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Shelley Ross, PhDDepartment of Family Medicine
Faculty Development January 13, 2011
MOTIVATING YOUR LEARNER
OVERVIEW
Motivation theory: what makes people want to learn?
Findings from motivation research
Feedback:
What doesn’t work
What does work
Applying research findings to the clinical teaching setting
WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
“Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained”
Pintrich & Schunk, 2004
MOTIVATION: A HISTORY
Initial work : psychology researchers
Focus: What drives behaviour?
Basic needs = main motivators
Stimulus-response
Hull (1943) moved motivation theory beyond basic needs and into the domain of drive to succeed
ACHIEVEMENT THEORY
Growing out of Hull’s work, educational psychologists began to study what drives students in classrooms
Cognitive theories of motivation are the most researched
These are loosely termed as “achievement theories”
ACHIEVEMENT THEORY
Five main theories of motivation in education
Much overlap between theories
Certain components will resonate for people
Instructional recommendations from research around each theory are applicable to most students
SELF-EFFICACY
Bandura (1997) & Schunk (1991)
Self-perception of “I can do it” leads to motivation
Future-oriented; situation-specific; unstable – varies with situation;
Expectancies and goals required to determine self-efficacy
SELF-WORTH
Covington (1984; 1992) People are motivated by the need to feel
competent; “to be worthy is to be able” (Graham & Weiner, 1996)
Need is to protect a sense of one’s own ability in order to preserve self-worth success = high self-worth,
failure = low self-worth
want to maximize rewards and minimize punishment.
EXPECTANCY-VALUE
Eccles (1987, 2005), Eccles & Wigfield (2000)
Choice, persistence, direction of behaviour depend upon value of the task and its successful completion
expectancies based on learner’s self-perceptions of competence
4 dimensions for task-value: attainment value intrinsic value utility value cost
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Weiner (1985)
Outcomes (particularly failure) lead to search for reasons for outcome;
causal attribution impacts future expectancies
Causal search; focus on outcome (past-oriented); attributions can be
internal/external (locus),
stable/unstable (stability),
and within or beyond the learner’s control (controllability)
ACHIEVEMENT GOAL THEORY
Ames (1984), Dweck & Leggett (1988), Nicholls, 1984)
Implicit goals exist for all tasks: do it to learn/do it for yourself,
OR do it to look good/be better than others (OR both)
Implicit goal orientations are adopted for a task: mastery/learning/task orientation = doing task to
learn/improve skill
performance-avoid = do not do task to avoid looking bad
performance-approach = do task to look good
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Self-efficacy and goal orientation are predictive of, or positively correlated with, the use of cognitive strategies and self-regulated learning (Bandalos et al., 2003; Patrick et al., 2001; Pintrich & DeGroot, 1990; Schraw et al., 1995; Zimmerman & Martinez-Pons 1990)
Self-worth predicts the use of self-handicapping (Covington, 2000), which interferes with student learning
LEARNING AND MOTIVATION
Task value predicts whether students plan to enroll, & whether they actually enroll in courses; expectancies predict achievement once students actually enroll (Wigfield & Eccles, 2002), which suggests that expectancies are impacting student learning during the course.
Attributions indirectly affect student learning through their impact on self-efficacy and self-worth (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002; Pintrich, 2003).
MOTIVATION AND INSTRUCTION
Achievement motivation constructs interact
Planning instruction around one motivational variable will likely have an influence on other motivational constructs. Improving self-efficacy can encourage adoption of a learning
goal;
Creating an environment that protects self-worth while allowing mistakes can lead to adaptive attributions, higher self-efficacy, and eventually the adoption of a learning goal.
Creating a learning environment that encourages and fosters motivation can lead to improvements in learning outcomes.
FEEDBACK
Effects of feedback have been examined in all areas of achievement motivation, but are particularly important in the impact
feedback has on attributions, self-worth, and intrinsic motivation.
In the case of attributions, the feedback given by teachers after either success or failure will influence the attributions that students make for the outcome (Pintrich, 2003; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002).
FEEDBACK
Accuracy of feedback regarding the causes of failure – was the failure due to lack of effort? poor strategy use? – should be both adaptive and honest.
The best evidence for the impact of feedback on attributions can be found in research on attributional retraining, where students are systematically given feedback to encourage them to make adaptive attributions (for example, Hall et al., 2004).
FEEDBACK
Finally, feedback as a course progresses was found to have an influence on students’ self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1993, as cited in Tollefson, 2000, p. 68).
Performance-focused feedback, as opposed to effort or strategy-focused feedback, may lead to the development of high outcome expectancies paired with low self-efficacy, which can lead to the choice not to exert effort.
FEEDBACK
So what IS feedback?
Evaluative information in response to an activity or behaviour
Key elements: Informative
There is always an evaluation component to feedback in education
FEEDBACK & ASSESSMENT
In our context:
In both undergraduate and graduate programs
Feedback is part of assessment
FEEDBACK & ASSESSMENT
Feedback on performance can be one of two kinds:
Feedback to further learning
Feedback that is a judgment of learning
FEEDBACK & ASSESSMENT
Five kinds of evaluative feedback
Confirmation (No, you’re wrong)
Corrective (No, you’re wrong. The answer is Alberta)
Explanatory (Your answer was wrong because Edmonton is not in B.C.; it is in Alberta)
Diagnostic (Your answer suggests that some extra study of Canadian geography would be helpful)
Elaborative (You will find as you study further that Edmonton is home to the University of Alberta, home of a terrific Family Medicine Residency program).
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Best feedback to Residents is INFORMATIVE
Residents enjoy compliments But will learn better from constructive
feedback
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Boehler et al., 2006
RCT: students given informative feedback on their performance after instruction in two-handed surgical knot-tying VS. students given compliments on how well they did the technique
Informative feedback group performed the skill better
BUT: compliments group reported significantly higher satisfaction with the instruction
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Feedback should be about specific behaviours
“You handled that encounter well” does not give as much information as “You communicated well with Mrs. Smith. She really responded to the way you made an effort to keep eye contact with her and talked to her at eye level instead of standing and looking down at her”
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
All feedback should give the opportunity for further learning
“You seemed to have some trouble explaining those medication instructions to Mr. Smith. Would it be helpful if we reviewed asthma management?”
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Feedback should be about actions or decisions, not about how you interpret the Resident's reasons behind those actions
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
If you do give subjective feedback, be sure to indicate that you are doing so
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Frame feedback in a way that allows Residents to self-evaluate first
“How do you think that went?”
FEEDBACK & RESIDENTS
Feedback should be clear
Resist the temptation to address multiple issues at once
Provide specific feedback about a specific behaviour or action
If a larger issue must be addressed, make sure the feedback session includes the opportunity for the resident to make a plan to rectify the problem
Questions?