39 - A.C. Quatrem re de Quincy, Le Jupiter Olympien ou lartde la sculpture antique consider sous un nouveau point de vue;ouvrage qui comprend un essay sur le gout de la sculpture

polychrome, lanalyse explicative de la toreutique et lhistoire dela statuire en or et ivore chez les Grecs et le Romains , Paris1814, tav. XI: temple of Zeus in Olympia .


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40-41 - St. Andrea in Mantua


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42 - Daniele Barbaro, I dieci libri dell'architettura di M.Vitruvio ! , Venezia, Francesco Marcolini, 1556, VI, p. 214:cavaedium testudinatum .


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43-44 - Vitruvio ferrarese ! , cit., cc. 66v-67r: tolus .


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45 - S. Stefano Rotondo, Rome .


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46-47 - S. Serlio, Terzo Libro, Venezia 1540: title-page and Pantheon s interior.


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48 - Pantheon: the celestial light (lume celeste ).


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49 - B. Peruzzi, project for S.Giovanni dei Fiorentini , Firenze,Uffizi, 510 Ar.


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50 - S. Serlio, Terzo libro, Venezia 1540, Temple of Bacchus (th Mausoleum of S. Costanza):

- left side: section of the cella, p. 20- right side: narthex paln ( cortile bacanario ), p. 21


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51 - B. Peruzzi-pseudo Cronaca?, the interior of S. Stefano Rotondo , Roma. Firenze, GDSU, Santarelli 161 r


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52 - S. Serlio, Quinto libro darchitettura (Fifth book) , Parigi 1547, Circular Temple (Tempio Rotondo ), pp. 3 v , 4 v .


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53 - S. Serlio, Quinto libro darchitettura (Fifth book) , Parigi 1547, Circular Temple (Tempio Rotondo ), pp. 5 v , 6 v .


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54 - S. Serlio , Quinto libro darchitettura (Fifth book) , Parigi 1547, Octagonal Temple (Tempio Ottagono ), pp. 14 r , 16 r .


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55 - S. Serlio , Settimo libro darchitettura (Seventh book) , Francoforte 1545, Terzadecima propositione, p. 127.


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56 - Vincenzo Scamozzi , Idea dellarchitettura universale, Venezia,Valentino, 1615, Parte Prima, Libro II, ch. XIII.

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Shaping Light T I-Libre