Shinil Kim - SNUs-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/72658/1/01.pdf · 2019-04-29 · Shinil Kim Department ofEducation, SeoulNationalUniversity I. Introduction One of the momentous

Shinil KimDepartment ofEducation, Seoul National University

I. Introduction

One of the momentous tasks in education is to take up thechallenge having been brought about by the changing of thetimes. Some contend that it is the beginning of the postmodernage, meanwhile, others like Habermas insist that we are stillliving in the modern age though it is changing. Almost everyoneagrees that the present time in history is a critically transitionalperiod, whether it is postmodern or not. Therefore we have toexamine the relevance of current educational philosophies andsystems in view of the transition of the times.

In this paper, I would like to propose that we can begin byexamining the roots of present educational philosophy and thesystem. In other words, we can attempt to probe, from thefoundational basis, modern educational perspectives andphilosophies which have justified the existence of the moderneducational system. Examining the foundational basis ofmodern education entails reconsideration of the prevailingconcept of education and contains re-conceptualtzation ofeducation. This attempt to re-conceptualize educationaccompanies reexamined views of what it means to be a humanbeing and what society is about.

In an attempt to reexamine and re-conceptualize education, Iwould like to elaborate two perspectives, "learning perspective"and "schooling perspective." I will try to explore an alternativeconceptual framework of education through clarifying the

1) A version of this article was presented at the International Adult andContinuing Education Conference held in Seoul, Korea, 27-28 May, 1996.

2 THE SNU JOURNAL OF EDUCATION RESEARCH

relationship between teaching and learning, specifically via acomparative and critical analysis concerning the schoolingperspective and the learning perspective.

II. "Schooling Perspective" versus "Learning Perspective"

"Schooling perspective" has furnished the foundational basisof the modern educational system. The prevailing modernunderstanding of education imparts that 1) human beings oughtto be engaged in educational process either individually orcollectively, 2) however, since human beings do not initiateeducation by themselves, they should be instructed by the stateor authorities. "Schooling perspective" portrays instructioncentered education. It is the instructor who is responsible for thesuccess or failure are of education. It stresses effective teachingactivities. The ultimate end of education at this perspective is toteach people to meet the predetermined standards or criteria.

On the other hand, "learning perspective:' characterizeseducation differently. Learning here means the learnersintentional activity to attain new knowledge, ways of thinking,skill, norms, etc. "learning perspective" trusts human beings'inherent learning capabilities and respects learners' selfinitiative learning. It confirms self-initiated and self-directlearning. "Learning perspective" recognizes that human beingsare learning animals or 'homo studens'. This implies that humanbeings have strong learning needs and inherent learningcapabilities. Hence, if not prevented and repressed by otherforces, human beings are continuously engaged in learning.From the "learning perspective" point of view, learning occursprimarily by learners' active and self-initiated and self-directedlearning activities even though learning can often be facilitatedby advanced learners or teachers. This reclaims the mistakenbelief that teachers' instruction initiates and brings aboutlearning. Learners do not always learn as teachers teach them.Instruction itself does not necessarily generate learning butplays the part of assisting learning. According to "learningperspective," teachers are needed for the sake oflearners.

Learning, in the "learning perspective," is oriented to developconnectedness to a whole life (ConfuciUS emphasized the

"LEARNING PERSPECTIVE" IN THE ASIAN VIEWPOINT 3

continuous search for the attainment of human way) rather thanto acquire partial skills or specific techniques. Since the Asianorientation toward wholeness in life necessitates lifelonglearning and never-ending searches, this learning cannot befinished and certified by formal schooling, and it includesnonformal and informal contextual learning, not just formallearning. Moreover, learning is a lifelong search which is directedtoward articulating questions of what human beings are, andwhat human beings should attain in order to live as humanbeings. That is to say, this lifelong search pertains to theproblems of identity, commitment, conviction, and meaning oflife which can be clarified through engaging in critical reflectionof oneself within society with other human beings. The ultimategoal of education in the "learning perspective" is to attain andadvance self-understanding and perfection of self in life.

Then, why and how has "schooling perspective" been thefoundation for the modern educational system and the dominanteducational viewpoint over "learning perspective"? The majorityof educators, anthropologists, and social scientists tend tobelieve that human beings' achievement of civilizations are theconsequences of teaching. Margaret Mead, an anthropologist isone of those who believes that way. According to her, learning isengaged in by human beings as well as animals, teaching isuniquely a human invention. She further suggests thatanthropologists, therefore, in their study and research, shouldput more effort and emphasis on teaching than on learning(Mead, 1970, 72).

Clearly, Mead exaggerated the effects of teaching. Heroverestimated belief in teaching is related to commonly noticed,mistaken perception that teaching necessarily generateslearning. I think that this perception is problematic. We all haveexperienced as learners that one does not understand and learnall the things that are taught in school. Students sometimesrefuse to accept teaching, and even criticize and resist theteacher. On the other hand, learners learn something eventhough they are not taught in school. There are a number ofinstances where persons who are not schooled and do not attendany educational program have developed a higher judgment andunderstanding than those who have been schooled. There are anumber of great men (women) who are self-educated. Obviously,


persons attain great valuable knowledge, ways of thinking, liferules, functions, and emotional taste through self-initiated andself-directed learning activities in everyday life contexts. Theperception which puts stress on teaching while neglectinglearning, hence, should be reexamined.

I, furthermore, shall propose that we should reconsider theview that the development of civilization is the result of teaching.I argue that all those great ideas and inventions are theconsequences of scholars' own intensive studies, inquiries, andlearning activities rather than the result of receiving teaching.Even though teaching can contribute to the creation anddevelopment of new or refined ideas and knowledge, it is asweeping statement that teaching activities themselves createnew ideas and knowledge. Additionally new ideas and knowledgeare developed and created by learning activities.

This paper attempts to analyze and to characterize thefoundational basis of "schooling perspective" through comparingit to "learning perspective." It is expected that "learningperspective" offers a valuable point of view in the attempt tosearch for an alternative concept on education.

It seems that the roots of "schooling perspective" are groundedin the West and the roots of "learning perspective" are in Asia.This difference of roots might help us to understand why themodern educational system is hard to establish firmly in theAsian culture. Additionally, we might better locate the origins ofcommonly noticed conflicts between the Western and Asianeducation.

III. Roots of "Schooling Perspective"

State-directed schooling has been the predominanteducational idea in the modern age. This is the foundationalphilosophy which justifies and supports the modern schoolingsystem. Even though this educational idea originated from theancient Greeks, it was systematically developed in the 19thcentury along with the formation of modern states andindustrialization. This schooling system was first established inthe West, and has spread to the whole world during the 19thand 20th centuries. It has come to dominate and characterize


modern educational philosophy.Even though schooling systems might be different by country

in terms of management and organization. we can characterizethe common features of state-directed schooling as follows (Kim.1994,209-210).

1. In the standpoint of state-directed schooling, humanbeings are recognized as a national or a member of a nationflrat.i-That-Ia to say, it prioritizes membership of a nation tothe development of an individual human being.

2. Since people are not born with the property anddisposition to be the members of a certain state, it isobligatory for people to be taught to be members of a state.

3. The state has the right to be in charge of and responsiblefor the instruction of people.

4. The state should form the public educational system inorder to carry out education of the state. The state isresponsible for establtshingand managing schooling as thecore of the public educational system. Private educationalinstitutions should be under the surveillance of the publiceducational system.

5. States should decide the terms for compulsory schoolingfor people to be schooled. Compulsory schooling is. inprinciple. free of charge.

State-directed schooling now dominates educational systemsin countries all over the world. regardless of whether they arecommunist or capitalist countries; whether in the East or in theWest; whether rich or poor. In this sense. the "state-directedschooling" system is the core educational or character of the19th and 20th centuries.

The roots or foundational ideas of "state-directed schooling"can be traced to the ancient Greek and Christian culture. Theeducational ideas of the ancient Greeks. Jews and Christianshave strongly pervaded the modern educational system. Below. Iwill discuss some educational views of the ancient Greeks andChristians.

A. Educational Views of the Ancient Greeks

Most representative state-directed educational system had


been conceived by Plato. who considered a state-directededucational system the kernel of his concept of the idealrepublic. Plato. in his book The Republic and Laws. elucidatedthe basic philosophy of state-directed education. and moreover,laid out systematic outlines and management plans for statedirected education. Often. Plato's educational viewpoints arediscussed centering around only The Republic. However, theeducational discussion of The Republic was mainly thesuggestions for production of ruling elites. In Laws. Platodepicted education for the general public which formed thefoundation of the state. Therefore. with only The Republic. wecannot comprehend the full description of Plato's ideasconcerning state-directed education. Nevertheless. educationalinterest has been conc.entrated around Plato's elite-centerededucation whereas his design for education of the mass ofpeople depicted in Laws. has often been neglected. The reasonfor this seems to be that European educators, who have beenpreoccupied with elite-oriented education. predominantly haveintroduced and discussed Plato's educational viewpoints of TheRepublic.

In order to understand Plato's educational viewpoints. we needto clarify his views about human beings and society. Plato. inThe Republic. assumed that every society. whether its nature issimple or complex, is established by two basic principles. Oneprinciple is that since every human being is deficient by oneself,one cannot help but form some communities and societies forsurvival. The other principle is that since every human being isborn with different talent and capability. each human being'ssocial role is necessarily different (Plato. 102-103). These twoprinciples were further elaborated by Aristotle's books ofNicomachean Ethics and Politics. These ideas of Plato's andAristotle's concerning the nature of human beings and thenecessity of social organizations for human life encompass theirviews about the roles of education in relation to human beingsand society. According to Plato and Aristotle. education shouldbridge the gap between human beings and society so that allhuman beings perform their role in the society successfully andovercome the deficiencies that each has when alone.

This means that Plato considered human beings. above all,members of a state and perceive the goal of education is to


produce functional members for a state. Maintaining a society orstate itself requires that members of a state ought to beeducated. Therefore, state should occupy the right to educatemembers of a state. State should have the authority and be incharge of establishing and managing educational organizations.What Plato had in mind about education is that the educationalsystem should be under the total governance of a state: stateshould control instituting schools, curriculums, appointmentand discipline of teachers, and advancement to a higher classand entrance to higher schooling. In a word, Plato promotedstate-directed education in the full sense. This reflects a pivotalaspect of Plato's educational viewpoints, that is, educationshould not be a matter of individual's free choice or decision.

In Plato's time, private educational activities such as privatetuition at home and private teaching by Sophists were thecommon educational forms. These private educational activities,Plato considered, could not bring up commanding and firmconsciousness sufficient to win over the competition withSparta. Plato was keenly aware of the Spartan educationalmode, and he might have sensed an urgency to form a countereducational system against Sparta. Probably, that could be whyhe designed national, state-directed educational plans. Underthis state-directed educational system, education would not bein the hands of parents and of private individuals. This couldillustrate that Plato was negative about freedom for education.He must have doubted the potential of private learning activities _that the learner pursued one's own learning either for oneself orby looking for a good teacher on one's own. These kinds offreedoms for personal learning and education, Plato must havebelieved, obstructed the development of a "Just Society", andmoreover, impaired state's survival itself.

Plato apparently underestimated people's potential of selfdirectedness in learning. Plato's neglect of learner's initiative hascome to be the dominant educational tendency: distrust towardlearners have come to be prevalent. Therefore, most educationaltheories and practices have been focused on effective teachingmethods. In other words, rather than supporting learners' effortto learn by or for oneself, major interest of .dorninant educationaltheories and practices have been to frame learners to engage inlearning or to learn unconsciously through devising forceful


educational methods and materials sufficient for warrantingeducational success.

For example, in book I and II of Laws, a purposefuleducational method, "coercing-drinking," is described. This"coercing-drinking" was used to discipline students forovercoming fear and temptation. Generally, when a persondrinks, one becomes highly emotional and this weakens one'sjudgment. Plato believed that students should be well disciplinedly coerced-drinking to overcome the influence of emotions andto hold one's power of reason. The best discipline for thispurpose could be met, according to Plato, by fortifytng the feebleposition of human being in terms of maintaining one's reason. Aperson's weak position (being easily governed by emotionaltemptation and lost one's self-control) is generally revealed whenone gets drunk. If one could avoid temptation and retain one'sself control even under the influence of alcohol, one's feeblenesscould be strengthened. Even though this educational method,"coercing-drinking," might appear to be trivial matter to us, itwas very seriously thought out teaching method. In Athens,during the Plato's time, it was against the law for boy under theage of 18 years to drink alcohol and for those males under 30years of age to get drunk. Drinking was prohibited to slaves,soldiers, administers, and sailors. There was a law that did notallow the drinking of alcohol before dinner time (Guthrie, 1978,326). In this kind of society, coercing students to drink foreducational purpose reflects that this teaching method was verycarefully and professionally designed.

It is evident that Plato must have felt the necessary to developprofessional educational method. The educational method whichcould surely guarantee the expected result, was, above all,imperative. In this sense, Plato might anticipate development ofeducational foundations which could bring forth assured,powerful, and effective educational methods. This educationalviewpoints of Plato have come to be prevalent moderneducational viewpoints as well as studies of education.

B. Educational Views oj Christianity

Educational views of Christianity are based on theacknowledgment of the Almighty God and the relations that theGod has to human beings. Human beings are creatures of God


and must be under the determining influence of omnipotentGod. This is the relations that human being must have to thedivine God (Castle, 1961,326). All the knowledge and normativeprinciples of human beings are originated from the Creator,rather than human beings themselves creating and conceivingall those things. Moreover, for Christianity, the God is only oneand disavow the existence of any other gods. If there is any otherdivine being, it is believed to be Satan or the devil. Hence, all theknowledge and principles are derived from only one source.Human beings simply receive and carry out the knowledge andprinciples that are given to by God.

Job in the Old Testament elucidate views about therelationship between human beings and God, and educationalviews in the standpoint of Christianity. The man named Job wasdescribed to Satan by God, "Have you considered my servantJob? There is no one earth like him; he is blameless andupright, a man who fears God and shuns evil" (Job, 1:8). ButSatan argued that Job would not keep his integrity and his faith,if he was put into the dreadful crucibles. God decided to test Jobby taking away Job's assets, his children, and even his health.Nevertheless, Job perseveres all the crucibles without anycomplaint or blame toward God.

However, what was uncovered throughout the crucibles wasthat Job believed in the truth and worship of God via his ownjudgment and will. For this attitude of Job, God angered andreprimanded him. God said, "How can you, the creature,comprehend the will of the creator, God?" Only after Jobconfessed that he could not have any judgment, will, andcapability without dependence on God, Job could get releasedfrom the crucibles and received much more new bequest andgrace. Job completely surrender himself to God as follows:

Then Job replied to the Lord: "I know that you can do allthings; no plan of yours can be thwarted. You asked, 'Who isthis that obscures my counsel without knowledge?' Surely 1

spoke of things 1 did not understand, things too wonderful forme to know. You said, 'Listen now, and 1 will speak; 1 will

question you, and you shall answer me.' My ears had heard ofyou but now my eyes have seen you. Therefore I despise

myself and repent in dust and ashes (Job, 42: 1-6).


The relationship between God and the human beings, not onlyin the Old Testament but also in the New Testament, has notchanged at all. Still, all knowledge, truths, and principlesoriginate from God only. Moreover, human beings are saved,which is the most fundamental matter in Christianity, by thegrace of God not by human beings' own efforts. Therefore, in theeducational standpoint of Christianity, no humans' teaching andlearning are allowed without having the right relationshipbetween God and the human beings. In a word, freedom forteaching or freedom for learning cannot be allowed andacknowledged. Furthermore, there can be no such thing thathuman beings learn and understand on their own way. Even ifit's possible, it would bring forth only God's wrath.

In summary, the educational standpoints of Christianity iscompletely one-sided, top to down, education. Learners are likeempty bowl and it is totally up to God and the church to fill upthe bow. Learners are only to receive.

C. "Schooling Perspective"; Basic Viewpoint of the WesternEducation

Through locating roots of the schooling perspective in theGreek philosopher, Plato and in Christianity, manifested in therelationship between God and human beings, we have attemptedto propose that the schooling perspective is representative of aWestern educational viewpoint. Even though there might besome differences between educational viewpoints of Plato's andthose of Christianity's, there is one common character: It is ateacher-oriented and teacher-directed educational Viewpoint.Education is determined by what and how teachers are to teach.Furthermore, teachers own the right to direct education. Here,what teachers imply can be a state, the God, or the church. Inthis instance, common teachers or instructors are onlyappointed practitioners, assigned by a state or by the church.Some might designate instructors as professionals. However,what educational professionals usually means is that they knowhow to instruct, impose, or indoctrinate the given curriculumand objective of education to the learners. It never means thatteachers decide the purpose and content of education.

Generally, educational activities consist of teaching activitiesand learning activities. It is evident that the educational


viewpoints of Plato and Christianity are centered aroundteaching activities. Learning activities are subsumed undergeneral educational activities. Learning activities are importantpart of educational activities for the reason that learners shouldtry to receive, for sure, with no deficiency, all of the teachings.This edifies that learners, ultimately, cannot be the subjects butare the objects of education. Schooling, no doubt, manifests asubject (teachers) and object (students) relationship ineducatton.Tn.short, schooling is a typical teachers-centered andteacher-directed educational form. Therefore, by "schoolingperspective" I mean to characterize teachers-centered andteacher-directed educational viewpoints.

The educational viewpoints of Plato and Christianity have beensmoothly consolidated with Western culture and history andhave come to be the foundational basis of the modern statedirected educational system, a role that has been greatlyenhanced with industrialization age. Obviously, the essentialsubstance of state-centered and directed educational system hasbeen schooling.

IV. Roots of "Learning Perspective" Asian EducationalViewpoints

The Asian educational viewpoints are mainly rooted inConfucianism and Buddhism. These educational viewpointshave been constituted on the base of Asian philosophy ofrelations between human being and society, and betweenhuman being and nature.

A. Confucian Views ofEducation

In the standpoint of Confucian philosophy, the individuals andthe society, moreover, natures and the universe are not isolatedfrom each other but integrated into one. In short, the heavenand the human beings are one. The relationship between theindividual and the unity is like the relationship a small universehas to the great Universe. The relationship between humanbeings and the nature is understood as "a human being is auniverse; the Universe is a giant life." (Jin, 1989, 31-49). TheseAsian views are contrasted to the Western views. Whereas the


Westerns regard an individual as merely a part to the whole andperceive human beings, nature, and god to be a separatedexistence, the Asians understand that each individual and thewhole are a complete being: an individual is little life and thewhole is a giant life. Moreover, according to the Asian views,since a human being and god are not separated, a humanbeings's steadfast cultivation can lead one to become a god, thatis to say, the Asians perceive that a god and a human being canbe integrated into one.

Confucianism also stresses that a human being can makeoneself either an inferior person or a superior person accordingto one's own endeavor to learning, inquiry, and self-discipline. Inbrief, anyone who persistently learns, searches, inquires, anddisciplines can be a god-like person or holy man.

In Confucianism, human beings are classified into 16 gradesaccording to the quality of human nature that each one attainsthrough learning and self-disctphne. They are as follows, inorder from the highest to the lowest.

Holy Man (llfc' Al. Wise Man (~~l. Man of Virtue (1=~l. Great

Man C*A), Man of Nobleness (~r), Man of Maturity Lij\tAl.Man of Goodness ('gfJ\l. Man of Golden Mean (q:t1Tl. Man of

Progressive (1I~'), Man of Fastidiousness (3~~), Man ofIntellect (*Il~l. Man of Constancy (:ff'i:g~), Rustic OffJ\), MeanMan (+Al. Man of Selfishness ("@~xl. Man of Falsehood (*e~m().

(Jin, 1986, 143).

Theses grades are conceived as not native, but as formativethrough learning and discipline.

In the classics of Confucian philosophy, there are fewprinciples or methods about teaching activities but a great dealof discussions are concentrated on philosophies, principles, andways for learning, self-discipline, and self-perfection. One of theConfucius's major works, the Great Learning (:*~), begins with"Ways for great learning is ... " (-*~zill). And the Analects (rmJfm)begins with "learning" (~) and ends with "knowing" (:9;0).

Lee Yul-gok (1530-1584), one of the great Korean scholar inthe Chosun dynasty, in his book, Gyuk Mong Yo Gyul, orEssential Way to Conquer Ignorance (¥~~~R:), offered someadvise in detail about learning activities not teaching activities.


In another book, titled Hak Gyo Mo Beom, or Rules for Learners(.J~'l,:f3ttl$B)' he presented the 16 rules for learners, as followings(Lee, 1972, 111-119).

Setting aim of learning and life Cll.i6;), Caring conduct andbehavior (~:!':t). Reading ('gDif), Speaking with prudence Hiitj§),

Attitude of Mind (1'f,c,,), Respecting parent (¥#JIJ, Respecting

teacher (¥~ijl), Fraternity (m:to, Conduct in family (m*),Human-relationship (:f!R)l.l. Taking examinations (~~),

Keeping justice (~~), Virtue and courage (f;!;j}\S',), Acting withprudence (~1ff)()' Observing rules in learning places (m*),Regular reading of rule books for learners (gD~).

For Korean people, the most fundamental purpose andsupreme task of human beings has been to perfect one's humancharacter, that is, self-perfection. They have believed that thehuman purpose could be attained by their own learning effortand continuous striving.

B. Buddhist Views ojEducation

Buddhism, likewise, does not separate the individual from theuniverse but integrates the two as one. According to Buddhism,all human beings reserve the disposition of Buddha, that is, aBuddhist disposition. Therefore, the Buddha or the god is notisolated from human beings.

Among the individuals, there is the whole; and among thewhole, there is an individual. An individual is the whole; andthe whole is an individual. (Avatamska, a Buddhist scripture)

Consequently, anyone who reaches to a true realizationbecomes a Buddha. For Buddhism, I, people and the Buddha,are all the same. Human beings strive to become a Buddhathrough intense and continuos search and realization.

Buddhism is divided into two; one is scripture-orientedBuddhism and the other Zen or meditation-oriented Buddhism.Whereas the former focuses to achieve attainment of Nirvanathrough studying scripture and comprehending the doctrines,the latter acquires attainment of Nirvana through meditationrather than through knowledge or logic. Regardless of this


difference, the ultimate purpose of Buddhist search is to attainBuddhahood which necessarily includes self-understanding.Therefore, each self is the subject and the center.

People do not reach 'Becoming Buddha' in the same way andat the same time. There might be a person who attains higherlevel of attainment than others. This person could help others tounderstand life or the universe. In Buddhism, there is a sayingthat "To upward seek to understand and realize, and todownward endeavor to guide and to teach people"(Park, 1981).This view of a person's (who precedes attainment of selfrealization before others) helping others is well illustrated by thefollowing description, by Chul-Tak, "when a chicken is trying tohatched out, the chicken exerts to pecking the egg to breakinside and the hen can help as well as by pecking the egg tobreak shell" (Park, 1981: 70). The analogy can be made thatpecking the egg and being hatched is associated with theattainment of self-realization and the chicken's efforts to peckthe egg, to break it, is like intentional personal learningendeavor.

C. "Learning Perspective": Basic Viewpoint ofAsian Education

What would Asians, who have distinctive world views, developtheir educational prospects? Systematically formed education?Imposing or instructing the given educational objectives andcurriculum by implementing scientific methods? If theseactivities are regarded as educational activities, these are notwhat Asians have in mind in their concept of education. Eventhough Asians have some interest in teaching activities, theyhave not put that strong emphasis on educational systems,curriculum, and methods for teaching as the Westerns havedone. Asians, on the other hand, have put more values tolearning than to teaching. What Asians intend to attain is waysfor learning rather than ways for teaching.

Asian educational version seems fundamentally different fromthe Western teacher-centered and teacher-directed educationalviewpoints. Breaking the egg is up to the chicken not to hen.Only after the chicken initiates breaking the egg inside, does thehen help to break the egg. It is not the hen outside the egg butthe chicken inside the egg that directs its effort to break the egg.That is to say, in educational activities, the center is the learner


not the teacher. The ways to achieve something throughstudying is not given and determined to the learners. Thesubject of educational search is the learner not the teacher. Selfrealization, whether attained or not, is up to learner who directsand pursues his or her own learning. It is the learner who isprimarily responsible for the level of attainment in characterdevelopment.

Asians' learner-oriented point of view is clearly demonstratedby the atttt.ud.eaiof parents to their children's schoolperformance. A study reveals that Asian (Japanese andTaiwanese) parents and teachers believe that all children havethe potential to master challenging academic tasks if they workhard enough. In contrast, many more American parents andteachers regard native ability as the key to academic success(Stevenson, 1992).

V. Limits and Potentialities of the Two Perspective: TowardAn Alternative Concept of Education

It has been discussed that whereas Western educationalviewpoints are centered around the schooling perspective, thelearning perspective is the representative Asian educationalviewpoints. However, in an attempt to reconceptualize education,the two perspectives cannot be a matter of either-or. When wethink about educational process, eve.ryone is a learner as well asa teacher, In our lifelong learning process, we are in some senseor the other, constantly learning something from other andinfluencing others to learn. Therefore, the concept of educationshould embrace learning activities and teaching activitiestogether.

However, when the prevailing concept of education isconsidered, the two aspects are not harmoniously synthesized.Rather, it can be claimed that the schooling perspective hasdominated almost all areas of education: educationalphilosophies, curriculum, educational methods, educationalmanagement, and educational systems. This dominance of theschooling perspective has led to a totaltzing effect on theformation of the concept of education. Any activities which areout of the frameworks of the schooling perspective are not


defined as appropriate educational activities. According toWestern educational viewpoints, that is the schoolingperspective, traditional learning activities of the natives in thethird world countries have been determined as non-educationalactivities. To this colonialistic effect in terms of definingeducation, the following questions can be raised: should theconcept of education be defined only by Western views ofeducational viewpoints-the schooling perspective? Can schoolingsystem embrace all the educational activities? It is argued thatprevailing concept and activities of education are dominantlycircumscribed by Western educational viewpoints, consequently,narrow educational concepts and activities. This is one of thereasons that we should reconceptualize education. For thispurpose, I shall further analyze some limits and potential ofmodern schooling system.

A. Limits and Potentialities ojModern Schooling System

Schooling has a double function: one function is to enlightenand emancipate people, and the other function could be todomesticate and dominate people, these double functions ofschooling are closely related to limits and potentialities ofschooling-oriented education. On the one hand, schooling-basededucation (since it is generally state-directed education) mighthave contributed to increasing opportunities to learn for morepeople. These increased educational opportunities couldcontribute to effecting mobility. Education could assist people toovercome given status or class determined by birth and helppeople to gain some important means to move upward. If morepeople have chances to learn in order to become enlightened andemancipated from ignorance and restriction, education cansurely give some positive impact for democratization. In short,schooling-based education has potential for broadening thelearning opportunities for people.

However, limits of the schooling perspective oriented educationcan be located in its subject (teacher) and object (student)dichotomy-based education. This dichotomy rationalizesteacher's control over the student who is merely an object.Compared to the subject who can discern between the good andthe bad and who are able to choose the best way, the object isdeficient in these capabilities. According to this dichotomy, the


teachers are always superior to the students. Therefore, it is verynatural for the students (object) to be directed and governed bythe teachers (subject). Surely, this subject and object dichotomybased education fosters teacher-centered education.

It is evident that this dichotomy presuppose unequalrelationship between the subject (the teacher) and the object (thestudent). Additionally, this dichotomy has an impact to dividepeople into the subjects and the objects and fortifies inequalitybetweeripeople. Therefore, subject and object dichotomy-basedschooling tend to reinforce and reproduce inequality rather thancontributing to equalizing between the subject and the object orbetween people. Moreover, as this kind of schooling (Westerneducational system) has become dominant educational form inthe world, it strengthens cultural imperialism and neocolonialism by defining Western educational system as superioror the appropriate form, while non-Western forms areconsidered inferior or inappropriate. Often, non-Westerneducational activities and ideas have been excluded in theconcept of education and have been the subject of reshaping andredirecting to fit the Western educational system.

As mentioned before, the subject and the object dichotomybased schooling justifies teachers' dominance over the students.Teachers, furthermore, are try to perpetuate their dominance bymaking the students uncritically obey the given rules and acceptstandards or criteria, set out by the teachers or authorities. Inother words, domesticating the students can be one good way formaintaining teachers' control over the students. Moreover,domesticating function of education could intensifymassification of students. If a person is accustomed todomesticating education and is massifted, he or she would havea hard time becoming a morally autonomous and independentperson and making a free and responsible choice. This personcould be easily massified, malleable to be directed and controlledby outer forces consciously or unconsciously. Masstftcation,fortified by domesticating education, does not render positiveimpact for democratization which asks for a "taking charge ofattitude" - active participation for directing and creating one'sown life and society.

In summary, these limits of subject and object dichotomybased, schooling-oriented education breed the following issues.


Firstly, schooling-oriented education tend to engender "closed"education. Rather than promoting free and opened-choices ofeducational purposes, contents, forms, and methods, schoolingoriented-education is driven by controlled and closededucational manner. Secondly, by putting emphasis on thetransmission of universal knowledge, schooling-orientededucation contributes to maintaining and perpetuatinghegemonical dominance in the name of transmission ofuniversal knowledge. Even though they (the advocates ofschooling-oriented education) always insist the priority oftransmission of universal knowledge to students, they hardlyput any attention to the gap between the universal knowledgeand actual educational and social reality. Through neglectingthe division between the two and the consequential problems,and through imposing that the current education is successfulin transmitting the universal knowledge, it perpetuates thehegemonical dominance of the ruling groups.

Thirdly, since schooling-oriented education is teachercentered or state and educational institution-directed, this kindof education, by disregarding learners' need and interest, inhibitlearners' active and self-directed educational development butmultiply production of passive learners. Finally, since theeducational interest of this kind of education is concentrated onschooling or schooling kind of system. Therefore, prevailingeducational studies have been focused on schooling kind,systematic educational activities and have not put any attentionto those private educational activities and learners' owneducational formulation. If we look into prevalent studies ofeducational history, this problem becomes much more manifest.A number of Western educational historians, in their third worldeducational studies, when they could not find any Western kindof schooling or schooling kind of activities, often have claimedthat "There is no education in this country."

B. Toward an Alternative Concept ofEducation

Examining some limits and potentialities of the schoolingperspective and the learning perspective can expose someelemental aspects in considering an alternative concept ofeducation. One way for reconceptualtzmg education can beattained through exploring ways for overcoming the limits of the


two educational perspectives-the learning perspective and theschooling perspective. As mentioned above, it is true thatmodern the schooling perspective oriented-education, by offeringmore chances to get education, therefore to supply someopportunities for mobility in terms of social status, contributesto overcoming the limits of the learning perspective orientededucation. However, the schooling perspective has become aone-sided dominated educational concept and activity. Moreover,this exclusive definition of education by Western schoolingsystem has restrained the full realization of educationalpotential.

It is argued that the learning perspective - representative ofthe Asian educational viewpoint - has been neglected by theschooling perspective - Western educational viewpoints,especially by its colonialistic manner toward non-Westerneducational activities. Moreover, this neglect about Asianeducational viewpoints has led to ignoring some educationalimplications of what the learning perspective-oriented educationcan offer. I propose that the learning perspective would beconsidered an alternative framework in the attempt toreconceptualize education for the reason of fo llowtngassumptions.

Firstly, the learning perspective assumes that human beingsare learning animals or homo studens: human beings havestrong learning desire and disposition; they are equipped withlearning capabilities; and human beings can initiate ones' ownlearning. Secondly, the purpose of learning is developed withinthe whole process of learners' lives. Thirdly, teaching activities,generally, assist leaning: teaching exists for the sake of learning.Fourthly, teacher and learner continually learn together, that is,they are co-learner.

Fifthly, the learning perspective, rather than enforcing topdown state's controlling direction in education, respect learners'rights and freedom, hence, encourage diverse and enrichinglearning activities. the learning perspective based education willnot allow that no one should in the standpoint of learning andpersonal development, forcefully instruct someone else withouthis or her concession to learn and attempt to change one'sbehavior with no learners' consciousness. the learningperspective insists that the subjects of learning should be


learners and cannot be replaced by outer forces such as thegovernment or an institution.

Finally, since the learning perspective promotes learners'initiative and diverse learning activities, that is, diversity basedbottom-up education, it is directed toward an 'open society.'

When the learning perspective included with the schoolingperspective, some limitations of the schooling perspectiveoriented education will be overcome and our understanding foreducational concept and activities can be expanded concretely inthe following ways. Firstly, seeing the phenomena of learningand teaching from the students' standpoint enlarges theprevailing teacher-oriented educational viewpoints. Secondly,since the learning perspective admits the possible mistakes ofteaching, this revitalizes critical reflection on educationalactivities and system. Thirdly the learning perspective recognizesthat with or without teaching, various kinds of learning activitiescontinuously take place. This recognition increases interest tothe learning activities happening out of schools and theeducational systems, therefore, there will be an increase inknowledge in how to improve private or group learning activitiesand how to institutionalize those private learning activitieswhich have been ignored in mainstream educational research.This enhancement of educational research attention to private orgroup learning activities will offer a positive impact to traditionallearning activities in the non-Western, third world countrieswhich have been excluded due to their difference from theWestern kind of educational system and activities. Fourthly, thelearning perspective can help overcome top-down, teachercentered and teacher-directed education and promote moredemocratic, bottom-up, educational management. .

No doubt, the schooling perspective, the core of state-directededucation has been the dominant educational form in ourmodern world. This dominance of the schooling perspectiveoriented education has narrowed the educational concept andactivities by one-sided determining what appropriate educationalactivities are, based on Western kind of educational system andactivities. In order for education to become a crucial bridge forthe full development of persons and for society, this narrowlydetermined concept of education must be transcended. We,therefore, need to search for alternative or new educational


paradigm which projects better and expanded vision ofeducation. For this search, the learning perspective cancontribute to offering some elemental aspects to be included andconsidered in education.

The attempt to reconceptualize education should be done withsome clear understanding and analysis of the trends in ourmodern society in order to meet the challenges of our age. Oneof the major challenges of our age is how to dialecticallysynthesize social unity while preserving cultural diversity. Livingin the modern society with other fellow human beings requiresthat we should not ignore either unity or diversity. This alsomeans that one of the two should not dominate over or repressthe other. The foundational conceptualized framework ofeducation should be reexamined and reconstructed with theconsideration of those challenges of our age. the learningperspective revitalizes humanizing educational potentialities andopens diverse possibilities neglected by the schooling perspectiveoriented education. That is why we need to give more attentionand interest to the learning perspective.

Finally, 'self-directedness' in learning is a topic muchdiscussed in last ten years or so. Literature of self-directedlearning has concerned more of the psychological aspect than onsocial and philosophical aspect of self-directedness. Discussionin this paper on the learning perspective against the schoolingperspective hopefully furnishes some implications for extensionof academic discourse on self-dlrectedness of learning.

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Shinil Kim - SNUs-space.snu.ac.kr/bitstream/10371/72658/1/01.pdf · 2019-04-29 · Shinil Kim Department ofEducation, SeoulNationalUniversity I. Introduction One of the momentous