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SheaversusCashew:AcasestudyoflandusechangeandsocioeconomicdifferencesbetweentwoindustrialcropsinNorthernGhana.

TabathaRood

Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof:MasterofForestResources

UniversityofWashingtonMarch2017

Committee:

IvanEastin

PatrickTobin

StevanHarrell

ProgramAuthorizedtoOfferDegree:

SchoolofEnvironmentalandForestSciences

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Abstract

LandusechangeoccursfrequentlyinWestAfrica,wherenewcashcropsareintroduced

andpromotedassustainablelivelihoods.Shiftsinlandusefromwoodlandstoagricultural

productionaffecttheecologicalandsocialcompositionoftownships,includingthestudysite,

Bamboi,whichislocatedintheNorthernRegionofGhana.Here,inthetransitionalzone

betweentheGuineasavannahandthedeciduousforest,twoindustrialcrops,shea(Vitellaria

paradoxa)andcashew(Anacardiumoccidentale)arecompetingforland.Bothsheaandcashew

industriesareprojectedtocontinueincreasing,andlandmanagementisneededtoensurethat

agriculturaldevelopmentisnotoblivioustotherelativeecological,social,andeconomic

impactsofthetwospecies.

InthisstudyIfoundthatcasheworchardsarenotonlyathreattotheregenerationof

juvenilesheatreesandexistingsheaparklands,butthattheyinturnhaveadirectimpacton

thelivelihoodsofwomenandotherlandlessindividualswhorelyonsheaasaprimaryformof

subsistence.Sheatreesarenativetoonly21countriesintheworld,playavitalecologicaland

economicroleinthesemi-aridlandscape,andholdsignificancetotheindigenouslandholding

tribeinthestudyarea.Tomanagelandtooptimizegenderequalityineconomicdevelopment

andretainvaluablenativespecies,Irecommendactiveplantingofsheaandoutreacheducation

onbothsheaandcashewmaintenanceandtheirdifferentialeffectsontheenvironment.

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Acknowledgments:Ihavesomanypeopletothankformakingthispaperapossibility.First,IwouldliketoacknowledgethepeopleofBamboi,especiallytheJebunifamilyfortheirhospitalityandculturalintegration,andEricOkrah,forbeinganexceptionalassistantinmyresearchandmarketanalysis.IwouldalsoliketothankNanaKwakuDapaaIIforensuringmysafetywhileinBamboiandprovidingconnectionstocommunitymembersthatwereessentialfordictatingthehistoryoftheregionandtheMopeople.Next,IwouldliketothankallofthepeopleanddonorsattheUniversityofWashington,withoutwhomIwouldnothavebeenabletoattendnorfinishthePeaceCorpsMastersInternationalprogram.Tomycommittee:IvanEastin,PatrickTobin,andStevanHarrell,thankyouallsomuchforyourguidanceintheprocessofdesigningthisstudy.AndtoMichelleTreudeauandDavidCampbellforcoordinatingfundingformyfinalquarter,Iameternallygrateful.IwouldalsoliketothankthePeaceCorpsGhanaforaffordingmetheopportunitytoworkalongsidesmallholderfarmersandliveasapartoftheBamboicommunity.TomyPeaceCorpsfamily,myBackdoorfamily,andmyrealfamily,youhaveshownmeanincredibleamountofsupportthroughsomeofthemosttryingtimesofmylife.ThispaperisdedicatedtomynephewTheo,andthetwins:PonaandZiemaJebuni.

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TableofContents:ListofFiguresandTables……………………………………………………………………………………………………………5Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...7BackgroundofGhana…………………..…………………………………………………………………………………………….9 HistoryofGhana….……………………………………………………………………………………..………………….9 EconomyofGhana.………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..12 AgricultureofGhana…………….………………………………………………………………………………………13

Socio-culturalDiversityofGhana….………………………………………………………………………………14 NaturalResourcesofGhana………….………………………………………………………………………………15 LandHoldinginGhana………………………………………………………………………………….………………16 BackgroundofBamboi………..……………………………………………………………………………………………………18Shea…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………21

HistoryinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21EcologicalSignificance………………………………………………………………………………………………….22TheSheaSectorinBamboi…………………………………………………………………………………………..25Processing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….26SocialSignificance……….……………………………………………………………………………………………….38MarketAnalysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………30Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….33

Cashew…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34

HistoryinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..35EcologicalSignificance………………………………………………………………………………………………….36TheCashewSectorinBamboi…………………….………………………………………………………………..39Processing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………40SocialSignificance……….……………………………………………………………………………………………….42MarketAnalysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………43Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….45

Methods………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….46Results……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..48Discussion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..50Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….53ChallengesandLimitations………………………………………………………………………………………………………54References……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….56

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ListofFiguresandTablesFigure1:RegionalpoliticalmapofGhana,withstudysiteencircled.……………………………………….10Figure2:SatelliteimageryofBamboi,thestudysite.Source:GoogleEarth,2017……….............18Table1:Showsthedifferentiallandusepatternsbetweenlandownersand…………………………..20Figure3:MapshowingtherangeofsheaacrossAfrica,basedonWATHGPSpointsandsuitabilityanalysis.Source;Naughtonetal.2015…………………………………………………………………….24Figure4:DenselypopulatedsheastandinNorthernGhana…………………………………………………….25Figure5:Ayoungboyholdsatinoffreshlycollectedsheanuts………………………………………………26Figure6:Awomancarriessheaasfuelwoodfromthebush…………………………………………………….27Figure7:GraphdetailingtheexporttrendsofsheanutsandsheabutterfromGhana…………….31Table2:ThepricesofSheaatvariousmarketlocations……………………………………………………………32Figure8:MaturecasheworchardinBamboi,demonstratingtheproperumbrellacanopy……...37Figure9:Cashewtreeatflowering…………………………………………………………………………………………..38Figure10:Afarmerstandsnexttohiscashew1-2yearsofage……………………………………………….38Figure11:Initialdevelopmentofthecashewnut…………………………………………………………………….38Figure12:Afullydevelopedcashewnutwithapple…………………………………………………………………38Figure13:GPSmapofafarminBamboiclear-cutforcasheworchardestablishment.Evidenceofcashewfarmexpansionoverayearperiod………………………………………………………………………….39Figure14:Thecompleteprocessofcashewfromrawcashewnut(RCN)tofinishedkernel.Source:Dendena&Corsi,2014………………………………………………………………………………………………..41Figure15:AnillustrationofthepercentofcostsandprofitsdistributedfromgrowthofRCNtoretailsaleofcashewkernels.Source:McKinsey&Company,2010………………………………………….44Table3showsthegrossrevenueofsheaandcashewinBamboi……………………………………………..48Table4illustratesthenetprofitsfromsheanutsandbutter,andcashewRCNattheircurrentyieldsinBamboi,whenspecificpercentagesofinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.The

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samecalculationsarethenusedtocomparethesituationinBamboitothenationwideaveragesinGhana…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..49

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IntroductionThroughoutGhana,landisbeingconvertedfromforestandsavannahtoagriculturalandbuilt

landscapes(Coulteretal.,2016).Asthepopulationexpands,itisexpectedthatthistrendwill

continue.Amongthelandusechangestoagriculturalproduction,cashew(Anacardium

occidentale)cultivationisoneofthemostrecentandfastestgrowingindustrialcrops.The

expansionofcashewhasamultitudeofimpactsincludinglandtenuresystemchanges,

reductionoflandavailableforgrowthoffoodcropsandreductioninthelandavailablefor

regenerationofnativespeciessuchasshea.Withinnativeforestsandwoodlandsinthe

northernregionsofGhanaexistsshea(Vitellariaparadoxa),aneconomicspeciesthatsupports

thelivelihoodsofruralwomenwhenthenutsarecollectedandprocessedintosheabutterfor

localorinternationalsale.

Sheaandcashewaregenderedsectors,withsheabeingexclusivelyawomen’sactivity,

bothincollectionandprocessing,andcashewbeingpredominantlyamen’scrop.Shea

productionissaidtocontributeupto12%ofhouseholdincomethroughoutthesheagrowing

areasoftheworld(Pouliot,2012),andcashewisperceivedasalucrativeendeavor.Withthe

expansionofcashewplantations,however,existingsheaparklandsandjuvenileshea

regenerationarethreatened,alongwiththesocialandeconomicbenefitstheyprovideto

women.

Sheaisnotactivelygrownandnaturallyregenerateswithinsurrounding‘bush,’whatis

knownthroughouttheliteratureassheaparklands.Cashewisgenerallygrownasamono-

culture,similartoforestplantationsandorchards.Therefore,throughoutthispaper,sheawill

bereferredtoassheaparklands,andcashewascasheworchards.Sheaisconsideredtobea

semi-domesticatedspecies,asfarmersselectspecifictreestomaintainontheirfarms,thoughit

isnotactivelyplanted.Withtheretentionofolderandhighproducingsheatrees,thecurrent

populationisatriskofbecomingoldandunproductiveifjuveniletreesarenotprotected,orif

thereisnotenoughlandtoensuretheirnaturalregeneration.

DuringmyPeaceCorpsserviceinGhana,Ihadtheopportunitytoliveandworkin

Bamboi,asemi-urbantownshiplocatedintheNorthernRegion.ThecommunityofBamboi

representsahighlydiversepopulation,duetotheeconomicopportunitiesthatlogging,

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charcoalproduction,andsmallscalegoldminingpresenttotransientandimmigrantsettlers.I

workedprimarilywithsheanutpickersandbutterprocessors,aswellascashewfarmersinthe

area.Duringmystay,IwitnessedtheexpansionofseveralindustriesinBamboi,butbecamethe

mostinterestedintheexpansionofcashewanditseffectsontheexistingandfutureshea

parklands.

Inthispaper,Iwilldiscusslandusechangefromnativesheaparklandstocashew

orchardsanditsimplicationsontheecological,social,andeconomicfabricofasemi-urban

townshipinthetransitionalnorthernzoneofGhana.Tocomparesheaandcashewholistically,

itisfirstnecessarytodiscusstheenvironmentinGhanaandthestudysite,followedbyanin

depthanalysisoftheecology,history,socialimpact,andeconomiesofsheaandcashew

respectively.ThiswillincludeabriefhistoryofGhanaandthestudysiteBamboi,followedby

separateanalysesofsheaandcashewfromecologytoeconomy.Finally,sheaandcasheware

directlycomparedbasedoncumulativeecological,socialandeconomicparameterstoprovide

recommendationsonlanduseandmanagementstrategiesatthestudysiteandbeyond.

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BackgroundofGhana

GhanaislocatedontheGulfofGuineainSub-SaharanWestAfrica,borderedbyCôted’Ivoire

(IvoryCoast)tothewest,TogototheeastandBurkinaFasotothenorth.Slightlysmallerthan

thestateofOregon,Ghanaishometonearly27millionpeople,with54%livinginurbanareas

(CIA,2016).Accra,thecountry’scapital,andKumasiarethetwolargestcitiesinGhana,with

populationsof2.3and2.6million,respectively.ThepopulationofGhanaisincreasingatarate

of2.18%peryear,withanurbanizationrateof3.4%peryear(CIA,2016).Therapidgrowthof

urbancentersinGhanahasincreasedpressureonnaturalresourcesespeciallyinruralareas,

whichprovidecharcoalandnon-timberforestproducts(NTFPs)tourbancenters.

Ghanaisdividedintotenpoliticalregions,eachwithitsowncapital:GreaterAccra

(Accra),Eastern(Koforidua),Western(Secondi-Takoradi),Central(CapeCoast),Ashanti

(Kumasi),BrongAhafo(Sunyani),Volta(Ho),Northern(Tamale),UpperEast(Bolgatanga),and

UpperWest(Wa).AmapofGhanaandits10regionsispresentedinFigure1.Theregionsare

furthersubdividedinto216districts.

HistoryofGhana

AncientGhanawasanempirelocatedintheareathatisnowMaliandMauritania,considerably

north-westofcontemporaryGhana.AlsoknownastheWagaduEmpire,ancientGhanawasan

importanttradingsiteinWestAfricabetween300ADandabout1500AD,connectingWest

AfricawiththeArabicWorld(W.B.Encyclopedia,2017).

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N

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ThefirstEuropeansarrivedtomodernGhanainthe15thcentury,beginningwiththe

Portuguesein1471.UponthediscoveryoflargequantitiesofgoldbetweentheAnkobraand

Voltarivers,thePortuguesenamedtheterritoryMina-meaningmine,thoughitlaterbecame

knownthroughoutEuropeastheGoldCoast(Gocking,2005).Thefirstcastlewasbuiltbythe

PortugueseatElminaonthecoastin1482totradeingold,ivoryandslaves.Theyweresoon

joinedbytheDutchin1598,followedbytheEnglish,Danes,andSwedesinthemid-18th

century.Fortsandcastlesbegantodotthecoastline,andtensionsrosebetweenEuropean

entitiesoveraccesstoresourcesandtradingnetworks.Eventually,theEnglishdominatedthe

regionandin1874theGoldCoastbecameanofficialcrowncolony(Gocking,2005).

WhileEuropeanswerebattlingoverthecoastlineterritory,theAshantipeople,with

theircapitalinKumasi,begandevelopingtheAsantestatebyconqueringthenearbyAkan

peopleandeitherkeepingorsellingthemasslaves.Eventually,theAshanticonqueredthe

GonjaandDagombatribesintheNorth,whobecametheirprimarysourceofslaves.Witha

significantstrongholdoveramajorityofwhatisnowmodernGhana,theAsantestatemade

movestogaincontroloverthecoastalterritory.In1826,theAsanteweredefeatedbythe

BritishattheBattleofDodowaandapeacetreatywassigned.Despiteabriefhiatus,attacks

continueduntil1901,whenboththeAsanteProtectorateandtheNorthernTerritoriesbecame

partoftheGoldCoastcolony(Gocking,2005).

BritainestablishedthefoundationofthemodernpoliticalstructureinGhana,beginning

withthelegislativecouncilandthecourtsystem.Initially,bothfeaturedminorrolesfor

Ghanaians,untilanewconstitutionwassignedin1946whichgaveGhanaiansamajorityinthe

legislativecouncilandwaseffectiveinlinkingthepoweroftheAsantestatewiththewholeof

Ghana.

PoliticalpartiesbegantoorganizeandonMarch6th1957thelegislativecouncilvotedto

makeGhanaindependent—thefirstAfricannationtodoso.In1960,TheFirstRepublicof

Ghanawasestablished,withKwameNkrumahasthefirstpresident.KwameNkrumahwas

famousforhispassioninpromotingPan-AfricanismandwasthefounderoftheOrganizationof

AfricanUnitythatinspiredmanyotherAfricannationstoseekindependence.In1961,Nkrumah

metwithU.S.PresidentJohnFKennedytowelcomethePeaceCorps.Ghanawasoneofthe

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firstcountriestoacceptPeaceCorpsVolunteersfromtheU.S.,whocurrentlyserveinthe

health,educationandagriculturalsectors.ServiceinGhanahascontinueduninterruptedsince

1961.

Theyearsfollowingindependenceweretumultuous,astribesbecamepoliticalparties

competingforpower,andtherealitiesofindependenceandnationaldevelopmentsetin.After

declaringaonepartysystem,Nkrumahwasoverthrownandaseriesofmilitarycoupstook

placeinthe1970sand1980.DuringthistimeGhanawentthroughseveralrepublics,butsince

1993ithasbeenofficiallyknownastheFourthRepublicofGhana(Gocking,2005).Thecountry

isgovernedasaconstitutionaldemocracy,wheretheheadofstateisalsotheheadofthe

government.Themostrecentelectionwasheldin2016,makingNanaAkufo-AddooftheNew

PatrioticParty(NPP)theseventhpresidentoftheFourthRepublicofGhana.

EconomyofGhana

GhanahaslongbeeninvolvedintradeacrossAfrica,anditseconomyhasbenefittedfromthe

wealthofnaturalresources,particularlytimber,gold,bauxiteandmagnesium.Cocoawas

introducedin1878,andbyindependenceGhanawastheworld’sleadingproducerofthecash

crop(Gocking,2005).Today,Ghanaremainsatopproducerofcocoaandissecondonlytothe

IvoryCoastintermsofcocoaproduction(Statista,2016).

TheGhanaiancedibecametheofficialcurrencyin1965,replacingtheGhanaianpound.

Thecediiscurrentlyvaluedat0.23U.S.dollars($US).Theexchangerateduringmyservicein

Ghanawas3.79Ghcto$US1andwillbeusedastheexchangerateforfiguresthroughoutthis

paper.Thegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)ofGhanawasvaluedat$US41.3billionin2015

(AgriculturalDevelopmentBankGroup,2016).Servicescomposethemajority(53.3%)ofthe

nationalGDP,followedbyindustry(26.6%),andagriculture(20.2%).Cocoaaccountsfor1.9%of

thetotalGDPwhileforestry/loggingaccountsfor2.3%(Service,GS2016).

RecentdiscoveryandexploitationofcrudepetroleuminGhanahastransformedthe

exporteconomy.In2014,Ghanaexported$10.2billionUSD,makingitthe92ndlargesttotal

exporterintheworld(OEC,2017).Crudepetroleumaccountedfor26%oftotalexports,

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followedbygold(23.4%)andcocoabeans(22%)(OEC,2017).ThoughGhanaisaleading

exporterinitsregion,theeconomyisalsoheavilyreliantonimports.In2014Ghanaimported

$US14.8billion,makingitthe87thlargestimporterofgoodsintheworld(OEC,2017).

Between1991and2006,GhanawassuccessfulinmeetingtheMillenniumDevelopment

Goalofhalvinghungerandpovertybefore2015,reducingextremepovertyfrom36.5to18.2

percentofthepopulation(FAO,2015).Still,overaquarterofthepopulationremainsbelowthe

povertylineof$US1.25perday.MostoftheextremepovertyinGhanaoccursinthethree

Northernregions,withthemostextremepovertyconcentratedintheUpperEastregion.The

northernregionscontinuetobemuchlessdevelopedthanthesouthernregionsofGhanadue

tolackofinfrastructure,arablelands,andnaturalresources.

OneofthemajorhindrancestoeconomicgrowthinGhanaistheunreliableand

inadequatesupplyofelectricpower.ThemajorityofGhana’selectricpowertodaycomesfrom

theAkosomboDam,atthebaseofoneoftheworldlargestartificiallycreatedlakes,LakeVolta.

LocatedintheEasternRegion,thedamgenerates1,020MWofpower.Thepowergenerated

bytheAkosomboDamisnowaugmentedbytheKpongandBuiDams.Intotalthedamshave

aninstalledcapacityof2,360MW,whenrunningallturbines(Asante,2014).Theavailable

hydropowerofGhanacurrentlysuppliesthemajorityofallenergytothecountry,however

shortagesandblackouts(knownlocallyas“dumsordumsor”)persist,whichislargelyduetothe

saleofelectricpowertoneighboringcountries(Asante,2014).

AgricultureofGhana

Ghanaisdividedintosixagroecologicalzones,fromNorthtoSouth:SudanSavannahZone,

GuineaSavannahZone,TransitionZone,Semi-deciduousForestzone,RainForestZoneandthe

CoastalSavannahZone(FAO,2008).TheclimateofGhanaischaracteristicallytropicalcloserto

thesoutherncoast,warmanddryinthesoutheast,hotandhumidinthesouthwest,andhot

anddryinthenorth.ThemeanelevationinGhanais190mabovesealevel(CIA,2015).

ThemainagriculturalproductsofGhanaincludecocoa,oilpalm,coconut,rubber,

tropicalfruitandfoodcrops.Tropicalplantssuchasplantainsandbananasaretypicallygrown

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inthesouthernregionsofGhana,whereastubersandothersavannahcropssuchasyamsand

milletaregrowninthenorth.ThoughthereissignificantexchangebetweentheNorthand

Southintermsofagriculturalproducts,staplesarereflectedintypicalsouthernandnorthern

cuisine.

AlmostallagriculturalactivityinGhanareliesonseasonalrains,sinceonly30,345ha

(0.22%)of14,038,224haofagriculturallandareirrigated(MOFA,2013).Theseasonalrains

differgreatlydependingonthelatitude.Typically,thesouthexperiencestworainyseasons:the

firstoccursfromApriltoJulywhilethesecondshorterrainyperiodisfromSeptemberto

November.TheNorthtypicallyexperiencesonlyonelongrainyseasonbetweenJulyand

October,peakinginAugustandSeptember.Changesintheserainshavehadasignificant

impactonagriculturalactivitieswithlater,lessfrequentrainsoccurringinrecentyears.During

thewintermonthsfromlateNovembertoearlyMarch,windsfromthenortheastcarrydust

fromtheSaharadesert.ThisphenomenonisknownasHarmattanandresultsinsicknessin

humansandlivestock,decreasedvisibility,anddecreasedphotosynthesis—especiallyinthe

Northernregions(Chineke&Chiemeka,2009).

Socio-culturaldiversityofGhana

Ghanaishometoawidediversityoftribes,traditions,andreligions.Christianity,traditional

beliefs,andIslamaretheprimaryreligions,withChristianitydominatingthesouthernregions,

Islaminthenorthern,andtraditionalbeliefsinterspersedthroughout.Bestestimatesof

religiouspreferencesshow71.2%Christianity,17.6%Muslim,Traditional5.2%,withminor

religionsandnoreligiouspreferencecomprisingtheremaining6%(CIA,2015).Ithasbeen

estimatedthattherearemorethan180languagesspokeninGhana.AlthoughEnglishwas

declaredtheofficiallanguagein2010bytheGovernmentofGhana,themostcommonly

spokenlanguageintradeandtransitisAsanteTwi(16%)followedbyEwe(14%),Fante(11.6%),

Brong(4.9%),Dagomba(4.4%),Dangme(4.2%),Dagarte(3.9%),Kokomba(3.5%),Akyem

(3.2%),Ga(3.1%),andothers(31.2%)(CIA,2015).Thoughtherearemanylanguages,itis

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estimatedthatbetween61%ofGhanaianscanreadandwriteinEnglish,asitisusedasthe

languageforinstructioninprimaryeducation(GSS,2012).

ThepopulationofGhanaisveryyoung,with57%ofpeoplebeingundertheageof25

(CIA,2015).Thecountryhasexperiencedbothmassiveimmigrationandemigration.Theformer

wasmostpopulardirectlyafterindependence,whenlaborersfromneighboringcountrieswere

attractedtomineralminingandcocoaharvestopportunities.Inthe1960supto12%ofthe

populationwasestimatedtobeimmigrants,untileconomicdownturnandsocialunrestledto

thedeportationofhundredsofthousandsofpeople(CIA,2015).Thelargestamountof

emigrationoccurredinthe1970s,whenGhanaexperiencedseveredroughtandcontinued

economicdownturn,sendingmanyGhanaiansintoneighboringCoteD’Ivoire,andlaterto

Nigeriainsearchofworkintheoilandgasindustry.

EmigrationofGhanaianscontinuesthroughouttheworld,withthemajorityof

emigrantsoriginatefromtheAshantiandGreaterAccraregions.EmigrantsfromGhanamigrate

toEurope(37.7%)otherAfricancountries(35.8%),andtheAmericas(23.6%)(GSS,2012).

NaturalResourcesofGhana

GhanaisoneofthewealthiestcountriesinWestAfricaintermsofnaturalresources.Gold,

timber,petroleum,industrialdiamonds,manganese,fish,rubber,hydropower,silver,salt,

limestoneandbauxitearejustafewofthemajornaturalresourcesinGhana.Thereareover

10,750kmofprotectedlandsinGhana,4.46%ofthetotalland,containingarichdiversityof

plants,animalsandinsects.Forestandwildlifereservesaccountfor12%ofthenationalland

use,whereastreecropsaccountfor16%ofthetotallandarea(MOFA,2009).

Ghanahasatotalof17vulnerable,endangered,orcriticallyendangeredspecies,including

theAfricanelephant(Loxodontaafricana),chimpanzee(Pantroglodytes),Diana

monkey(Cercopithecusdiana),redcolobusmonkey(Procolobusbadius),andthewild

dog(Lycaonpictus)(Konadu,2016).Rapidpopulationgrowthandtheexpansionofagricultural

landsandbuiltenvironmentsinthecountryposeaseriousthreattotheconservationofthese

species,someofwhich,suchasthewilddog,mayalreadybeextinctwithintheregion.Shea

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providesnativehabitat,andactivepantingcouldincreasethehabitatsuitableformanyofthese

species.

LandholdinginGhana

LandinGhanaiscontrolledthroughamixtureofcustomaryandstatemanagement.Itis

estimatedthatbetween80-90%oftheundevelopedlandinGhanaismanagedthrough

customarylawsandpracticesundertraditionalrule(Alabi,2014).Alongsidetraditionalrule,at

thenationallevel,theMinistryofLandandNaturalResources(MLNR)isresponsibleforthe

managementoflandsinGhana.ThemissionoftheMLNRisto“ensuresustainable

managementandutilizationofthenation’slands,forestsandwildliferesourcesaswellasthe

efficientmanagementofthemineralresourcesforsocio-economicgrowthanddevelopment.”

(GoG,2017).TherearethreeagenciesthatfallwithintheMLNR:theLandsCommission,the

ForestryCommission,andtheMineralCommission.

LandinGhanaisbrokendownintothefollowinguses:forestreserves(11%),wildlife

reserves(5%),unreservedhighforest(2%),savannahwoodlands(30%),treecrops(7%,with

cashewclaiming18,000ha),annualcrops(25%),unimprovedpasture(15%),andbush/fallow

(5%)(ADF,2000).Ghanaisexperiencingrapidpopulationgrowth,leadingtolandcoverand

landusechanges(LCLUC)thatareacceleratingtheconversionofforestsandsavannahlandsto

agricultureandurbanorbuiltenvironments.PopulationestimatessuggestthatGhanawill

reach50millionpeopleby2050,requiringasubstantialexpansionofagriculturallandsaswell

asincreasedagriculturalproductivity(Coulteretal.,2016).Toincreaseagriculturalproductivity,

agriculturaldevelopmentoftenpromotesincreasedmechanizationinfarmingmethods,which

decreasestheneedforruralagriculturallaborandfurtherincreasestherateofurbanization

andthus,pressureonlanduse.AstudyconductedinsouthernGhanausingLandsatdatafound

that62%oflandusechangesintheregionwereassociatedwithconversiontoagricultural

conversion(Coulteretal.,2016).

Landholdingandtenureareparticularlyimportantwhendiscussingsheaandcashew

crops.Landtenurereferstothesystemofholdingland,includingbothlandownershipand

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access/userightstoland(Lund,2003).Sheatreesaretypicallycultivatedoncommunallands,

whereascashewisplantedonprivateland.Thoughthelandmaybeleased,thecashewtrees

onceplantedbecomeprivateproperty,whichhasimplicationsforprivatelandownershipand

representsachangeinthecurrentlandtenurepractices.Thissituationwillbefurtherdiscussed

indetailinthesocialimplicationsofcashewlaterinthispaper.

TheNationalLandPolicywaspublishedinJune1999andprovidesaframeworkfor

accesstolandbyallGhanaianswherelandisavailablefordispersal,andindividualsadhereto

customarytenurepracticesandfollowapplicablezoningrulesforlanduse(ADF,2000).This

policywascreatedtoensureaccesstolandforwomenandotherlandlesspeople,although

littlehaschangedwithrespecttotraditionalmethodsoflandacquisition,especiallynotinrural

areas(ADF,2000).

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BackgroundofBamboi

Bamboi,thestudyarea,isasemi-urbantownshiplocatedontheBole-Wenchihighwayinthe

transitionalzonebetweentheNorthernRegionandtheBrongAhafoRegionwithanestimated

populationof10,000peopleandisseparatedfromtheBrong-AhaforegionbytheBlackVolta

River(Figure2).

ThefirstsettlersinBamboiweretheDegaorMopeople,whotransmigratedfromthe

UpperWestregionofGhanawhentheirtribehadanaltercationwiththeSissalapeopleovera

doghead(Fetishpriest,pers.comm.2015).TheDegapeopleareoneofthefewethnicgroups

inAfricathatpracticebothpatrilinealandmatrilinealsystemsofinheritance,whereroyal

successionispatrilinealandpropertyinheritanceismatrilineal.

Figure2:SatelliteimageryofBamboi,2016.Source:Googleearthimagery,2016

Brong-AhafoRegion

Bole-WenchiHighway

BlackVoltaRiver

NorthernRegion

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DegaHare(Degaland)todayissplitbetweentheBoledistrictintheNorthernRegion,

andtheWenchiandKintampodistrictsoftheBrongAhafoRegion.TheDegaaresurroundedby

NafaanapeopletotheWest,BonototheSouthandGonjatothenorth.DegaHareisestimated

tobe1,700km2withabout46villages(Ntabaneejue,2010).Thediscoveryofgold(circa2011)

inthesiltoftheBlackVoltaRiverhassinceledtomorerapidexpansioninBamboi.Thesmall

scaleminingindustryissaidtoemploy9.3%ofthedistrictpopulation,withanadditional6.6%

inthemanufacturingsector(Service,2014).

Today,BamboiisstilldominatedbytheDegapeople,whoalsosharetheirlandwith

manyothertribesincludingtheDagaati(fromtheUpperWest),Gonja(fromtheNorth),Asante

(fromtheAshanti),Dagomba(fromtheNorth)andtheEwepeople(fromtheVolta),aswellas

otherminoritytribes.Theinfluxofimmigrantsettlersisparticularlyimportantwithrespectto

landuseandlongtermsustainablemanagement.Accordingtoresearchonindigenousand

immigrantsettlers,ithasbeenfoundthatimmigrantpopulations,largelyduetoinsecurityin

landholdings,tendtobelesssustainableintheiruseofland(Afikorah-Danquah,1997).This

wasobservedfirsthandinBamboi,asmigrantsandtemporarysettlerswereoftenthosemost

heavilyinvolvedincharcoalproduction,illegallogging,andsmallscalegoldminingontheriver.

DuetothehighlyheterogeneouspopulationinBamboi,landmanagementcanbedifficult.Itis

extremelyimportanttoconsiderthedifferentialeffectsofindigenouslargelylandholding

residentsandtransientorpermanent,largelylandless,immigrantpopulations.

Thedifferentialmanagementstrategiesonlandusedbyownersversusthoseof

immigrantpopulations,basedonastudyconductedbyAfikorah-Danquah1997,ispresentedin

Table1.Duetothelowtenuresecurityonleasedlands,immigrantsettlershavelessinvestment

inthesustainablemanagementoftheirfarmlandsandgenerallyhaveanegativeimpactonthe

landovertime.

20

Table1:Differentiallandusepatternsbetweenlandownersandimmigrantsettlers.DerivedfromresearchbyAfikjorah-Danquah1997

Table1Landowners ImmigrantSettlersTreeplantingIncreasedfallowperiodsDeliberatesaplingmanagementMinimumtillageVegetationregeneration

LowtenuresecurityNotreeplantingOverexploitationduetotenancyfeesDeforestationduetohoemethods

ThemaineconomicactivitiesinBamboiincludesubsistenceagriculture,cashew

cultivation,mangocultivation,smallscalegoldmining,charcoalproduction,sheabutter

production,generaltrade,andfishing(personalobservation,2015).However,sincethe

completionoftheBuidamin2013,upriverfromBamboiontheBlackVolta,fishinghas

declinedsubstantially.Asaresult,manypeoplewhopreviouslyreliedontheriverfor

sustenance,suchastheEwe,haveturnedtosmallscalegoldmininginordertocontinuetheir

livelihoodsontheriver.

Duringthedryseason,Bamboiisadryplateauofsavannahwoodlands,butwhenthe

rainscome,theGuineagrasscangrowover3.5mtall.EconomictreesinBamboiconsistof

shea,dawadawa,teak,kapok,mangoandcashew.Soilsareprimarilysavannahochrosolsand

tropicalbrownearth,typicallypoorinorganicmatterandnutrients,thoughsometerracesoils

fromtheriverallowforstaplecropandtobaccocultivation(Service,2014).InDecember,theair

becomesgrayanditisdifficulttoseethesunasshiftingcultivatorsburntheirfarmsin

preparationforplanting.

Bushburninghasasignificantimpactoncashewandshea.Forexample,almost120ha

ofmaturecashewinBamboiwaslosttomismanagedbushfiresin2000.However,thisdoesnot

implythatallburningisnegative.Slashandburnagriculturehaslongbeenusedasaneffective

andefficientwaytopreparefarmlandsforplanting,andprovidesanutrientrichlayerofashfor

newcrops,aswellasclearsthelandfortheregenerationofothernativespecies.

21

Shea

Sheaparklandsarecurrentlythreatenedbycasheworchardexpansionandcharcoalproduction

inBamboi.Thethreattosheaalsoaffectswomenandotherlandlessindividualswhorelyon

sheanutby-productsasasourceoffoodandsupplementalhouseholdincome.Sheanutsand

butterareconsideredtobenon-timberforestproduct(NTFPs),whichserveasatypeofnatural

insuranceagainstunexpectedcroplossandotherincomeshortfalls(Pouliot&Treue,2013).

Protectionofthesheaparklandsandsupportforjuveniletreeregenerationonfarmandfallow

landsarekeytothecontinuedsuccessofthesheaindustryinthearea.

Duringthe1950s,researchandtechnologicaldevelopmentintheEuropeanfatsandoils

industryidentifiedsheabutterasahighlysuitablecocoabutterequivalent(CBE),whichisused

largelybytheconfectionaryindustryintheproductionofchocolate(Wardell&Fold,2013).

Sincethisdiscovery,themarketforsheabutterhascontinuedtoincreaseinternationally,as

sheabutterisalsousedwidelyinthecosmeticindustry.Today90%ofthemarketforshea

butterisasaCBE.SheabutterisnotyetapprovedasaCBEintheUnitedStates,althoughifthis

weretochange,demandwouldlikelyexceedsupplyandleadtosubstantialpriceincreases.

I. HistoryofSheainGhana

Itisestimatedthatapproximately9.4millionsheatreesgrowinGhana,coveringalmosthalf

thecountryandoccurringaccrossalmosttheentireareaofthethreeNorthernregions(Jasaw,

2015).Thesheagrowingareaisestimatedtobearound77,670km2inWesternDagomba,

SouthernMamprusi,WesternGonja,Lawra,Tumu,WaandNanumbadistricts,withtheEastern

Gonjadistricthavingthedenseststandsofsheatrees.Moresparsesheatreecoverisfoundin

Brong-Ahafo,Ashanti,andtheEasternandVoltaRegionsinthesouthofthecountry(CRIG,

2002).

RegulationofthesheaindustryinGhanabeganwithastateownedcorporationknown

astheProduceBuyingCompany(PBC).ThePBCtoutedsheaasawaytoboosttheeconomyof

northernGhana,whichcontinuestotrailfarbehindthesouthernregions.Inthe1980sthePBC

22

dictatedtheestablishmentofSheaNutFarmerSocietiesthataveraged25-30membersand

wouldcollectsheanutsforsaletostateownedcompanyrepresentativesatafixedprice.Due

toheavycomplaintsaboutthelackofeffectiveness,lowprices,andlackofcashadvancesfor

nutpurchasing;allpriceregulationsandbuyingrestrictionswereremoved,andprivateactors

wereintroducedtothemarketin1991(Chalfin,1996).TheLicensedBuyersAssociation(LBA)

wasformedinresponsetothegovernment’scontinuedcontrolofinternalmarketing,andall

exportcompanieswererequiredtojointheLBA.In1994,theFarmersServiceCompany

(Fascom)beganbuyingsheanutsaswell.Fascominitiallybeganin1978asameanstoprovide

agriculturalequipmenttothenorthernregions;theyarenowsupportedbyUSAIDandhave

preferentialaccesstotractors,millingequipment,andwarehouses(Chalfin,1996).

Withtheopeningofthemarket,nationalandinternationalbuyersofsheanutsand

butterhavegrownexponentially.However,themajorityofthebutter(upto51%)remains

reservedforlocalconsumptioneitherascookingoil,ceremonialgifts,orcosmeticpurposes

(Pouliot,2012).

In2012,thelargestsheaprocessingcenterwasopenedbythePBCinNorthernGhana.

Thefacilityiscapableofprocessing40,000metrictons(mt)ofsheaintobutterperyear,which

isalmostequaltotheentireharvestofGhana.TheCocoaResearchInstituteatBole(CRI)has

developednewvarietiesofsheatreesthatreducethematurationperiodfrom15-20yearsto

sevenyears.Withnewnationwideinvestmentsinprocessingfacilitiesandimprovedearly

maturingsheavarieties,additionaleffortsneedtobemadetoprotectandsupportthe

developmentoftheshearesource.

II. EcologicalSignificanceofSheaParklands

Thesheatree(Vitellariaparadoxa)belongstotheSapotaceaefamily,andisfoundinonly21

countriesintheworld;formingacontinuousbeltfromEasternSenegalandtheGambia,tothe

highplateausofEastAfricaintosoutheasternUganda(Figure3)(Boffa,2015).Therearetwo

speciesinthegenusVitellaria:V.paradoxainWestAfricaandV.niloticainEastAfrica.V.

paradoxaisknownforhavingahighstearin(fat)content,whichisparticularlybeneficialin

23

butterproduction.Sheaisparticularlysuitedforsemi-aridtoaridenvironmentsandisdrought

andfireresistant.Themeanheightofthetreeisabout10m,butcanreachupto15mwitha

meandiameterof50cm(Glele,2011).Sheatreesbeginbearinglargeplumlikefruitwithlarge

seedsabout15to20yearsafterplanting.Averageannualkernelproductionisabout2.2kgper

tree(Gbedji,2003).Sheatreesareknowntobeproductiveforover200yearsormore

(Naughton,2016).

Sheatreesarefiretolerantandadaptedtoresistandthriveinfirecycles.Thisismostlikely

duetotheadaptationofsheatreeswithshiftingagricultureandslashandburntechniquesthat

occurredovercenturiesinWestAfrica(Dogbevi,2008).However,withincreasedcultivationof

permanentcashcropssuchascashewandmangoplantations,fallowperiodsandtraditional

fireregimeshavedecreased,whichthreatenjuvenilesheatreeregeneration.

Sheabutterismadefromtheprocessingofsheanutsandisseenasanenvironmentally

friendlyalternativeforindustrializedvegetableoilssincethesupplychaindoesnotinvolve

extensiveuseoffertilizers,pesticides,orcausesubstantiallandusechange.Inadditionto

providingsignificantincometolocaleconomies,sheaparklandshelptoconserveexistingsoils,

oldgrowthperennialbiomass,habitats,andbiodiversity(Glew&Lovett,2014).

Someresearchsuggeststhatclimatechangecouldincreasetherangeofthesavannahzone

andthattherangeandproductionofsheatreescouldalsoexpand(Glele,2011).Thiscoupled

withthedevelopmentofnewearlymaturingsheavarieties,presentsabrightfutureforthe

populationsofsheaindustryinGhana,giventhatactiveplantingbecomesapartofthe

managementscheme,andlandisavailablefornaturalregeneration.

24

Figure3:MapshowingtherangeofsheaacrossAfrica,basedonWATHGPSpointsandsuitabilityanalysis.Source;Naughtonetal.2015

Vitellariaparadoxa

Vitellarianilotica

25

Figure4:SheaparklandsinNorthernGhana.AllPhotosbyTabathaRood.

III. TheSheaSectorinBamboi

Specifically,inBamboi,sheanutsarecollectedonlyafterthechiefandeldershavecommenced

theseasonthroughaceremonialsacrifice.TheSomTooorsheanutceremonytakesplace

betweenAprilandMayandbeginswiththeHareti(fetishpriest),andasacrificialchicken.The

sacrificeismadetothelandandmeanttoensureabountifulharvestandprotectionagainstthe

fatalsnakebitesthatoftenoccurduringharvest.Ifthesacrificedchickenfallsonitsback,it

symbolizestheacceptanceofthesacrificeandbenevolentharvestconditions.However,ifthe

chickenfallsontoitsstomach,adivinerwillhavetobesummonedtointerpretthepositioning

ofthechickenandmakerecommendationsforthenextstepsintheceremony(Fetishpriest,

26

pers.comm.2015).Theceremonyisalsointendedtoallowforthemostamountofnutstofall

andensureequalaccesstothesheanutsamongallwomenpickers.

Oncetheharvestseasoncommences,Shea

nutsarecollectedfromthegroundaroundthe

baseoftrees(Figure4)firstaroundthetown,then

upto3kmfromthepicker’shouse,usuallyatthe

sametimefuelwoodisbeingcollected.Women

andchildrenaretheprimarycollectorsofshea

nuts,andfrommid-ApriltolateJune,whenthe

sheanutsaremostplentiful,schoolchildrenwill

spendamajorityoftheirafternooncollectingshea

nutsfromthebaseofthetrees.Collectingshea

nutscanbebackbreaking,butisalsodangerous

duetothepresenceofsnakesandthetallgrasses

thatgrowbetweenthetreesatthestartofthe

rainyseason.

Oncesheanutsarecollected,theyare

usuallydriedinthesunoncementorhardpacked

mudfloors.Then,thenutsareeithersoldinthemarket,orareprocessedlocally.

IV. Processing

Theprocessofproducingsheabutterislengthyandarduous,usuallyrequiring13-14stepsand

anaverageof4daysper85kgofnuts(Pouliot,2012).Thecriticalinputsforproducingshea

butterincludewater,fuelwood,andmanuallabor(almostalwaysperformedbywomenand

girls).

First,sheafruits,whichareusuallyeaten,mustbede-pulpedandparboiledtoprevent

germination.Then,thenutsaresortedthroughfordebrisandspoilednuts,washedinclean

coldwater,thenlaidoutinthesuntodryonapreferablycleansurface.Oncedry,thenutsare

Figure5:Ayoungboyholdsatinoffreshlycollectedsheanuts,withmostofthegreenfleshypulpeatenoff.

27

thencracked,usuallywithawoodenpaddletorevealtheinnerkernel.Thenutshelland

kernelsarethenwinnowedtoseparatetheshells,whicharethendiscarded.Sheakernelsare

thencrushedintosmallpiecesusingeitheramanualormechanicalprocess.InBamboi,

wealthierfamilieswouldusuallycrushthekernelsusingagrindingmill.However,mostpeople

crushthekernelsusingthetraditionalmortarandpestle.Millednutsusuallyresultedinlower

qualitybutter,sincemillsintownarerarelydedicatedtosolelysheagrinding,leadingtohigh

levelsofcontamination.

Oncethekernelsaregroundintogrits,thegritsarefriedinalargepotoverathree

stonefire.Processorsmustbeverycarefulnottoburnthegritsduringthisstage.Thefriedgrits

arethengroundormilledintoasmoothpasteusingagrindingstoneormill.Thesmoothpaste

isthentransferredtolargemetalbowls,andwaterisadded.Womenthenbeatandmixthenut

pastebyhandinlargebasinswithwateruntilthebrownpastebecomeslighterincolor.Hot

waterisaddedtotheemulsifiedmixtureandthebeatingcontinuesuntilthesheabutterbegins

toseparateandfloatstothetopofthebasins.Thesheabutterisskimmmedfromthetopof

themixture,placedinlargepotsandboiledagain.Impuritiesfloattothetopofthepotandare

continuouslyremoveduntilthebutterbecomesapureoil.Thehotoilisthenfilteredthrough

clothtoremoveanyimpurities,anditisstoredincleanmetalbasinsthatarelefttocool

Figure6:Awomancarriessheaasfuelwoodfromthebush.

28

overnight.Sheabutterisusuallythenrolledintoballs(usuallyaround18g),oritispackagedfor

saleinanothermarket.

Theproductionofsheabutterisanintenseprocessrequiringasignificantamountof

timeandeffortonthepartoftheprocessors.Previousstudiessuggestthatproductionof1kg

ofsheabutterrequires3kgofsheanutsandbetween2.5-10hoursoflabor(Pouliot&Elias,

2013).Thisdoesnotincludethetimetocollectthenuts,waterandfirewoodusedinthe

productionprocess.

Ifwomenwanttostorethesheanut,theyusuallystopafterstepfouroftheprocess

andstorenutsin85kgjutesacks.Therearemajorproblemswithstoragehowever,assmall

animalsandmoisturepresentseriouschallengestoproperstorageandpreventionofspoiling.

InBamboi,therearenoareasdedicatedtosheastorage,althoughstoragewouldbebeneficial

incapturingthehighestvalueforsheanutsandbutter,sincepricescanriseuptothreetimesin

theoffseason(Hatskevichetal.,2011).

V. SocialSignificance

Sheatreesareoneofthefewnativespeciesintheregion.Othernativespeciesincludethe

AfricanMahogany(Khayaanthotheca)andBaobab(Adansoniadigitata),whichcomprisethe

sacredgrovesoftreesinBamboi.Sacredgrovesareknowntooccurinvariousforms,from

smallforestpatchestolargerburialandancestralgrounds,andrepresentasourceofspiritual

sustenanceforthecommunity.Mostsacredgroves,likethoseinBamboi,arecenteredona

shrine.InBamboispecifically,thereareatleastfiveoftheseshrines.Theseshrinesareoften

dedicatedtospecificnaturalresourcessuchastheriver,theland,thetrees,withone

specificallydesignatedtoTeo,theearthgod.Sacredgrovesarerecognizedasoneofthemost

importantformsofculturebasedconservationstrategies,oftenprotectedbysocialtabooand

maintainedbyanearthpriest(Aniah,2016).

Inmanyplaces,sacredgrovesaredisappearingandshrinesarebeingdestroyed(Aniah,

2016)duetoabreakdownofthe‘socialfence’andyoungergenerations’disregardof

traditionalbeliefsinfavorofmorepopularreligions,andincreasedindividualism.Sheatrees

29

aresupposedtobegovernedunderthesameprotectionsasaresacredgroves,evenwhen

locatedoutsidetheboundsofashrine.Still,manypeopleharvestthetreesforfuelwoodor

charcoalproduction(Figure6).

SheaisaparticularlyimportantnaturalresourceforwomeninBamboiandthroughout

itsrange.AspartofthetraditionalactivitiesforwomenoftheDegandDagaatitribes,women

relyontheincomeandfoodderivedfromsheanutsyearroundand95%ofruralwomenin

NorthernGhanaaresaidtoparticipateinsheanutcollection(Moomen&Dewan,2016).

InBamboi,womenpicksheafruitseitherinthewildorfromtheirhusbands’plots,and

cultureplaysamajorroleinthisprocess.Generallytheoldestwiferegulatesthecollectionand

processingactivityamongwivesinpolygynousmarriages.Falloworabandonedplotsare

reservedforthewivesofthepreviousowners,whilstuncultivatedplotsareopentoallwomen.

Typically,anyfallowedplotoruncultivatedlandwillbepickedbychildren.Thismeansboth

landholdingandlandlesswomencancollectsheafruits.Thisisparticularlyimportantin

Bamboi,wherethereisalargevulnerablepopulationoflandlessfamilies.

Sheanutpickingandtheprocessingofnutsintobutteristraditionallydonebywomen

(Elias&Carney,2007;Moomen&Dewan,2016;Chalfin,1996;Pouliot&Elias,2013).In

additiontobeinganincomesource,itisalsoanimportantbondingexperienceforwomen

youngandold.Thetraditionalmethodsofhandcraftedsheabutterextractionhavebeen

passeddownthroughgenerations,asmothersandgrandmothersteachyoungerwomento

processsheacorrectly.

Sheacreatesalocalsourceofwomen’sincome,whichiscriticalforeconomicandsocial

development,especiallyinthelessdevelopednorthernregions.Youngwomenareoften

responsibleforpayingtheirownjuniorhighschoolandseniorhighschoolfees,andwithout

accesstolocalwork,manyyoungfemalesintheareaareforcedtoresorttoprostitutionor

kayayowork.Kayayeaarewomenwhosellsnacks,water,cellphonecredit,andother

commoditiesontheirheadsalongmajorhighwaysandinurbancenters.Manyyoungwomenin

Bamboialreadyparticipateinthisactivityduetothetown’slocationalongtheWenchi-Bole

highway.Sincemosturbanizationisoccurringinthesouth,manygirlsfromtheNorthern

30

regionsofGhanamovingtotheslumsofKumasiandAccrainsearchofwork.Thealternatives

tolocalworkaredangeroustowomen’shealthandfrequentlyresultinearlypregnancy.

Astableindustryfortheemploymentofruralwomenhasmanyadvantages.Providing

localemploymentwithinthesheaindustrycouldalsohelptoreducetheurbanizationratein

Ghana,aswellasprovideopportunitiesforwomentobecomeliterateinbusinessandfinance.

VI. MarketAnalysis

AstudyinBurkinaFasorevealedthatcollectingandprocessingsheanutsandkernels

contributedtoasmuchas12%oftotalhouseholdincome(Pouliot&Elias,2013).Anotherstudy

conductedintheBoledistrictfoundthatsheacontributedbetween8%and25%ofwomen’s

income(Ingrametal.,2016).

Internationallysheaisusedprimarilyasareplacementforcocoabutterinconfectionary

products,aswellasaningredientinmanycosmeticproductsandsoap.Inlookingatthevalue

chainforsheabutterfromthelocaltotheinternationalmarket,itappearsthatmostofthe

valueaddediscapturedindevelopedcountries.Sheabutterhasawidevarietyoflocaluses.

Thebutterisprimarilyconsumedascookingoil,thoughwiththeinfluxofpalmandother

cheapervegetableoils,itsuseisdecreasing(Naughton,2016).Asidefromconsumption,shea

butterhassocialsignificance,asitisusedasagiftatweddingsandbirths,andcanberubbed

ontheskinasmoisturizer.Inaddition,sheabutterisusedasabaseformanycosmeticproducts

includingsoap,lipbalm,pomade,andmoisturizer.Sheabutterisanaturalanti-inflammatory

anditshighconcentrationofVitaminsAandE,makeitsuitablefortreatingavarietyofskin

conditions,includingeczemaanddermatitis.LocallyitisoftenusedduringtheHarmattanasan

anti-histamine,blockingthedustfromenteringthenostrils.

ThelocalpricesofsheanutsandbutterinBamboiisquitelow.Alocalbowl

measurementofsheanuts(depulped,boiled,anduncracked)soldfor3GhanaCedis($US0.79,

2015),andan85kgjutesackofthesamenutssoldfor100Cedis($US26,2015).Sheabutter

wassoldinthelocalmarketforbetween13and15Cedisperbowl(localmeasurement,roughly

31

3.33kgs)($US3.40-3.90,2015).InTamale,theNorthernregionalmarket,nutsachieved

approximatelythesameamount.

ArecentmarketanalysisofsheapricesattheportofTemafoundthatsheakernels

(driedandcracked,dehusked)soldfor$US0.50/kg.Thisisonlyslightlyhigherthantheprices

womenarereceivingthroughoutthecountry,andislikelyduetothesmallamountof

processingthatoccursfromsheanuttokernel.InBamboi,womenwouldsellnutsin85kgjute

sacksfor100GHcor$US0.30/kg.Thistwentycentincreaseisnotasdramaticasthedisparity

inprofitsassociatedwithbutterproductiononaninternationalscale.

Trendsinthenationalexportofsheanutsandbutterfrom1996to2013areshownin

Figure7.Inrecentyears,exportsofsheabutterhaveincreased,whichsuggestsmorewomen

areprocessingforexport.Thiscontroloverprocessing,ifcoupledwithincreasedrevenue,is

beneficialtowomeninGhanaasitgivesthemmorecontrolofthemarketandaccesstovalue

additionactivitiessuchassecondaryprocessingandproductmanufacturing.

Ontheinternationalmarket,purehandcraftedsheabuttersellsforveryhighprices,

althoughthemajorityofthisprofitiscapturedbymiddlemenandthepackingandmarketing

industries,ratherthanbylocalprocessorsandcollectors.OrganizationssuchastheGlobalShea

Figure7:GraphdetailingtheexporttrendsofsheanutsandsheabutterfromGhana.Source:GhanaExportPromotionAuthority(2014).

32

Alliancewerecreatedtoaddressthisissue,andworkasanon-governmentalorganizationin

northernGhanaandotherpartsofWestAfrica,toorganizeprocessorsforcollectiveactionand

increasedbargainingpower.

Unfortunately,sheabutterwhensoldinbulkreceivesamuchlowerprice,whichisnota

resultofaloweramountoflaboronthepartoftheprocessors.Forinstance,thecurrent

marketpricefor25kgofpuresheabutterinAccrais$US34.30or$US1.37/kg(Okrah,Eric

pers.comm.,2016).Consumersindevelopedcountriespaynearlysixtimesthelocalpricefor

sheabutter($US7.80/kg)(GlobalSheaAlliance,2017).

Table2liststhepricesofSheabutterfoundatvariouslocationswithBamboibeingtheleastexpensive,andtheinternationalmarketbeingthemostexpensive.Ascanbeseenbythepriceontheinternationalmarket,muchofthevalueisbeingretainedbymiddlemenandtradersfromGhanatotheinternationalmarket.

PricesofSheaButterinVariousMarkets

Bamboi $US0.31/kg

Accra $US1.37/kg

International $US7.80/kg

Thoughthesheamarketishighlyunpredictable,somestudieshavefoundthatwomen

actuallybenefitfrommarketuncertainty(Chalfin,2000).Theuncertaintyestablishedbyprivate

actorsallowswomentochoosetheirbuyers,andthususecollectiveactiontoraiseprices.This

isimportanttoconsiderwhenmakingrecommendationstowardsthesheamarket,specifically

regulation.

Unfortunately,anincreaseintheproductionofprofitabilityandproductionofsheamay

notresultinadirectincreaseinwomen’sincome,asmenoftentakecontrolovercommodities

oncetheybecomeprofitable(Karria&Ashby,2001).Therehasalreadybeenanincreaseof

meninthesheamarketinGhana,especiallyasmiddlemenandtraders(Ingrametal.,2015).

Therefore,furtherincreasesintheprofitabilityofthespeciesasacashcropmaypushwomen

outofthesector.Thistrendcouldbesuppressedwiththeeducationoffemaleproducersas

tradersandbusinesswomen.

33

34

VII. ConclusionsonShea

Advocatesforgenderequityandsustainabledevelopmentthinkthatsheahasthepotentialto

improvethequalityoflifeforfemaleproducers.Overthelast20yearssheahasbecomethe

focusofmanydevelopmentinitiatives.Sheaisknowntotargetatleastthreeofthemajor

SustainableDevelopmentGoalsputforthbytheUnitedNationsforthe2015-2030timeperiod.

Theseincludetheeliminationofhungerthroughfoodsecurityandsustainableagriculture,

eradicationofpoverty,andgenderequalitythroughwomen’sempowerment(Naughton,2016).

Thecurrentthreatstosheaincludeillegallogging,charcoalproduction,firewood

collection,andexpansionofcasheworchards.Sheaisaprimarysourceofwoodforcharcoal

production,accordingtotheForestryCommissionofGhana,duetotheperceptionthatsheais

themostefficientandrobustfuelwood.Althoughsheaisundertraditionalprotectionin

Bamboi,throughAct571,whichwasenactedtoprotectforestlandsinGhanain1999,this

failedtoincludevulnerablespeciessuchasshea,dawadawa(Parkiabiglobosa)andbaobab

(Adonsoniadigitata)(Oppong-Ansah,2014).Sincetraditionalauthorityisrelativelyweakin

Bamboicurrently,thesheatreesareparticularlyvulnerabletoexploitationinthisarea.

SomeinitiativeisbeingtakeninnorthernGhanatodevelopsustainablemanagement

schemes.ThreecommunitiesintheWestGonjadistricthavebeenselectedtohostpilot

projectsdesignedtoincreasethedensityofsheatrees.TheTechnicalCooperationProject(TCP)

isanagreementbetweentheMinstryofLandsandNaturalResources(MLNR)andtheFoodand

AgricultureOrganization(FAO),andwillinvolveactiveplantingofanimprovedvarietyofshea

treesdevelopedbytheCRIatBole(FAO,2016).Thesenewvarietiesmaturewithin7yearsand

presentanexcitingopportunityintherevivalofsheaparklands.

Withnewdevelopmentsininfrastructureandsheavarieties,thereishopethatfarmers

willbeginactivelyplantingsheatoensureregeneration.OnefarmerinBamboiwasapproached

byanextensionagentoftheCRIlastyear,andwasencouragedtoplantshea.Theagentwas

givingoutimprovedvarietyseedlingsforfreetopeoplewhowereseriouslyinterestedin

farmingsheatrees.Thefarmerdidnottakeanyoftheseedlings,mostlybecausetheextension

35

agenttoldhimthattheCRIisworkingtoreducethematurationperiodfrom7yearsdownto3

years.

Ifsheaisactivelyplanted,itwouldhelptosupportthegrowingnumberoffemale

headedhouseholdsinBamboi(Ingrametal.,2015).Thoughthereissomeriskofmenbecoming

involvedatvariousstagesofthetradingprocess,thesectorislargelydominatedandsocially

exclusivetowomen.Activeplantingwouldencouragefuturesheastands,allowingthesectorto

continueitsgrowthwithinGhana.

Cashew

CashewiscommonlyassociatedwithoriginsinthecerradosofCentralBrazil(Dendena&Corsi,

2014).Thecashewtreeisaperennial,droughtresistanttreecultivatedinalmostalltropical

countriesaroundtheworld,withthemostintensiveproductionlyingbetween15degrees

southandnorthoftheequator(Ohler,1979).

Cashew(Anacardiumoccidentale)wasintroducedtoBamboiaround1969-70andthere

arenowmorethan200cashewfarmersinBamboi(Jebuni,Azaasumahpers.comm.,2015).Like

manycashcrops,cashew,whenplantedandmaintainedproperly,canprovidesignificant

incometofarmers.However,inBamboi,yieldsaremuchlowerthanoptimumorevennational

averages,andtheexpansionofplantationsthreatensheaparklandregeneration.Theworld

averageyieldofrawcashewnut(RCN)perhectareisestimatedtobearound500kg/ha(Horus

Enterprises,2005),thoughinthestudyarea,aninformalsurveyofcashewfarmsfoundthatthe

averageyieldwasonly71kg/ha.

Largelysmallholdings,casheworchardsrangeinsizefrom0.8to2.5haandestimatesin

Ghanashowedatotalof59,000haoflandundercashewbeingcultivatedby60,000farmers

(WATH,2007).Cashewisgrowninmosttropicalcountries,withIndia,VietnamandBrazilbeing

theprimaryproducersin2010.India,theUnitedStatesandEuropearethemainconsumersof

cashewnuts.Theindustryisexpectedtocontinueexpandingasglobalconsumptioncontinues

torise,especiallyinnewmarketssuchasAsia.Outofalloftheareasofcashewnutproduction

36

aroundtheworld,noneareasrecentordynamicasinWestAfrica.Since2014,cashewhas

becomethesecondlargestcashcropintermsofexportvalue,behindcocoa(Rabanyetal.,

2015).

I. HistoryinGhana

CashewmadeitsfirstappearanceinGhanainthe1960swithsporadicplantingthroughoutthe

greaterAccraandCentralregions,laterspreadingtotheBrong-Ahaforegion,whereitisnow

grownatthehighestdensity(Evansetal.,2015).Initialinterestincashewwasminimalpartly

duetoincorrectinitialplantingmethodsthatdidnotproduceoptimumyields.In1983,cashew

becamepartoftheEconomicRecoveryProgrammeinGhana,whereitwasidentifiedasoneof

thefutureprominentnon-traditionalexportcrops(Frimpong,2016).

In1998,duetothedeclineinthepriceofGhana’smainagriculturalexport,cocoa,the

agriculturalcontributiontoGhana’sGDPfellfrom47%to41%.Thissparkedthepromotionof

non-traditionalagriculturalcommodities,ofwhichcashewwasone(ADF,2000).Thesameyear,

theMinistryofFoodandAgriculture(MOFA)commissionedandfundedastudytoinvestigate

thestatusofcashewanditspotentialtoreducepoverty,especiallyinthenorthernregions.The

studyconcludedthatthepotentialforcashewwastremendous,andtheGovernmentofGhana

(GOG)implementedtheCashewDevelopmentProjectatacostof$US15.5million(ADF,2000).

TheprojectranfromSeptember2002toJune2010,andtargetedareaslikeagricultural

extensionandtraining,diseaseandstumpingtreatment,aswellasprovidingaccesstocapital.

ThefirstrecordedexportofcashewfromGhanawas15mtin1991.Sincethen,exports

haverisendramatically.Annualexportsofcashewreached47,000mtin2006andtheindustry

continuestogrow.In2008cashewexportsfromGhanacontributed6.1%oftheGDPand18.2%

oftheagriculturalGDPinGhana(Wognaaetal.,2013).In2014,Ghanaproduced50,000mtof

RCN.

Thoughtheareaofcultivatedcashewcontinuestorise,therearemajorproblemswith

thequalityofcashewfromGhana,aswellasasignificantlackofdomesticprocessing.Asa

result,muchofthevalueofthecashewproductisnotretainedinGhana(Figure15).Still,the

37

cropisconsideredtobeasignificantcontributortotheincomeofpoorindividuals(Wognaaet

al.,2013).

Thelackofproperplanting,thinning,pruningandgeneralmaintenanceofcashew

plantationsisapparentinthenationalyieldstatistics.Atpresent,averageyieldsforcashewin

Ghanaare0.4mt/haor400kg/ha,whereastheachievableyieldis1.8mt/haor1800kg/ha

(Wognaaetal.,2013).ThisissueisbeingaddressedbyMOFA’sAgriculturalExtensionAgents

whoaretrainedinproperplanting,thinning,andpruningtechniques.Extensionagentsare

spreadverythinlythroughoutGhana,andhaveavarietyofotherprojectstowhichtheyare

assigned.Asaresult,notmuchisbeingdoneinBamboitoimprovecashewyields.

II. Ecologicalsignificance

Cashewisanevergreenperennialtree,andtheonlyplantinitsfamilywitheconomicvalue.

Cashewtreesbeginfruitingasearlyasthreeyearsafterplanting,thoughtheydonotusually

reachstableproductionvolumesuntileightyearsofage.Theyhaveanaveragelifespanof

betweentwenty-fivetofortyyears.Theirheightandcanopiesvaryconsiderably,rangingfrom

5-14mtall,andupto20mwide,respectively(Dendena&Corsi,2014).Therootsystemofthe

cashewtreeisdeepandwidespread,allowingforintercroppingwithcropssuchasmaizeand

groundnutsuntilcanopyclosure,whichoccursaroundfivetosixyearsofage.Intercropping

withmaizeandgroundnutsyieldssignificantimprovementinthegrowthofcashewseedlings

(Dendena&Corsi,2014).

Floweringofthecashewtreeoccursafterthedryseason,andresultsinthe

developmentofthecashewnut,followedbythecashewapple.Boththecashewappleandthe

nutareofeconomicvalue,althoughthecashewappleisoftennotusedduetothelackof

affinityfortheastringenttasteinmostofGhana.Eachnutcontainsasinglecashewkernel,

38

surroundedbyathintesta,andadoubleshellcontaininganacardicacid—apoisonousphenolic

compound.Forthisreason,localprocessingisdifficult,anddangerous,astheacidcanburnthe

handsoftheprocessorandcauseallergicreactionsincludinganaphylacticshock,whichcanbe

fatal.

Cashewplantationsrequireasignificantamountofmaintenanceuntilthetreeshave

matured.Ifmaintainedproperly,cashewplantationsrequirelessmaintenancethroughouttheir

lifecycles.ManycasheworchardsinBamboi,howeverwereimproperlyplanted,basedon

inaccurateguidancebyagencyofficialsintheirnaissance.Asaresult,pruningandthinningare

oftenrequiredoncashewplantationstoimproveyields.

Atplanting,theareaaroundseedlingsmustbekeptclear,topreventcompetitionfrom

localweedsandovershading,thenpesticidesandfertilizersareapplied.Recommended

fertilizationsuggeststheapplicationof500gN,125gP205,and125gK20pertree,twiceper

annum(Panda,2013).

Figure8:MaturecasheworchardinBamboi,demonstratingtheproperumbrellacanopy.

39

Cashewplantationsaresubjecttoanumberofinsectpestsanddiseases,allofwhich

werefoundinoneorchardoranotherinBamboi(Pers.Obv.,2015).Themaindiseasesand

pestsforcashewincludeanthracnose,stemrootborers,thrips,andcertainfungalinfections.

Thesearemanagedbytheapplicationofpesticides,especiallyduringthefloweringseason.

Thereareafewintegratedpestmanagementstrategiesthatareusedtocontrolpests,

includingtheuseofweaverants,locallyreferredtoas“soldierants.”However,mostfarmers

resorttotheuseofchemicalpesticidestomanageinsectinfestations.Otherchemical

applicationstocashewplantationsincludeherbicidesandfungicides.Thesechemicalsare

detrimentaltotheenvironmentandfurtherresearchisneededintotheircontaminationoffruit

andcashewkernels.

Figure9:Cashewtreeatflowering. Figure10:Afarmerstandsnexttohisyoungcashew1-2yearsofage.

Figure11:Theinitialdevelopmentoftherawcashewnut. Figure12:Afullydevelopedcashewfruit.

40

CashewisusuallyharvestedbetweenFebruaryandApril,afterthefruithavestartedto

dropfromthetrees.Men,womenandchildrenallparticipateinthelaborofgatheringcashew

fruitandremovingthenutfordrying,althoughtheyarerarelycompensatedfortheirlabor.This

willbediscussedindetailwhencomparingthesocialeffectsofsheaandcashewrespectively.

III. TheCashewSectorinBamboi

AspartofmyPeaceCorpsserviceIwasamemberoftheCashewInitiative,whichconducted

surveysandprovidedrecommendationstofarmerstooptimizeyieldsofcashewfarms.In

Bamboi,35farmsweresurveyedforpests,acreage(usingGPS),useofpruningandthinning,

pesticidesandfertilizeruse,andaverageyields.Mostcashewfarmswereanaverageof3-4ha

insizeandwereriddledwithavarietyofproblemsrangingfrombushfiredamagetopoor

maintenanceandpruningtowindbornediseasessuchasanthracnose.Theaverageyieldof

cashewinBamboiwasonly71kg/ha,whichissignificantlylowerthanthenationalaverage.

Manyofthefarmssurveyedhadsignificantdamagefrombushfires.Firebeltsarea

maintenancestrategythatprotectplantationsagainstuncontrolledbushfire.Theyare10min

Figure13:AerialimageofafarminBamboiclear-cutforcasheworchardestablishment.Evidenceofcashewfarmexpansionoverayearperiod.

41

widthandencircletheentireplantation.However,theyareextremelylaborintensive,and

manyfarmershavetroublecompletingthembeforethemajorburningseasonbegins.

Ofthe35farmssurveyed,15farmerssaidtheywereplanningtoexpandtheircashew

farms.Cashewfarmestablishmentandexpansionrequiresaconsiderableinvestment.Removal

oftreesisusuallydoneaftertheplotiscleared,andhassignificantcosttothefarmer.One

farmerwastryingtoestablishanew8hacashewfarm.Althoughitwasillegaltocutdownshea

trees,hepaidtohavehisfarmclearcutandthenpaidafinefortheillegallyharvestedshea

trees.Thefarmcosthim$US263.85inlabortoestablish.Thisdidnotincludethecostforshea

treeremoval.

Theexpansionofthesameclearcutforcashewplantationestablishmentisshownin

Figure13.ThisGPSpolygonwastakenFebruary13,2015,whenthefirstphaseoffarm

establishmentwascompleted.ThisGoogleEarthimagewastaken11/13/16andshowsthe

expansionofhiscashewfarm(KarimA,pers.comm.,2017).

IV. Processing

TheentireprocessofcashewprocessingfromRCNtoediblekernelissummarizedinFigure14.

Thereareseveralbyproductsproducedatdifferentstagesofcashewprocessing,whichwillbe

discussedlaterinthemarketanalysis.Therewereonlytwofunctioningprocessingfacilities

withinGhanain2015,asmostcompetitorslackedtheaccesstocapitalinordertoaggregate

enoughRCNtomeritfactoryoperation.Processing,asshowninFigure15,bears30%ofthe

totalcost,withonlya16%profitmargin.

Thedryingpartoftheprocessisparticularlyimportantforthequalityofthefinal

product,orcashewkernel.SinceBamboiexperiencedhottertemperaturesandmoredirect

sunlightthanthemajorityoftheBrong-Ahaforegion,itwasknownthatsolardryingofthenuts

tooksignificantlylesstimeandthatoccasionallynutswouldbydryenoughtohearthe

indicative‘rattle’evenatthetimeofharvest.

42

Figure14:Thecompleteprocessofcashewfromrawcashewnut(RCN)tofinishedkernel.Source:Dendena&Corsi,2014

43

AsidefromtheprocessingofRCNtoediblekernel,thereareseveralopportunitiesfor

localprocessingofthecashewapple.Duetothelackofelectricityandthehighfermentation

rate(approximately4hoursfromnutremoval)oftheapple,juicingofcashewappleshasnot

becomecommercialized,thoughsomelocalsdoconsumethefreshjuice.Otheroptionsliein

theproductionofjam,marmalade,andalcohol.Somecashewdenseareasareexperimenting

withfermentinganddistillingcashewapplejuiceintovariousspirits.Thispresentsaneconomic

opportunitybeyondthesumreceivedfortheRCN,andanareawherewomencanparticipatein

secondaryactivitiesandpotentiallyreceiveincomefromotherwisewastedagriculturalby-

products.

Aspreviouslymentioned,Ghanalacksthecapacityandinternalcapitaltoprocessmost

ofthenutsgrowninthecountry.Asaresult,alargemajorityofthenutsareshippedtoIndia

andVietnamwherelaborcostsaremuchlowerthaninGhana.Amajorityofthisprocessingis

donebyhand,whichresultsinhigherwholekernelyieldswhencomparedtomechanical

processing,thoughthehealthimpactsfromtheanacardicacidareoftensignificanttothe

processors.Inadditiontonegativehealthimpacts,therehavealsobeenconsiderableissues

withtheworkingconditionsofthewomen’sworkforcethatprocesscashewinIndiaand

Vietnam(Dendena&Corsi,2014).

V. SocialSignificance

Plantingofcashewtreesisaverysociallysignificantact(Evansetal.2015;Lastarria,1997),asit

implieslandtenureandownership.Therefore,theexpansionofcasheworchardsisleadingto

issuesoflandrights,aswellasaddingpressureonsavannahwoodlandareas.Sincelandis

usuallyonlyavailabletomen,cashewplantationsareprimarilyownedbymen.Outof50

cashewfarmersinBamboi,onlyfourwerewomen.Cashew,byandlargeisconsideredtobea

“men’scrop,”anddespitewomenandchildren’sinvolvementinlaboronthefarm,profits

usuallygodirectlytothemen.

Themoneyfromcashewisspentinavarietyofways,includingsomehousehold

expenses,althoughamajorityofthemoneyisreinvestedintocasheworchardexpansionand

44

maintenance,chainsawoperationfees,travel,drinkingandgambling(Ingrametal.,2015).

Sinceprofitsfromcashewarereceivedinalumpsumonceperyear,therewouldalsooftenbe

aperiodofcelebrationfollowingasuccessfulcashewseason.Moneyisthenusedtobuygifts

forfamilymembersand/orforbelatedholidaygatherings—especiallyifthefamilysuffered

duringtheprecedingdryseason.

Asidefromchangescashewtreesenforceonthelocallanduseandpropertydynamics,

cashewkernelsareveryrarelyconsumedlocally.ManyfarmersinBamboihavenevertasteda

cashewkernel.However,cashewanditsbyproductsfrommanufacturinghavemanyusesinthe

internationalmarket.

Ascashewcontinuestoexpand,itnotonlythreatenssheaparklands,butalso

encroachesonlandavailableforsubsistenceagricultureandother‘women’sdomains.’Arecent

studyfoundthatwomenandgirlsloseoutonlandforfoodcropswhencasheworchardsare

expanded(Evansetal.,2015).Immigrantsettlersarealsopreventedfromplantingcashew

trees,sothecropisalsobiasedtowardindigenes(Ingrametal.2015).

Cashewhasbecomeintegratedintothesocialenvironmentasithasexpandedin

Bamboi.Theinfluxofmoneyattheendofthecashewseasonissignificantinthatpriorto

cashewseason,thecommunitywouldhavebeenexperiencingseriousfinancialhardshipdueto

theleanseasonthatfollowsthedryperiods.

VI. MarketAnalysis

CashewwillbediscussedintermsofeitherRCNorcashewkernel(CK),theformerisentirely

unprocessedcashew(asidefromdrying),andthelatteristheediblefinishedproduct.Theprice

ofcashewkernelsontheinternationalmarketisdeterminedbyanumberoffactorsincluding

thesupplyofRCN,thebehaviorofcertainactorsintrademanipulationandmarketspeculation,

thepriceofsubstituteproducts(especiallyalmonds),andexchangeratefluctuations.Cashew

kernelsaresoldbasedongrade,whichessentiallymeanshowperfectthekernelisafter

processing.Wholekernelsfetchmuchhigherpricesthanhalves,partialbreaks,orpieces.Many

problemsinprocessingcanoccurwiththemalfunctionofmachinery,whichmustbeexactly

45

calibratedtosplittheoutershellandavoidsplittingtheinnerkernel.Forthisreason,hand

processingispredominantinIndiaandVietnam,wherelaborisextremelycheap,asmanual

processingisoftenmoreefficientthanmechanicalprocessingintheproductionofwhole

kernels.

Similartoshea,cashewistypicallysoldin85kgjutesacks.Individualtradersand

corporaterepresentativeswillpurchaseRCNdirectlyfromfarmersandaggregateRCNbefore

saletoprocessors.Duringthe2015cashewseason,thefarmgatepriceinBamboiwas3Ghc/Kg

($US0.79,2015).Bytheendoftheseasonpriceswouldfrequentlyriseto5Ghc/Kg($US1.32,

2015).Manyofthepricefluctuationsarearesultoflackofregulationandoutsidebuyerswho

canpayapremium.Thesebuyerssometimesenhancethemarketforfarmers,howevercan

ultimatelydeterotherforeigninvestors,leadingthemtobuyRCNfromneighboringcountries

withlowerprices(WayneTilton,RedRiverFoods,pers.comm,2017).

Figure15:AnillustrationofthepercentofcostsandprofitsdistributedfromgrowthofRCNtoretailsaleofcashewkernels.Source:McKinsey&Company,2010.

46

AsshowninFigure14,theprimaryby-productsforcashewinclude:cashewnutshell

liquid,cashewshellcake,andcashewskinextract.Cashewnutshellliquidisthemostimportant

ofthebyproducts,duetoitsuniquechemicalpropertiesthatcanbeusedinthepolymer

industry,asacomponentinbrakelinings,paints,varnishes,andsurfacecoatings(Kumaretal.

2002).Theliquidhasthepotentialofreducingtheenvironmentalimpactsoftheplasticand

compositeindustries,andiseconomicallycompetitive(Dendena&Corsi,2014).Again,ifGhana

weretoprocessmoreofitsownRCN,thiswouldbeanadditionalsourceofincome.

ThepercentageofprofitsandcostsallocatedacrossthestepsfromgrowthofRCNto

finalcashewkernelsisshowninFigure15.Thefarmerisresponsiblefor13%ofcosts,yetonly

reaps2%oftotalprofitsfromthecrop.Theprofitmarginsontheirinvestmentsareverysmall.

VII. ConclusionsonCashew

Plantingofcasheworchardsisconsideredtobealandusechangeratherthananactof

deforestation,howeverthereplacementofpreviouslyheterogeneouswoodlandwith

homogenouscashewstandsrepresentsaseriousthreattothebiodiversityoftheregion

(Temudo&Abrantes,2014).Also,giventheshadingthatoccursincasheworchardsovertime,

nativespeciesthatwouldotherwiseregenerateonfallowlands(suchasshea)losethe

opportunityforgrowthanddispersal.

TherapidexpansionofcashewinGhanaisnotonlyathreattosheaparklands,butmany

peoplealsofearthatcashewistakingawaylandpreviouslyusedforsubsistenceagriculture,

threateningtheirpresentandfuturefoodsecurity(Evansetal.2015).Asneworchardsare

createdandolderonesexpanded,theavailabilityoflandforfallowperiodssignificantly

decreases,resultingincontinuouscultivationonagriculturalplotsforfoodcrops.Continuous

cultivationwithoutfallow,resultsintherapiddepletionofsoilnutrientsandthusloweryields

onfoodcrops.

Finally,expansionofcashewwithoutchangestothecurrentlandtenuresystem

reinforcesgenderinequalities,asmostwomenareexcludedfromcasheworchardownership,

andoftenloseplotsforfoodcropstocashew.Therearesomeopportunitiestodevelopa

47

women’ssectorinthecashewindustrywiththeprocessingofcashewapples,howeverthere

wouldneedtobeashiftinthementalityofmostGhanaianconsumers,whoatpresentdonot

careforthetasteofthepseudofruit.Inlookingattheeconomicanalysisofcashew,however,

itappearsthecropmaybemoresociallysignificantthananyotherparameter.Plantingcashew

secureslandtenure,andthussocialstatusassociatedwithlandholding.

WiththematrilinealinheritanceofpropertyinBamboi,cashewcanbepasseddownto

females.Traditionally,thewife’sfamilyhassomeclaimtotheestateofthehusbandinBamboi,

thoughinmoderntimes,theirinvolvementisunlikely,andtheorchardwouldrathergodirectly

tothewifeandchildren(AzaasumahThomas,pers.comm.,2017).

Aswillbeseeninthedirectcomparisonofsheaandcasheweconomics,cashewin

Bamboiisnotprofitablewhenconsideringonly25%ofexpectedinputandlaborcosts.

Therefore,thesocialbenefitmayoutweightheeconomicbenefitsofplantingthistreespecies.

However,iftheyieldsinBamboiweretoapproachthenationalyieldsofGhana,cashewwould

provetobemuchmoreeconomicallyattractivethanshea.

Methods

IhadtheopportunitytoserveasaPeaceCorpsVolunteerinBamboifromOctober2014to

March2015,duringwhichtimeIengagedinagricultural,health,educationalandsocial

activities.AsidefromlivingalongsidethediversepopulationofBamboi,duringmyserviceI

becameheavilyinvolvedintheorganizationofcashewfarmersandsheabutterproducers.As

partofPeaceCorpsGhana’sCashewInitiative,Iworkedtosurveyfiftypluscasheworchardsfor

variouspestsandimprovedmanagementstrategies,andwasabletospatiallyreference35

orchardsinordertoprovidefarmerswithacertificateoftheirlandholding.Thesecertificates

wereusedbyfarmersasameanstoaccesscapitalforfurtherinvestmentincashew(eitherfor

fertilizersandpesticides,ororchardexpansion).Separately,Iworkedwithsheabutter

producers,andwassuccessfulinorganizingandregistering73womenforaprocessing

cooperative.Unfortunately,myservicewastruncated,andthiscooperativedidnotcometo

48

fruition;however,Iwasabletolearnagreatdealaboutthelocalsheaindustryandprovide

trainingsonqualitycontrolinsheanutstorageandbutterproduction.

Tounderstandtheecologicalandeconomicimpactsofsheaandcashew,anextensive

literaturereviewwasperformed.Theframeworkforthesocialimpactsofbothcropswas

largelybasedoninformaldiscussionsandparticipantobservationswhilstlivinginBamboi

althoughitisalsosupportedbyrelevantliteratureonagroforestryandfarmedparklandsin

WestAfrica.Theeconomicanalysisofthetwospeciesutilizednational,international,and

locallyobtainedstatistics.

AcomparisonofcashewandsheaproductsonaneconomicbasisispresentedinTables

3and4.Forthesecomparisons,Ifirstcalculatedthegrossprofitbasedonthecurrentyieldsof

cashewinBamboi(71kg/ha)andthepotentialoutputofasheaorchard.Iwasabletoestimate

sheaonthesamesquareplantationschemeascashew(100treesperhectare,whichassumes

10mby10mspacingbetweentrees).Sheatreesareknowntoproduceapproximately2.2

kg/year,sointurnasheaorchardcouldtheoreticallyproduce220kg/ha/year.Grossrevenue

forsheaandcashewareshowninTable2.

Locallaborcostsarerarelycalculatedduetotheheavyrelianceonfamilylaborand

communallaborsharing.However,forcomparativepurposes,thenetprofitsfromsheaand

cashewinanindustrializedsettingwhen100%oflaborcostsareincludedareshowninTable3.

Forthesecalculations,Itookthemaximumgrossprofitandmaximumcostsoflaborforboth

species.Themaximumlaborcostsforsheawas$US209.10,combiningbothharvest(picking)

andpost-harvest(butterproduction)costs.Therateoflaborforbothcashewandsheawas

0.75Ghc($US0.20,2015)perhour.Themaximumlaborcostofcashewwascalculatedat940.5

Ghc($US248.15,2015),whichisbasedonWognaa2013’saveragenumberoflabordaysinthe

firsttenyearsofcashewfarming.Themaximumcostoffertilizersandpesticideswasbasedon

personalcommunicationswithcashewfarmersinBamboi.

ThelocalfarmlaborratewasestimatedbetweentwoandsixGhanaiancedisperday

(Evansetal.,2015).Thesamelaborrateascashewwasappliedtosheapicking,sincethereis

nomarketpriceonthisopenaccessactivity.Onedayoflaborwasassumedtobe8hoursin

length,whichwasusedtocalculateanhourlyrateof0.75Ghcperhour.Sheaisharvested

49

duringaperiodofthreemonths,onaveragefourdaysperweek,andapproximatelythree

hoursperday,amountingtoapproximately108Ghc($US28.50,2015)peryear.Processingof

sheacanbedoneyearround,howeverismostconcentratedinthethreemonthsfollowing

harvest.Costoflaborinprocessingwasderivedfromestimatesindividualtreeyieldof2.2

kg/ha(Glele,2011)andtheprocessingratioof3kgsheanutsequivalentto1kgofsheabutter

(Pouliot&Elias,2013).Withthesefiguresitispossibletogetaroughestimateofbutter

productionperhectareat73kg/ha.Withthiscalculation,andtheestimateoflaborper

kilogramofsheabutterattwoandhalftotenhours(Jasawetal.2015),itwaspossibletogeta

rangeofcostsinlaborforproductionfortheyearfrom304to684.4Ghc($US80.21-180.60,

2015).ThemaximumlaborcostswasassumedforthecalculationsinTables2and3.

Theannualcostoffertilizer,pesticide,andherbicideusewasestimatedbylocalcashew

farmersinBamboitobenomorethan1,729.74Ghc($US456.40,2015)perhectareperyear.

ThisnumberwasusedasamaximuminputcostforthecalculationsinTable3.

Results

Table3showsthegrossrevenueofsheaandcashewinBamboi.GrossrevenuewascalculatedbasedoncurrentyieldsandmarketpricesinBamboi,Itdoesnotconsideranycostsofinputsorlaborforeitherspecies.

Table3

SheaNuts/Butter CashewRCN

Yield 220kgsheanut/ha

73kgsheabutter/ha

71kgRCN/ha

MarketPrices Nuts:$US26.38/85kgJuteSack

Butter:$US3.95/Bowl(3.3kg)

$US0.79-1.32/kg

GrossRevenue $US61.82/haperyearOR

$US87.55Ghc/haperyear

$US56.20-93.67/haperyear

50

Table4illustratesthenetprofitsfromsheanutsandbutter,andcashewRCNattheircurrentyieldsinBamboi,whenspecificpercentagesofinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.ThesamecalculationsarethenusedtocomparethesituationinBamboitothenationwideaveragesinGhana.

Table4

SheaNuts/Butter CashewRCN

Yields LaborCost InputCostMax.NetProfit

($US)

Max.NetProfit

($US)InputCost LaborCost

BamboiCurrent

SheaOrchard:220kg/ha//

73kg/ha

CashewOrchard:71kg/ha

0 0 68.81/87.55 93.67 0 0

25%

50%

75%

100%

0

61.69/35.28

54.57/(16.99)

47.45/(69.26)

40.32/(121.53)

(82.47)

(352.27)

(434.66)

(610.88)

25%

50%

75%

100%

25%

50%

75%

100%

GhanaNationalAverage

SheaOrchard:220kg/ha//

73kg/ha

CashewOrchard:400kg/ha

0 0 68.81/87.55 527.70 0 0

25%

50%

75%

100%

0

61.69/35.28

54.57/(16.99)

47.45/(69.26)

40.32/(121.53)

351.56

175.43

0.71

(168.93)

25%

50%

75%

100%

25%

50%

75%

100%

51

SheaversusCashewDiscussion

OnedaywhencollectingsheanutswithayoungDagaatiboy,Iaskedhimhowhewoulddecide

topickasheafruitornot.Hetoldmeofseveraldifferentmethods.Forexample,ifthefruiton

theoutsidewasnotappealingtoeat,hewouldnotpickthenut.Also,ifthenutwassprouting,

hewouldtakespecialcaretoplacethenutinaplacewhereitmightgrowbest.Hisfirstmethod

ofdiscernisbeneficialinregardtothequalitycontrolofthebutterproduct;however,the

seconddemonstrateshisconcernfortreeregeneration.Whenaskedhowheknewnottopick

thenuts,hetoldmethathismotherhadwarnedhimagainstpickingthosenutsthatmaylater

producemorenuts.

Despitethislocallymanagednaturalregenerationinpickingpreferences,sheais

currentlythreatenedbyagriculturalexpansion,charcoalproductionandillegalloggingin

Bamboi.Thetreesaresupposedtobeculturallyprotected,howeverpeopleareabletopay

finestothelocaltraditionalgovernmenttoforgoculturaloffenseintheirremoval,and/orwill

removethetreesillegally.

Whengrowninclustersonfarmlands,sheatreescanalsocreateabeneficialsoil

microclimateformaizeandothergrains(Baziari,2015).Incontrast,cashewonlyallowsfor

intercroppingduringthefirst5-6yearsoffarmestablishmentduetocanopyclosure.Typically

plantedasahomogenousplantation,cashewrepresentsashiftawayfromapreviouslydiverse

landscapeofnativespecies.Cashewfarmingcanalsoleadtoerosionofsoilnutrientsand

environmentalpollutionasmanycashewfarmersusechemicalpesticides,herbicides,and

fertilizersontheirfields.However,organicallyfarmedcashewwouldnothavethesame

ecologicaleffects.Thereissomeeffortbeingmadetoencourageorganicfarmingmethods

throughoutthecashewindustry,especiallysincethereisapremiumpricereceivedfororganic

RCN.

Landusechangesuchastheshiftfromsheaparklandstocasheworchardsclearlyhas

manysocialimplications.Thefirstiswithregardtocommunityversusprivatelandholdings.

52

Sheaparklandsallowforcommunalorfree(barringgenderedsocialtaboos)accessbasedon

currentharvestpractices.Casheworchardsconvertplotsoflandtosmallerunitsofproperty,as

treesareindividuallyowned,onlandthatwouldhavebeenpreviouslycommunal.Although

cashewhasarelativelyshortlifespan(25-40years)inheritanceisanimportantfactor.Women

inamatrilinealsocietycaninheritproperty,sosomeopportunitiesdoexisttoincreasethe

numberofwomencashewfarmers.However,thisprocesscallsintoquestiontheideaof

whethertheprivatizationoflandaspropertyisbeneficialtothesocialstructureatlarge.

ResearchonlandholdingandaccessinAfricadiscusstheincreasingtrendtowardland

privatization,andconcludesthat“genderbiasremainsprevalentintheprivatepropertysystem

andmarketeconomy”(Lastarria,1997).Thoughwomenhavefewdirectaccessrights,females

canaccruelandusestatusindirectlythroughmaleconnectionssuchastheirhusband,brother,

orfather.Cashewfarmsinherentlychangethelandfromcollectivetoprivateownership,since

thetreesareviewedasprivateproperty.Thisallowsforthetreesandthelandtheyoccupyto

bepasseddownorinheritedassuch.GiventhematrilinealinheritanceofpropertyinBamboi,

bothsonsanddaughterswouldbeeligibletoinheritthelandandtrees.AlthoughDega

traditionentitlesthewife’sfamilytotheestateofherhusband,thistraditionisrarelyadhered

toinmoderntimes,withmostinheritanceoftheestategoingdirectlytothewifeandchildren

ofadeceasedman(AzzasumaThomas,pers.comm.,2017)

Duetothenatureoflandownership,cashewisconsideredtobeaman’scrop.

Conversely,thesocialnatureofsheatendstorestrictworktowomen.Thus,toencourage

genderequalityindevelopmentoftheregion,itisimperativethatsheaparklandsandcashew

orchardshaveequivalentproportions.Hereitwouldbehelpfultohavemeasurementsofthe

landallocatedtocashewandaccessiblesheaparklands,inordertoseethedistributionin

comparisontorelativepercentagesofmenandwomeninBamboi.Thiswouldprovidea

frameworkfordeterminingtheequityofaccesstosourcesofincomebasedonthetwo

industries

Cashew,asitstandsinBamboi,isreplacingotherincomegeneratingspecies,andmay

notbeaprofitablechange.Theeconomiccomparisonbetweensheanuts,sheabutterand

cashewRCNisshowninTables3and4.Table3showsthegrossrevenuefromsheaand

53

cashew,withcashewhavingaslightlyhigherreturnsthansheainagivenyear.Thissituation

changesdrasticallywhenthetwoarecomparedagainbasedontheirprofitsinTable4.

Table3illustratesthenetprofitsofsheanuts,butterandcashewRCNwheninputand

laborcostsareaccountedforinquartileprogressions.Basedonrelativefarmingpractices,a

farmermaynotapplyasmanyfertilizersandpesticides,andthustheircostwillbelower.Thisis

representedinthequartileprogressionfromzeroinputandlaborcoststo100%,which

representsafullyindustrializedsystem,wherealllaborandinputsareaccountedfor.

AccordingtoTable4themostprofitableindustryinBamboiisinthesaleofunprocessed

sheanuts.Nutsremainprofitableevenwhenconsideringcostsoflabor,whichisnotthesame

forbutterproduction.Sheabutterresultsinalosswheneven50%ofthelaborisaccountedfor.

Evenworse,cashewintheareaisonlyprofitablewhennoneofthelabororinputsare

accountedfor.Assoonasafarmeraccountsfor25%oftheinputsandlaborcostsofacashew

plantation,lossesarerecorded.

CashewiscurrentlynotprofitableinBamboi.Thisisduetoavarietyoffactorsincluding

improperplanting,disease,andmismanagedfireregimes.Table3alsoillustratesthe

differentialincomesbyquartileofcashewbasedonnationalyieldstatistics.Averageyieldsin

Ghanaaremuchhigherthaninthestudysite,andthusprofitsarerealizedevenwhenupto

75%oftheinputandlaborcostsareaccountedfor.

Thoughnationallycashewisprofitable,inBamboi,casheworchardsinplaceofshea

parklandsisirrational,sincethetradeofnutshashigherreturnswithallcostsconsidered.

However,theprofitabilityofsheamaybedownplayedinBamboiandthroughoutGhana,dueto

thesocialaspectsofeconomics.Aswaspreviouslydiscussed,themarketuncertaintyofsheais

actuallybeneficialtosomewomen’sgroupsasitallowsthemtousecollectiveactionand

bargainingpowerwithoutsidersreadforeignbuyers(Chalfin,2000).Ingrametal.(2015)

suggestthatwomenoftenselectcommoditieswithlowervalueandreturns.Thisselectionis

basedontheevidencefromGhanathatwomenrarelybenefitfrommarketlinkages,sincemen

willusuallytakeoverthecommodityonceitbecomesprofitable(Ingramet.al.,2015).

54

Recommendations

InlookingatthecultivationandprocessingofbothsheaandcashewinBamboi,thereareafew

recommendationsthatcanbemadetowardstheco-managementofthespeciesandrelative

landusedecisions.First,collaborationisneededbetweennationalandlocalstakeholdersto

conserveorpreserveexistingsheaparklandstoensurecontinuedusebylandlessindividuals

whorelyonsheafruitharvestasaprimarysourceofincome.Second,propermanagementof

existingcasheworchardscouldincreaseyieldsperhectare,andthereforeincreaseprofit

marginsfromcashew.Therehasbeensomesuccessintheintercroppingofsheaandcashew,

andsincetheyhavedifferentseasons,furthercashewexpansioncouldbecoupledwiththe

intercroppingofimprovedsheavarietiestooptimizetotalyieldsperhectareandencourage

greatergenderequalityamonghouseholds.Intercroppingofcashewandsheawouldensure

theregenerationofthesheaspeciesaswellaspotentiallycombatanthracnoseandother

windborneillnessescommontothecashewplantations,byactingasawindbreak.

WithanincreaseinthesustainabilityofsheaparklandsinBamboi,itwouldalsobe

beneficialtoencouragecommunityinvestmentinthestorageandprocessingofshea.Providing

afacilityforthestorageofsheatotakeadvantageofoffseasonpriceswouldgreatlybenefitthe

totalincomeofwomenthroughoutthecommunity.Asheastoragefacilitycouldbeeasily

establishedinBamboiwiththesupportoflocalleaders.

Anotherviablealternativeforsheamanagementcouldbefarmermanagednatural

regeneration(FMNR).FMNRis“anapproachtoarablelandrestorationandreforestationthat

seekstoreconcilesustainedfoodproduction,conservationofsoils,andprotectionof

biodiversity”whichinvolvesfarmerselectionandawarenessofspeciessuchassheaandtheir

ensurednaturalregenerationonthelandscapebyprotectingjuveniletrees(Westonetal.,

2015).EducatingthefarmersinBamboiontheimportanceandbenefitsofhavingayoungand

fruitfulpopulationofsheatreesforfuturegenerationswouldencouragesuchbehavior,or

enhancecurrentpracticesofleavingspecifictreesonfarms.

55

Beyondfarmers,itwouldalsobebeneficialtoeducateyoungergenerationsinBamboi

ontheimportanceofshearegeneration.Aboveall,moresensitizationofthevulnerabilityof

shea,andfurtherresearchintotheimplementationofactivesheaplantingisneededtoensure

theco-existenceofthetwospecies.

I. ChallengesandLimitations

Thisstudyhasmanylimitations,mostlyinthelackofdatashowingtheactualexpansionrateof

cashewplantationsinthearea,aswellasthevulnerabilityofcurrentsheaparklands.Thiscase

studyisalsolimitedbytheamountofinformationthatisobtainablefromthisregion.Exact

figuresofexportsofsheaandcashewareoftencontrolledbyprivatestakeholdersinthe

industry,andduetotheirproprietarynature,mostareunwillingorunabletoproducesuch

figures.Furtherresearchintothelevelofvulnerabilityofexistingsheaparklandsinthearea

wouldbehelpfulindeterminingtheactualthreatthatcashewplantationexpansionpresentsto

shea.Thiswouldincludetherateofharvestforloggingandcharcoalproduction,aswellasany

woodlandsbeinglosttourbanizationinandaroundBamboi.

Therearealsomanychallengesthatwouldaccompanytherecommendedmanagement

strategiesforsheaandcashewinBamboi,andfurtherresearchisneededtodeterminethe

viabilityofashearegenerationprojectinthearea.AsseenintheBrong-Ahaforegion,cashew

expansionmaysoonovershadowanyhopesofintercropping(Evansetal.,2015).Therearealso

challengesdirectlyrelatedtoplantingshea,andespeciallyoncasheworchards.

First,dependingonthelandowner’sworldview,sheamaynotbeplantedoutoffearor

socialtaboo.TherearesomerumorswithinBamboithatamanmightdieifheistoplantashea

tree.Inadditionitmaybedifficulttogetmalelandholderstoactivelyplantshea,sincethey

willlikelynotbethedirectreceiversofincomefromthetree.

Itisalsoimportanttoconsiderthechangesthatwouldoccurasaresultofactiveshea

treeplanting,andespeciallyintercropping.Thoughpromotinggenderequality,income

generatedbywomenhasthepotentialofcreatingtensionwithinahouseholdrelatedto

relativeincomegenerationbetweenahusbandandhiswife.Still,asthenumberoffemale

56

headedhouseholdsincreasesanddevelopmentfocusesongenderquality,thereexistsmany

opportunitiesforwomentobecomemiddlemenwithinthesheaindustry,giventheyreceive

traininginfinancialliteracyandbasicbusiness.Furtherresearchisneededonimproved

varietiesofbothsheaandcashewspecies,andnationalregulationofthecropswouldbe

beneficialinprovidingbaselinesforprofitability.

57

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