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The Dialectic of the Pygmalion Myth

in the Age of Modernity

Pavlo Shopin

Clare College

This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy:

European Literature and Culture

have used the M!"A Style #uide and its author$date system of citation%


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Preface

This dissertation is the result of my o&n &or' and includes nothing &hich is the outcome of

&or' done in collaboration e(cept &here specifically indicated in the te(t% The dissertation does

not e(ceed the &ord limit%

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Contents

ntroduction )

*% The Pygmalion myth in +vid ,

-% The myth of materialism in .oureau$Deslandes /

)% The sub0ect of modernity in "ousseau *)

1% The curse of animation in #ilbert *2

3% The myth of language in Sha& -*

,% Postmodern Pygmalionism -3

Conclusion )*

"eferences ))

+ther sources ),

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Introduction

The thesis of this dissertation is that the versions of the Pygmalion myth in +vid4 .oureau$

Deslandes4 "ousseau4 #ilbert4 Sha&4 and .rant are attempts at demythologi5ation4 &hich are

parado(ically destined to introduce their o&n mythology% The Pygmalion myth is reality for

protagonists in these &or's4 but even for them it attains a controversial status of both an illusion

and a miracle% #iven that myths are refuted as illusions4 and ne& myths inevitably installed in

their place4 only the balance of 'no&ing and not$'no&ing provides the possibility of critically

assessing the process of enlightenment4 endangered by the triumph of unreflective reason%

+pening up the myth4 the modern authors imbue it &ith the inherent features of modernity:

ambivalence and uncertainty%

6hile being a&are of Losev7s phenomenological conception of myth4 shall also loo' at

Pygmalion from outside mythical consciousness and interpret it as an allegory &ithin thecognitive paradigm of embodied realism% The theoretical premise of my e(ploration of the

Pygmalion myth is consonant &ith La'off7s contention that myth is an unconscious metaphor

&hich ma'es human reasoning possible 8La'off and Turner */9/: -*34 and that it is therefore

closely interconnected &ith4 and constitutive of4 the process of enlightenment% The conceptual

metaphor theory &ill be applied as an important methodological tool to ascertain &hat 'ind of

mythology is created by the modern authors in their interpretation of the Pygmalion myth%

Analysing the metaphors in the te(ts4 it &ill be helpful to distinguish bet&een target and source

domains4 &here the source domain is a concrete concept &hich is not simply similar to the

abstract concept of the target domain4 but &hich ma'es the latter meaningful% t remains to be

demonstrated that behind each version of the myth there is an unconscious metaphor &hich

presents the metamorphosis as rationally e(plainable4 gives rise to mythical consciousness4 and ;

because reason itself is largely metaphorical ; cannot be eliminated by critical thin'ing%

Although the dialectical approach to the Pygmalion myth as both a real miracle ; a myth in itself

; and as a delusion and unconscious metaphor is distinct from Losev7s mysticism and La'off7s

cognitive relativism4 it definitely resonates &ith these scholars7 arguments about the

omnipresence of myths4 their persistence in time4 and the holistic nature of the mythical

consciousness of the sub0ect%

The Pygmalion myth can be applied as a metaphor to e(plain the modern sub0ect% The

myth7s ambivalence and transitory state bet&een reality and illusion resonate &ith the symptoms

of the sub0ect of modernity% The modern sub0ect is split bet&een myth and enlightenment4 1and

1The splitting of the modern subject is discussed by Cascardi (2000: 2! "hoargues that the modern subject is in fact positioned "ithin a field of conflicting

discourses#

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the Pygmalion myth sheds light on the nature of this split% The myth itself is fraught &ith

ambiguity because it is ent&ined as a foreign element in the fabric of each te(t4 and the dynamic

of the relationship bet&een Pygmalion and #alatea destabili5es the myth% ?m@an7s domination over himself4 &hich grounds his selfhood4 is almost al&ays the destruction

of the sub0ect in &hose service it is underta'en7% Amalgamation of po&er and reason means that

Pygmalion7s attempts to produce a miracle are efforts to gain po&er over his creation% n order to

reach this goal4 Pygmalion is ready to resort to mythology= but the age of modernity does not

allo& unreflective reason4 and Pygmalion reali5es that his domination and omnipotence are a

mere illusion% The dialectic of the myth captures the moment &hen Pygmalion may either give in

to the illusion or doubt the credibility of the miracle%

n +vid4 Pygmalion7s mastery achieves a perfect delusion: >ars adeo latet arte sua7

8Metamorphoses4 4 -3-% !e believes in the possibility of animating his statue because it is so

life$li'e% The original story ; as &e 'no& it from +vid7s Metamorphoses ; treads the line

bet&een a miracle and self$delusion% After +vid4 its nature has remained ambivalent over the

centuries% +ne can even posit an assumption that it has al&ays been controversial in its

animating the inanimate% E(amining the Pygmalion myth4 adopt the ahistorical conception of

myth4 and dra& on La'off4 Losev4 and other scholars to argue that from the point of vie& of the

myth itself it cannot be either an invention or a delusion but is e(perienced by human beings as

authentic reality 8e%g% Losev -BB*: ),% n this perspective4 the Pygmalion myth is a miracle of

animation% And as the myth can be used to decipher the controversies of the age of modernity4

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Pygmalion as the modern sub0ect and his relations &ith the animated ob0ect &ill come to the

foreground%

or Adorno and !or'heimer4 as &ell as for La'off and Losev4 mythology is not

historically superseded by rationality but constitutes human e(perience of reality and is common

in everyday life% !ence it is reasonable to consider the modern versions of Pygmalion as variants

of a myth4 in spite of the fact that most comparative studies tend to vie& Pygmalion as a theme

or a story 8e%g% Drrie */21= oshua -BB*= 6eiser *//9% .y treating the Pygmalion myth as a

myth4 it is possible to do 0ustice to the modern interpretation of the Pygmalion mythology and to

contribute to its comparative study% All the versions of the Pygmalion myth are important in this

conte(t4 since there is no priority of one &or' over any other4 and each te(t contributes to the

reactivation of mythical consciousness in the age of modernity%

This e(ploration of the Pygmalion myth is intended to sho& ho& mythology isproblemati5ed in modern literary &or's4 and ho& the dialectic of the Pygmalion myth relates to

more general problems of modernity% .y &ay of close reading of the modern versions of the

Pygmalion myth4 &ill be loo'ing for moments in the te(t &hich complicate its reception4

finding instances of sub0ect$ob0ect relationship4 and recogni5ing the underlying metaphors of

animation and Pygmalion7s sub0ectivity% The choice of primary sources is motivated4 above all4

by the tas' of unravelling the dialectic of the Pygmalion myth in the age of modernity% +vid is a

necessary introduction4 and the final part is an e(cursus into the postmodern interpretation of the

myth% irstly4 shall read +vid7s original version of the Pygmalion myth and sho& ho& the myth

is e(perienced as both authentic reality and illusion% +vid7s te(t introduces mythical

consciousness to the story and complicates the process of animation% Secondly4 shall e(amine

.oureau$Deslandes7s novelette in order to see ho& materialism inscribes its ideology into the

fabric of the Pygmalion myth% This &or' is one of the clearest e(amples of ho& one mythology

supersedes another% Thirdly4 shall discuss Pygmalion7s delusion in "ousseau7s monodrama and

try to sho& ho& Pygmalion vie&s the process of animation% "ousseau7s Pygmalion is an idealist

rather than a materialist4 and his animation of the statue is e(perienced as an illusion in contrast

to .oureau$Deslandes7s mechanistic philosophy% #ilbert7s Pygmalion and Galatea8*92B &ill

help to elucidate the process of alienation of the ob0ect and #alatea7s parado(ical petrification%

The analysis of Sha&7s play and Eli5a7s alleged transformation from the flo&er girl into an

artificial duchess &ill enable me to assess critically the failure of Pygmalion7s &or' due to the

triumph of instrumental reason% inally4 the danger of forgetting the Pygmalion myth &ill be

e(plored as a symptom of postmodernity% 6ith reference to .rant7sAutumn Duchess8-B**4

shall e(amine ho& postmodernity can e(tinguish critical thin'ing in favour of difference and

nonconformism4 &hich install a different 'ind of mythology &ithout self$reflection%

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The dialectic of myth and enlightenment is at the core of modern European philosophy

and culture% t is inadvertently reintroduced &ith every ne& effort at critical thin'ing% As Adorno

and !or'heimer 8*/2-: (vi have masterfully sho&n in theDialectic of Enlightenment4 >myth is

already enlightenment= and enlightenment reverts to mythology7% f one ac'no&ledges that

modernity as demythologi5ation and construction of ne& 'no&ledge is not over4 and that the

pro0ect has not been abandoned by scientists4 philosophers4 and artists4 then it is necessary to

recogni5e that mythology remains &ithin the tenets of the postmodern condition% The unfinished

pro0ect of enlightenment faces mythology as its dialectical counterpart% The postmodern tradition

reali5es enlightenment7s self$revision4 and as it reflects on the process of enlightenment4 it

uncovers the mythical origins of such ideals as freedom4 sub0ect4 reason4 eFuality4 and

humanism% As a result4 postmodernism is the mirror image of modernity ; &here self$critical

demythologi5ing cannot prevent instrumental reason ; and yet it shatters >the modern pro0ect7sblind arrogance4 high$handedness and legislative dreams7 8.auman *//*: *2% Contemplating

itself in the mirror of self$criticism4 the modern mythology arrives at determinate negation as its

final destination= as a result4 ambivalence and uncertainty assume the 'ey roles in understanding

reality% Mythology recogni5es its self$delusion4 but the need for enlightenment forces it to

reinvent itself% The act of undoing all myths as an ob0ective of modernity becomes

mythologi5ing in itself% The disenchanted &orld see's both absolute freedom in determinate

negation and absolute po&er in re$enchanting mythology% The balance bet&een critical

'no&ledge of enlightenment and mythological belief is achieved through creative &or'4 as &ell

as through the reader7s ability to suspend 0udgement and e(perience the &or' in the mode of not$

'no&ing 8e%g% Assmann *//2= Didi$!uberman -BB3%

The dialectic of the Pygmalion myth lies in its comple( relationship &ith enlightenment

and its ambiguous interpretation of the sub0ect of modernity% n postmodernity4 Gant7s >Sapere

aude!is repudiated and complemented by the e(hortation to relinFuish 'no&ledge and to come

to terms &ith not$'no&ing% Hot$'no&ing and the suspension of criticism open a &ay to&ards

understanding the myth as it is% f one ta'es it to e(tremes4 this interpretative strategy &ill

destroy the possibility of criticism and lead the critic to&ards determinate negation or mysticism%

The vicious circle of not$'no&ing o&ing to the relativity of a scientific &orldvie& and not$

being$able$to$'no& due to mythical consciousness has to be overcome% ConseFuently4 the

essential tas' of my research is to find a balance bet&een animation and reification4 'no&ing and

not$'no&ing in the interpretation of the myth%

1 he Pygmalion Myth in "vid

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The origin of the Pygmalion myth in art is found in +vid 8Metamorphoses4 4 -1)$/24 and

already this te(t presents the dialectic of myth and enlightenment% +vid7s version of Pygmalion

is one of the tales by +rpheus4 &ho is mourning the loss of his beloved Eurydice and renounces

the love of &omen% The preceding story is about the Propoetides4 &ho >dared to deny the divinity

of Ienus7 8+vid */39: 9*2

by prostituting themselves outside the temple% They lost shame and

the ability to blush4 as >the blood of their faces hardened7 8+ 9*% n punishment4 they &ere

turned into stone >&ith but small change7 8+ 9*% ust li'e +rpheus4 Pygmalion is a misogynist:

he creates his statue as he sees the Propoetides and is >disgusted &ith the faults &hich in such

full measure nature had given the female mind7 8+ 9*$)% t appears to be unreasonable and even

counterproductive to ma'e a statue &hen other &omen have become stone 8Miller *//B: )%

!o&ever4 Pygmalion7s statue is sno&$&hite4 i%e% it metaphorically possesses the Fuality of purity

and innocence in contrast to the shameless Propoetides% The figure is carved out of ivory >&ith&ondrous art7 8+ 9)4 &hich gives the statue supernatural beauty >Fua femina nasciJnulla potest7

84 -19$/4 and Pygmalion falls in love &ith his o&n creation% The statue is Pygmalion7s child4

for he is its sole creator% Thus4 his love for the figure is a transgression4 an act full of

autoeroticism and narcissism 8See Miller *//B: ,% The se(ual motive is most salient in the story4

and Pygmalion7s incestuous passion has as its outcome the punishment in the form of brea'ing

do&n Pygmalion7s lineage and Ienus7s falling in love &ith mortal Adonis%

n the first part of the story4 Pygmalion achieves a perfect deception% !is art does not

imitate nature but is a product of his imagination% Pygmalion7s adoration of the statue brings it to

life% 6e learn that the statue has the face of >a real maiden4 &hom you &ould thin' living and

desirous of being moved7 8+ 9)% The art so &ell conceals its art that Pygmalion believes his

statue to be alive: >ars adeo latet arte sua7 84 -3-% !e is either >a great craftsman7 8Miller */99:

-B, or a deceived deceiver% !is &or' has to be absolutely perfect to ma'e Pygmalion desire his

creation% At first4 the reader vie&s the scene from the perspective of Pygmalion4 &ho ardently

gives himself in to the illusion of the statue7s animation= and the te(t unfolds the process of self$

deception%

Pygmalion7s senses deceive the artist% !e feels the statue &ith his hands and does not

>confess it to be ivory7 8+ 9)% !e 'isses the statue and imagines that his 'isses are returned% The

sensuous4 erotic side of the story is played out as reality in his imagination% 6hile the statue is

still ivory4 Pygmalion spea's to it and >addresses it &ith fond &ords of love7 8+ 9)% !e touches

her and fears to leave bruises on her s'in% Pygmalion >brings it gifts pleasing to girls7 8+ 9)4

2ubse)uently abbre*iated to +#

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dresses the statue in robes and adorns it &ith rings and a nec'lace% The clima( of

demythologi5ing the myth is reached &hen the narrator 8+rpheus tells us that Pygmalion lays

the statue in his bed and >calls it the consort of his couch7 8+ 9)% Pygmalion spea's to the statue4

and his voice envelops it in the amorous fabric of mythical consciousness% !o&ever4 the statue is

mute4 and Pygmalion7s actions seem to be comic to an outsider% rom the point of vie& of

Pygmalion4 these are the happiest moments of self$indulgent imagination% The po&er of

deception can be ruined by the sub0ect7s doubt4 but Pygmalion suspends disbelief and ventures to

reali5e his dream% The reader is unable to see &hy Pygmalion deceives himself4 0ust as he is

unable not to empathi5e &ith Pygmalion and inevitably imagines the statue come to life% This

parado( cannot be resolved but should be e(perienced as the true beauty of the story: its balance

bet&een 'no&ing and not$'no&ing4 myth and critical thought%

The reali5ation of Pygmalion7s illusion comes through a sacrifice% Pygmalion offers asacrifice to Ienus and prays to the gods to give him a maiden li'e the ivory figure% !e does not

dare articulate his dream% Muteness of the myth ; its opposition to voice ; reserves imagination

as its true realm% n later stories4 the sacrifice &ill be internali5ed4 but in +vid it presents itself

&ithout the fear of being critici5ed4 as the myth 0ustifies the sacrifice and besto&s the po&ers on

the goddess &ho eventually animates the statue in the literal sense%

n the second part of the story4 the statue comes to life &hile Pygmalion cannot believe

his senses4 and his adoration turns into petrification of his self% irst4 he touches the statue4 and

she only seems to be &arm% Then the ivory becomes soft4 and its hardness disappears: >?t@he

ivory gre& soft to his touch and4 its hardness vanishing4 gave and yielded beneath his fingers7

8+ 93% Surprisingly4 human flesh is once again reified through its comparison &ith &a(4 &hich

is >easily shaped to many forms and becomes usable through use itself7 8+ 93% Disbelief and

doubt infest Pygmalion7s imagination% 6armth and softness are not reliable for Pygmalion4

although they are constitutive of our e(perience of human body4 i%e% they can metonymically

stand for the animate nature of the statue% or a brief moment4 he does not trust his senses once

again: >The lover stands ama5ed4 re0oices still in doubt4 fears he is mista'en4 and tries his hopes

again and yet again &ith his hand7 8+ 93% The lover is petrified by ama5ement4 and his ma'ing

the figure usable by the use itself alludes to onanistic repetition of a narcissist% At last he again

gives in to the reality of the image of animation and believes his senses% "emember ho& the

Propoetides could not blush and hence &ere not even perceived as alive% or mythical

consciousness in the Pygmalion story4 blush is not only shame4 but also life% Thus4 &hen the

statue comes to life4 she blushes% !er blush is the human nature &hich Pygmalion recogni5es%

This time the reader also believes in the transformation and consciously empathi5es &ith

Pygmalion% .oth Pygmalion and the reader see a miracle4 a myth reinstalled and simultaneously

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doubted% Pygmalion7s voluntary self$deception in the first part of the story and his disbelief in

the miracle in the second contrast star'ly and appear to be an illusion% Parado(ically4 the reality

of the true transformation is less real for Pygmalion than his initial self$deception%

Pygmalion endo&s the statue &ith his o&n po&er but does not see the other in it% !e

loves the statue4 and she becomes his lover% There is almost no sub0ectivity in the animated

statue% She is neither identical &ith4 nor independent from Pygmalion because she is his creation%

Even animated4 she is mute4 nameless4 and her position in relation to Pygmalion is inferior: &hen

she comes to life4 she sees >the s'y and her lover at the same time7 8+ 93% The spatial orientation

of the animated figure is highly meaningful% She is loo'ing up at Pygmalion &ho is a#oveher

and hence assumes the role of the dominant sub0ect% +therness of the statue and its total

appropriation by Pygmalion create the tension &hich &ill be e(plored in later &or's%

Pygmalion7s act of animation can be seen as an act of sublimation in the first part of the story4but the true animation comes as authentic reality4 i%e% the myth as it is% The reader and Pygmalion

change places at the second stage of animation: Pygmalion cannot believe the reality of the

myth4 &hereas the reader 'no&s that his &ish has been granted by the goddess% inally4

Pygmalion is persuaded in the reality of the myth4 and the reader recogni5es the mythical nature

of the metamorphosis%

The fact that the reader perceives the story from the point of vie& of Pygmalion is crucial

for the animation of the statue% f the myth is treated as a metaphor for creative process4 the

animation of the &or' of art rests on the ability to imagine things4 to empathi5e &ith Pygmalion7s

delusion and truly see the bright and picturesFue reality of the myth% n itself4 the myth is

absolutely impenetrable to analytic thought and relies on our ability to relive it together &ith

Pygmalion% ConseFuently4 a blush is literally a feeling of shame and life4 and softness is not a

symbol or a sign of life4 but life itself% Such direct e(perience is possible only due to mythical

consciousness%3Honetheless4 this absolute mythology has already been rendered impossible by

+vid himself% The te(t does not allo& one to give in to the illusion of animation% Conversely4

even the reader &ho analytically demythologi5es the story and scrutini5es every unconscious

metaphor to separate the target and source domains cannot escape animating the statue in his

imagination% The dialectic bet&een mythologi5ing and demythologi5ing4 'no&ing and not$

3.ythical consciousness li/e"ise *alidates the autonomy of art in modernity# Thus!

"hen adamer (1--%: 3% argues that the "or/ of art does not simply refer to

something! because "hat it refers to is actually there! he rightly compares this

modernist contention to the utheran theological doctrine of the sacramental union

"hich postulates that the bread and "ine in the Christian ucharist do not stand for

but are the flesh and blood of Christ#

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regardes7 8. **2 does not e(clude its possibility% !e closes the fore&ord &ith an appeal to

forgive Pygmalion for his >bi5arre passion74 >?l@7garement N la folie7 8. **9% Pygmalion7s

illusion4 &hich gives rise to the &ish for animation in +vid4 is played out again in .oureau$

Deslandes% urthermore4 the problem again lies in the controversial status of the animation4 as

>?t@out est illusion4 ?t@out est caprice dans la Iie7 8. **9% Perhaps it is not the animation that is

Fuestioned in this te(t4 but its materialistic e(planation4 provided by Pygmalion% The status of the

&hole story as an illusion grants the narrator freedom to creatively &or' on the original myth% t

can be hypothesi5ed that .oureau$Deslandes tried to distance himself from his o&n audacious

plan to e(plain the story and demythologi5e Pygmalion from materialistic and positivist

standpoint%

Pygmalion is an artist &hose po&er of deception is not limited to mimesis4 because his

marble and ivory statues appear not only to be alive and breathe4 but also to possess >une ame Ndes passions7 8. **/% +ne day4 he has a dream in &hich Ienus as's him to create a statue and

promises to guide his hand and >ignite7 8'chauffer his imagination4 to &hich he acFuiesces%

magination is conceptuali5ed here as a flame &ithin the human body &hich can be either

e(tinguished or ignited 8See Gvecses -BBB: )9% The pleasant dream seems to be reality to

Pygmalion4 and hence it stays in his memory: >uel contrasteQ uelle metamorphoseQ7 8. *-*

nspiration suddenly comes to him= he sets out to &or' on a piece of marble &hich becomes as

soft as flesh: >le marbre devint docile4 N prit FuelFue maniere la mollesse des chairs7 8. *-*%

Softness ; already present in +vid ; plays an essential role in Pygmalion7s sensuous perception

and conception of the statue%

Pygmalion is enchanted and petrified by the statue in the process of adoration% !e

admires the statue4 and his adoration produces an un'no&n emotion% n his soul4 mouvements

inconnusarise% Pygmalion does not recogni5e his &ish for animation and 'eeps it secret from

himself: >0e souhaite un bien Fue 0e ne connois point4 ou Fue 0e cherche R me dissimuler7 8. *-)%

At last he prays to Ienus to animate the statue4 to give it >la vie N le mouvement7 8. *-)4 but he

has doubts about the possibility of animation% .ecause his &ish may be superfluous and

ridiculous4 he does not hope that it is possible to fulfil his dream: >0e demande ce Fu7il m7est

impossible d7obtenir7 8. *-)% Animation is seen as granting the statue &ith >la pense N

sentiment7 8. *-)4 i%e% the sub0ectivity of the statue once animated &ill become its essence% At

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this point4 materialism enters the discourse of the story% Thin'ing about the difference bet&een

him and the statue4 Pygmalion comes to the idea that >?t@out dpend peut$tre d7un peu plus ou

peu moins de mouvement4 d7un certain arrangement de parties7 8. *-)%

Materialism &ith its particles invades the Pygmalion myth% Small changes bring about

complete metamorphosis% The changes do not come at once but gradually ta'e the matter to a

higher level of organi5ation 8. *-)% Pygmalion rationally e(plains the possibility of animation4

and his mythical consciousness eliminates the impossibility of creation% The nameless statue of

Ienus can be animated &ithout breaching the tenets of materialism% Pygmalion sees the statue

move upon his reflection and first thin's that it is a delusion: >He me trompai$0e pointK Mes

yeu(4 sere5$vous complices des garements de mon curK7 8. *-)% 6hile Pygmalion is thin'ing

about the nature of reason4 the statue appears to come to life and tries to >R respirer4 R vivre4 R

marcher4 N encore plus4 Fu7elle s7essayoit R penser7 8. *-1% Thus4 thought is introduced as thehuman essence in .oureau$Deslandes%

The narrator unravels the metaphor of human beings as machines: human beings are not

different from machines in that they both gradually develop and then die= they both consist of

opposing and complementary particles 8. *-1% La'off7s study of this metaphor in Metaphors

)e *ive %ye(plores &hy it seems to be viable to the person &ho subscribes to it% Similarities

bet&een human beings and machines do not ob0ectively e(ist but emerge as a result of a

conceptual metaphor 8See La'off and ohnson -BB): *12$33% Some of the mappings bet&een

the source and target domains are necessarily inhibited to provide the semblance of

correspondence% The source domain is the machine here4 and the target domain is the human

being% Pygmalion constantly deliberates on the nature of human beings4 and his not$'no&ing

about them ma'es the metaphor much more convincing% Therefore4 he uses this metaphor to

retrospectively e(plain the animation of the statue%

6hen the statue comes to life and acFuires the ability to thin'4 she as's herself &hat she

is% She &onders ho& she &as created out of nothing and4 finally4 recogni5es that she does not

'no& her o&n essence: >0e ne connois rien R mon tre7 8. *-1% Parado(ically4 thought is

recogni5ed by the statue as her only 'no&n trait and is simultaneously interpreted as her essence4

&hich is un'no&n to her% Descartes7s +ogitoenters the stage% Thought is the stamp of e(istence

on the statue: >07ignore tout le reste7 8. *-1= it is her 'ey feature: >le Sceau de mon e(istence7

8. *-1% Conversely4 thought remains not 'no&n4 and it can be a target domain for a great

number of more concrete concepts4 such as the machine%

Language is a tool of learning for the statue and she comes to enFuire into the state of

things &ith a language of her o&n% The statue acFuires sub0ectivity and independence from

Pygmalion through language% The rise of sub0ectivity in .oureau$Deslandes mar's the emergent

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mythology of the sub0ect$ob0ect relationship in the age of modernity% The statue does not 'no&

much about herself4 and hence she 'no&s nothing about Pygmalion: >car m7ignorant moi$mme4

0e dois encore plus vous ignorer4 apprene5$moi Fuel est mon sort7 8. *-1% She enFuires about

her nature4 and Pygmalion ans&ers that he has created her for his o&n sa'e and no& she should

live for Pygmalion: >Si vous vive54 vous vive5 par moi4 N vous deve5 vivre pour moi7 8. *-3%

!ere is the symptom of Pygmalionism revealed in its most narcissistic and uneFuivocal form%

!is deliberations about thin'ing matter &ere necessary to animate the statue in a materialistic

fashion4 but the conseFuences of such animation are not foreseen by Pygmalion4 &ho &ants to

appropriate thin'ing matter and ma'e it subservient to his o&n self4 therefore revealing his

narcissistic and incestuous desire% Pygmalionism is rendered impotent4 and the passionate &ords

are pronounced in vain4 as the statue fails to understand their meaning and as's Pygmalion to

teach her: >instruise5$moi7 8. *-3% Pygmalion becomes an educator &ho destroys his o&ndomination over the statue by endo&ing her &ith "eason% Pygmalionism is Fuestioned4 and the

order of things is undermined by the statue because of her not accepting the social conventions%

6hen Pygmalion proposes to the animated statue after several days of education4 she

retorts >avec cet air froid7 8. *)B by refusing to marry Pygmalion4 because it is not sensible to

commit oneself to one person forever% She can stay &ith Pygmalion as long as they both love

each other% Pygmalion is petrified and dumbstruc' &ith such a t&ist of fate% !aving invited

guests for the dinner4 he e(pected this gathering to become his triumph &ith the marriage

proposal as its ape(4 but he &as misled% t appears that the statue may finally become free from

Pygmalion% f Pygmalion does not recogni5e the statue7s otherness4 he &ill lose her4 but

recogni5ing her otherness also means losing the domination over the statue% Pygmalion7s

dilemma cannot be resolved%

The mechanistic philosophy postulates irreducible difference bet&een the t&o sub0ects4 as

they are free from each other% The meaning of the deus e, machinaat the very end of the

novelette acFuires literal meaning4 &hen Ienus reappears and persuades Pygmalion to live &ith

the statue as long as they both love each other% She e(plains to him ho& he can al&ays be loved

by the statue: >tche sans cesse de lui plaire4 N ne la force R t7aimer: c7est le moyen Fu7elle

t7aime tou0ours7 8. *)B% The possibility of reali5ation of the ideological ramifications of

materialist philosophy is endorsed and secured by the goddess: the dialectic of myth and

enlightenment arrives at its culmination in this finale% Employing deus e, machina as the

ultimate resolution for materialism7s antinomies confirms the preservation of mythical

consciousness in .oureau$Deslandes7s version of demythologi5ing Pygmalion7s creation% The

dialectic of myth and enlightenment is even more tangible &hen the effort at dispelling the myth

is radically ne& and based on progressive ideals% The ne& mythology is used unreflectively4 but

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its ambiguity is impossible to conceal in a &or' of art4 &here materialism is suspect because of

its inability to provide the authentic reality of the myth% Pygmalion is discontented &ith the

constructed materialist version of the myth4 and the deity has to be reintroduced to prevent

Pygmalion from Fuestioning the legitimacy of his mythical enlightenment ideals% The

incompleteness of the materialist illusion has to be veiled &ith old mythology%

- he Su#.ect of Modernity in /ousseau

"ousseau7s Pygmalion0 scne lyri(ue 8*22* is a perfect e(ample of ho& the myth can be

presented in its entirety on the stage% .oureau$Deslandes7s act of animation is &ithin the myth of

materialist philosophy4 &hereas in "ousseau7s te(t the miracle inhabits the sub0ective &orld of

Pygmalion% Pygmalionism as a symptom of modernity is incarnated in "ousseau7s play &ith its

maddening narcissism and self$delusion of the hero% The reflective consciousness of Pygmalionanimates the statue but at the same time corrupts the reality of animation: Pygmalion is a&are of

his self$delusion% t can hardly be called >a successful union7 bet&een Pygmalion and #alatea

8oshua -BB*: 1-4 because he has to relinFuish refle(ivity for the illusion to be perceived as

authentic reality4 &hile it is through refle(ivity that the process of animation commences in the

first place% The illusory character of the act of animation cannot be dispelled &ith reflective

thin'ing as reflection itself is the cause of the illusion of animation% Pygmalion7s self$deception

seemingly overcomes the difference bet&een the sub0ect and ob0ect by dissolving the one in the

other% #alatea bereaves Pygmalion of his essence4 and he is only too &illing to sacrifice his o&n

self for her% The internali5ation of sacrifice misleads the spectator into believing in the reality of

the synthesis of the sub0ect and ob0ect at the end of the play%

The play opens &ith Pygmalion being frustrated and discontented% 6hat is the reason for

his frustrationK Pygmalion recogni5es that his statue has neither life nor soul in it4 and his

imagination isglac'e0because its fire >sUest teint7 8"ousseau *29,: 2 %% The marble stays cold

&hen it leaves his hands% The fire of passion and genius has left Pygmalion 8" 9% The

0u(taposition of hot and cold strongly evo'es life and death as one perceives them unconsciously%

Pygmalion despairs because the fire of imagination is a reality for him4 not merely a metaphor%

6ithout this fire4 Pygmalion is unable to create% Pygmalion is >un gnie teint7 8" /4 and his

imagination is cold because it cannot animate the statue% Vet4 as soon as Pygmalion reflects on

the impossibility of animating the statue4 his imagination springs to life4 and the hero is engulfed

by desire% The secret &ish for animation torments Pygmalion%

%ubse)uently abbre*iated to 4#

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Pygmalion faces a dilemma% !e is afraid of loo'ing at his master&or' because admiring

it may distract him4 and therefore he covers #alatea &ith a veil% !o&ever4 not$seeing the statue

e(tinguishes his imagination% Pygmalion7s genius is as cold as stone% Perhaps #alatea could

animate himK This is her intended purpose in his eyes: >Peut$tre cet ob0et ranimera$t$il mon

imagination languissante7 8" /% Pygmalion and #alatea reverse the roles= it is #alatea &ho

animates Pygmalion% At this moment4 Pygmalion admits that he has never e(amined his &or'4

only admired it% Hotice ho& the syncretism of perception is underlined by "ousseau: >0e ne lUai

point encore e(amine%%% 0e nUai fait 0usFuUici Fue lUadmirer7 8" /% Pygmalion does not e(amine

his &or'= he perceives it &ith all his senses% The statue appears to him in its entirety%

6hen Pygmalion ta'es off the veil4 the process of self$delusion commences= he notices:

>0e suis tromp7 8" *B% "eflecting on his delusion4 he is cogni5ant of it until the very last

moment% As if in a delirium4 he descends in the depths of his imagination and animates thestatue% Pygmalion constantly admires his &or' ; >0e ne puis me lasser dUadmirer mon ouvrage7

8" *B4 and by doing so he admires himself in it% !e feels amour&propreto&ards his o&n self= his

narcissism is ardent and transgressive% Pygmalion does not dare change anything in the statue4

because to him it appears to be almost alive= the only thing that #alatea is bereft of is a soul%

Suddenly4 >le voile de lUillusion tombe7 8" **4 and Pygmalion reali5es the impossibility of

animation% .ut is it truly soK 6hat is the metaphorical meaning of the veilK s Pygmalion trying

to say that he has escaped the illusionK Does Pygmalion begin to see the reality more clearlyK +r

is it the outcome of self$deceptionK t could be argued that his illusion becomes more real than

the cold reality% 6hen the veil of phantasy falls4 Pygmalion7s imagination starts the process of

animation% The te(t demythologi5es the myth by sho&ing that the act of animation is only an

illusion4 but the myth reasserts itself &ith Pygmalion7s belief in the possibility of animation%

Pygmalion sacrifices reality for the sa'e of the myth= the myth becomes more real than the self$

consciousness of the cold4 e(tinguished imagination%

Pygmalion calls the statue the o#.et inanim'4 un mar#re4 une pierre4 une masse informe

8" *- and even gives it a proper name before its animation% .y giving a name to the statue4 he

asserts control over it% Homination establishes the authority of the sub0ect over the ob0ect4 and

hence it inaugurates Pygmalion7s appropriation of #alatea% Conversely4 naming alienates the

ob0ect and endo&s it &ith strangeness4 as one relates to it and confronts its otherness% Although

Pygmalion names #alatea and grants her his o&n essence4 this process of self$sacrifice may be

an illusion% Perhaps he can actually dominate #alatea and dissolve her otherness in his o&n self%

Language as an emancipatory and simultaneously manipulative force is both Pygmalion7s enemy

and disciple% Harcissism and self$sacrifice4 reali5ed &ith the medium of language4 split the

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sub0ect and present to us the moment of the dialectic of the myth% The sub0ect sacrifices his o&n

self to gain utter control of the other%

Pygmalion is misled by his passions= his desire induces an illusion: >nsens%%% rentre en

toi mme%%% gmis sur toi%%% sur ton erreur%%% vois ta folie%%%7 8" *-% !e appears to e(hort his

illusion and escape its po&er by recogni5ing his madness% Vet he does not &ant to abandon his

desire and finds e(cuses for his illusion: >+ui%%% ma seule folie est de discerner la beaut%%% mon

seul crime est dUy tre sensible7 8" *-% !e gives in to self$deception because there is nothing

perverse about his passion in his understanding of the act of animation% .y refusing to recogni5e

the transgressive element in this passion4 Pygmalion surrenders to his illusion% !e is petrified by

adoration and does not feel shame &hen he animates the statue in his imagination% ust as the

Propoetides lose their sense of shame and are not able to blush before they are turned into stone4

Pygmalion is on the verge of indulging in the act of self$adoration4 and shame is li'e&isebanished from his soul% The cold and hot collide in this struggle bet&een the still$e(perienced$

reality and the setting$in of mythical consciousness: >uels traits de feuW semblent sortir de cet

ob0et4 pour embraser mes sens%%% N retourner avec mon ame R leur source7 8" *-% Pygmalion7s

cold imagination is ignited by the sight of the statue4 and as his passion is aroused4 he feels

&armth and understands that the marble remains cold: >!lasQ il reste immobile N froid%%% tandis

Fue mon cur4 embras par ses charnues4 voudroit Fuitter mon corpsW pour aller chauffer le

sien7 8" *-% n his delirium4 Pygmalion believes that he can share his &armth &ith the statue and

animate it% !e reflects on his d'lire0but it does not prevent him from being over&helmed by it%

Pygmalion cannot give the statue life &ithout losing his o&n% t is remar'able ho& human

essence is conceived as the content of the human body% Pygmalion confronts the inner

incongruities of the conceptual metaphor of human essence as a substance &ithin human beings

8La'off and ohnson *///: -9-% n general4 this particular mapping bet&een the source domain

of substance and the target domain of life &ould be inhibited4 as one can give life to somebody

and not lose his o&n% .ut in this particular case4 the metaphor is reali5ed in its entirety: life

becomes an ob0ect that can be given a&ay to others% Pygmalion does not accept this metaphor

and &ants to live in order to be able to love #alatea% #alatea is no& the sub0ect4 and Pygmalion

becomes the other4 but the dilemma remains%

Pygmalion is ready to reali5e his illusion% !e addresses the gods4 and for him the deity is

su#lime essence4principe de toute e,istence4 ame de luniverse4feu sacr'4 and c'leste 2'nus8"

*)% Despite the number of names4 it is obvious that the deity is an abstract concept for

Pygmalion4 andfeu sacr'alludes to his o&n imagination4 rather than to the goddess% "ousseau7s

Pygmalion animates the statue by himself% Mythical consciousness enters here: >deu( tres

manFuent R la plnitude des choses%%%%% Partage$leur cette ardeur dvorante Fui consume lUun sans

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animer lUautre7 8" *1% !e finds a solution by conceptuali5ing his essence as a divisible entity and

as's the deity to let him share his essence ; his divine fire &ithin his body ; &ith the statue in

order to animate it% The statue may become >lUimage de ce Fui nUest pas7 8" *1% The phantom

image of illusion is called to life &ith the help of a conceptual metaphor that allo&s Pygmalion

to share his life &ith the statue%

Delirium sei5es Pygmalion% !e feels as if he recovered his senses and &ere sober again%

.ut Pygmalion is actually in the polar opposite condition because he is destined to abscond from

life and find reality in the myth: >ton dlire est R son dernier

terme%%% ta raison tUabandonne ainsi Fue ton gnie7 8" *3% Pygmalion does not regret succumbing

to the illusion4 as his perverse passion4 his hideous transgression4 is no& covered by the veil of

phantasy% !e notices that his love of the inanimate statue is resolved through his becoming > un

homme R vision74 and the nature of his vision is >prestige dUun amour forcen7 8" *3% !e enters

the realm of >?r@avissante illusion7 8" *, because of his passion% Losing his senses4 Pygmalion

finally sees #alatea come to life% 6hen #alatea spea's and recogni5es herself in Pygmalion4 he

pro0ects his o&n self on #alatea and sacrifices his 3tre: >0e tUai donn tout mon tre%%% 0e ne vivrai

plus Fue par toi7 8" *,% Pygmalion loses his o&n self in the ob0ect= #alatea becomes the true

sub0ect of the myth%

Proceeding dialectically4 one can observe ho& Pygmalion e(poses his illusion in order to

manipulate it even better and animate the statue in his delirium% #alatea has no other essence but

that of Pygmalion4 and she is totally sub0ugated by his sub0ectivity% The reader cannot 'no&

&hether there is the other in the play4 or rather Pygmalion unfolds the &hole process of

animation in his perverse imagination% The dialectic of the Pygmalion myth is masterfully staged

in "ousseau7s monodrama% The status of animation is controversial4 and the myth is reestablished

as the authentic reality of animation &hich is made possible through the incoherent conceptual

metaphor of human essence as a substance that can be either sacrificed or shared% The

inconsistency of the metaphor attests to the ambiguity of the metamorphosis% "ousseau7s

Pygmalion&itnesses the birth of the sub0ect in the &orld of modernity and simultaneously

destroys the sub0ect$ob0ect opposition4 undermining the legitimacy of the sub0ect% The tormented

sub0ect of modernity internali5es his relationship &ith the ob0ect and animates it by sacrificing

his o&n essence%

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4 he +urse of Animation in Gil#ert

6illiam Sch&enc' #ilbert7s Pygmalion and Galatea 8*92B combines Iictorian comedy &ith

the personal tragedy of #alatea4 &hich can be discerned only if the spectator vie&s the play

through the eyes of the animated statue% ts message for the Iictorian audience could have been

the necessity of the lie courteous8oshua -BB*: *B34 but am interested in the dynamic of the

animation process and in #alatea7s e(perience of being normali5ed by education and society%

#alatea7s education stands for her animation= as a source domain it provides meaning and

coherence to the process of animation% The Fuestion of educating the statue moves the focus

to&ard the conseFuences of animation and changes the concept of the human being% To become

one4 #alatea needs to learn the culture and be integrated into the society% The implicit criticism of

the social order can be found in #alatea7s interaction &ith other dramatis personae% #ilbert0u(taposes Iictorian values &ith the alleged innocence of #alatea4 &here innocence is actually a

myth and a different 'ind of culture% #alatea7s innocence is also used for the comic effect &here

her &ords acFuire a second meaning4 impenetrable for the heroine% 6hile #alatea appears on the

stage as a >controlled4 trapped4 rescued4 ideali5ed4 defined and o&ned by men7 8oshua -BB*: ((i

personage4 she unconsciously acts as a mirror that reflects male domination and ma'es the

sub0ugation of &omen recogni5able to the modern spectator% The process of education is aimed

at commodifying #alatea and turning her into an ob0ect for adoration= hence Iictorian morals do

not allo& for a free and independent &oman in the society4 and therefore #alatea has no other

alternative but to literally turn into stone again%

The motive of blindness at the end of the play alludes to Pygmalion7s infatuation as a

delusion% 6hen Pygmalion is blinded4 he repents and clearly sees that he &as &rong4 and he still

loves his &ife% #alatea is cast a&ay once Pygmalion is blinded% !is blindness can also be

interpreted as blind allegiance to Iictorian morals% #alatea disappears from Pygmalion7s eyes=

there is no place for her as a living being on the stage% +ver a period of t&enty$four hours4

#alatea e(periences the most incredible set of metamorphoses and is plunged into the alien

&orld &ith her o&n idiosyncratic preconceptions and values4 &hich the spectator is as'ed to

regard as innocence% Everybody in the play appears to be influenced by #alatea7s animation4 and

she is being gradually alienated after each ne& encounter &ith other dramatis personae%

ronically4 it is the animated statue &ho possesses >&armth4 'indness and pity7 8Miller */99:

-**4 &hereas other personages are the e(act opposite in their treatment of #alatea% As she learns

&hat bitterness and misunderstanding are4 her sorro& contrasts star'ly &ith the petty family

drama of Pygmalion and his &ife%

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Although Pygmalion is a genius &ho has the >po&ers denied to other men7 8#ilbert *92B:

*B&4 he cannot animate his statues% The cause of his discontent lies in his conceptuali5ing artistic

creation as magic% Pygmalion considers himself to be a magician &ho is able to surpass the gods

in their &or'% .ut his creativity has limits &hich can never be transcended: >there7s my tether7

8# **4 bemoans Pygmalion his impotence% !e acutely feels his inferiority to the gods% "ight

after the monologue &here he be&ails his po&erlessness and appeals to the gods4 #alatea comes

to life and calls Pygmalion by his name from behind the curtain% The curtain reveals the

phantasy% As the curtain opens4 Pygmalion7s imagination is given full reign% #alatea comes to

life% She has a name and a voice4 and her 'ey traits are that she lives4 spea's4 and breathes

8# **% #alatea comes to life than's to Pygmalion7s prayer% rom no& on4 she becomes the main

personage in the play% The first thing #alatea does is spea'% After&ards4 she ta'es Pygmalion7s

hand and feels its &armth: >#ive me thy hand ; both hands ; ho& soft and &armQ7 8# **Softness and &armth are Pygmalion7s attributes= the roles are reversed here4 as it is #alatea &ho

perceives the otherness and animate nature of Pygmalion%

#alatea tells the audience about her e(perience of animation and the Self as +ontainer

metaphor 8La'off and ohnson *///: -23 is used to e(plain the process of her animation% The

statue first developed self$consciousness &ithin her marble body and then became a&are of her

surroundings% #alatea understands that she &as once >a cold4 dull stone7 8# *- and recollects her

being a marble statue% The >first dull gleam of consciousness7 8# *- developed in #alatea before

the animation of her body% !er >cold immovable identity7 and the consciousness of her >chilly

self7 8# *- &ere already present &hen Pygmalion &as praying to the gods and lamenting his

inability to animate #alatea% f #alatea had self$consciousness at that moment4 Pygmalion must

have achieved the animation &ithout the help of the gods% At least4 her self$consciousness must

have been created by Pygmalion%

#alatea is animated by the invocation of her name4 as she tells Pygmalion that hearing it

>seemed to sha'e my marble to the core7 8# *-% She recounts to Pygmalion and the audience her

e(perience of language% 6hat seemed to be obscure became clear to #alatea% At first4 she did not

distinguish the sounds= they &ere vague and meaningless4 but later they >seemed to resolve

themselves ?i@nto a language7 8# *-% As #alatea learned the language4 her inanimate body &as

>pervaded &ith a glo& ?t@hat seemed to tha& my marble into flesh7 8# *-% At last4 #alatea7s

flesh &as animated4 her >cold hard substance7 turned into >the ecstasy of ne& born life7 8# *-%

&ubse)uently abbre*iated to #

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And upon creation4 #alatea immediately feels love and gratitude to&ards her creator% !is name

is the &ord that e(presses her love and gratitude%

Despite her alleged innocence4 #alatea loves Pygmalion &ith all her heart4 and

Pygmalion loves her as >a sculptor loves his &or'7 8# *)% 6hile in .oureau$Deslandes #alatea

claims independence from Pygmalion4 #ilbert7s #alatea recogni5es that she is made by

Pygmalion for Pygmalion% She has no &ill of her o&n and &ill be obedient to Pygmalion% n her

consciousness4 #alatea becomes a subservient being= she has >no thought4 no hope4 no enterprise4

?t@hat does not o&n thee as its sovereign7 8# *)% Pygmalion7s &ildest dreams appear to have

come true: #alatea no& lives for his sa'e and is fully committed to him% She e(pects from

Pygmalion to be appropriated li'e an ob0ect4 selflessly offering herself to Pygmalion and

thin'ing of herself as one &ith him% Alas4 this union is impossible4 because he is a married man4

and the conventional morality &ill dispel #alatea as an illusion4 an affront to Iictorian morals%#alatea7s transmogrification is not Fuestioned by Pygmalion4 and the debate no& unfolds

around the Fuestion of the possibility to educate #alatea% The myth of #alatea is demythologi5ed

by #ilbert through allo&ing the metamorphosis to happen e(actly as Pygmalion &as dreaming

about it% The fulfilment of his prayer has unforeseen repercussions% The apparently ideal

metamorphosis becomes a nightmare for #alatea% The first blo& comes from the creator himself:

Pygmalion tells #alatea that he cannot return her love4 and she cannot be his &ife4 because he

already has one% f #alatea cannot love Pygmalion4 then &hy did the gods animate herK #alatea

begins to &onder about this first incongruity of her plight% Pygmalion does not 'no& the ans&er

but presumes that the gods may &ant to punish him for his folly 8# *)% #alatea is reified4 as her

&hole life turns out to be the sculptor7s punishment >for unreflecting and presumptuous prayer7

8# *1% +ne more une(pected revelation comes to #alatea &hen she is about to fall asleep% n her

innocence4 she does not 'no& &hat sleep is and e(periences it as death% She is terrified by the

seeming approach of death% This illusion is an instance of an inverted metaphor% Sleep is often

seen as a metaphor for death and is used to e(plain it4 but here death is a source domain that

gives meaning to the concept of sleep% At this moment4 #alatea learns that humans are mortal4

and thereby has one more disenchanting e(perience of life% #alatea learns disconcerting facts

about her human e(istence: her love for Pygmalion is a sin= Pygmalion7s love for her is

adulterous= sleep is a death$li'e e(perience= and all humans are mortal 8# */% #alatea7s

parado(ical vie&point introduces ambiguity to human e(perience% !er 0udgements may be

humorous for the audience4 but for #alatea they register a seFuence of terrible facts she learns

about life% #alatea7s education becomes a torture of alienation for her%

#alatea provides a different perspective on human life and the social order% A brave

soldier becomes >a paid assassin7 8# -B and >one &hose mission is to 'ill7 8# -* in the eyes of

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the animated statue% She is appalled &hen she sees Leucippe4 a soldier4 bring a dead fa&n% or

her4 the fa&n is a living being4 not radically different from her% She does not 'no& &hat it is4 but

she understands that it &as animate: >Thy form is strange to me= but thou hadst life7 8# --%

After&ards4 #alatea7s >misunderstanding7 leads to a comedy of errors4 &here Myrine4 Leucippe7s

lover4 is persuaded by #alatea that Leucippe 'illed somebody% Myrine loses her happiness4 and

Leucippe may lose his love% This humorous situation has a sinister side if the spectator vie&s the

play &ith #alatea7s eyes% 6hen Myrine sees the fa&n4 she immediately understands the mista'e4

forgives Leucippe4 and Fuestions #alatea7s sanity: >6hy4 girlZthou must be madQ7 8# -1

#alatea7s innocence ; a Fuality &hich &as to be cherished in the Iictorian society ; becomes her

curse% She is ostraci5ed for being mad% Even Pygmalion sees in #alatea >un&arrantable

foolishness7 8# -3% +ne can see ho& her innocence serves the double purpose of comedy and

ironic criticism% Parado(ically4 she is regarded as a le&d &oman4 a >marble min(7 8# ), due toher innocence and na[vet% 6hen Pygmalion is punished by blindness for his infidelity4 #alatea

has to disappear4 because she causes too much grief and confusion% Pygmalion7s creation

becomes his punishment4 and his talent is seen as >the fearful gift of bringing stone to life7 8#

))% Ho& Pygmalion7s gift is cogni5ed as perverse and transgressive% Pygmalion is ashamed of

himself for this misdeed% n his blindness4 he sees his fault4 and #alatea has to face a much

sterner punishment%

n the Iictorian society4 #alatea becomes a scandal% She is a public nuisance4 as Daphne7s

e(asperation bears &itness to it: >.ut can7t you stop herK Shut the creature upK Dispose of her4 or

brea' herK 6on7t she chipK7 8# )) 6hen the blind Pygmalion ; thin'ing that he is tal'ing to his

&ife ; confides to #alatea that he never loved her4 #alatea understands the horror of her

situation% Pygmalion loved #alatea only >in mad ama5ement at the miracle7 8# )94 and no& her

presence inflicts pain to him% She sees that she is not >fit to live upon this &orldQ7 8# )/ She

mounts the pedestal4 bids fare&ell to Pygmalion4 and becomes stone again% n #ilbert7s play4 the

process of animation is undermined by introducing #alatea as a foreign element in the society%

The social and educational aspects of animation problemati5e the initial act of creation and ma'e

it not only inane4 but also detrimental to the society% +n the other hand4 #alatea epitomi5es the

modern sub0ect for &hom there is no place and &ho is an un&anted child of his creator%

#ilbert demythologi5es the myth by allo&ing it to become authentic reality% Pygmalion7s

dream is reali5ed to reveal its parado(ical conseFuences4 &hich change the phantasmagoria of

animation into a &a'ing nightmare% The dialectic of the myth is reali5ed through legitimating the

magical act of creation and challenging its ramifications% Animation is possible in its initial

stage4 but the education and sociali5ation of #alatea bitterly fail% The only &ay out of this

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24/41

#alatea is handled li'e an inanimate ob0ect and not even loved by her creator% Eli5a attempts to

persuade the audience that she is >a respectable girl7 8S 2*2% She repeats several times that she is

agood girl4 but for !iggins she >utters such depressing and disgusting sounds7 8S 2-B that she

has no right to spea'4 or even live% .ecause of her speech4 !iggins moc'ingly &arns Eli5a not to

forget that she is >a human being &ith a soul and the divine gift of articulate speech7 8S 2-B%

Eli5a7s lamentations that her >character is the same ?W@ as any lady7s7 8S 2*/ irritate !iggins

and offend his ear% Hotice ho& t&o conceptual oppositions come into play here% irst4 Eli5a7s

appearance and essence are in conflict% !er inner character4 or her soul4 is certainly the same as

>any lady7s74 something that cannot be seen in the appearance but is eFually present in

everybody% !o&ever4 her appearance indicates to !iggins that she is not a human being and may

have forgotten about her essence% or !iggins4 Eli5a7s appearance and language ; being only

conventions and not reflecting her inner self ; directly correlate &ith her essence% The fol'theory of essences 8La'off and ohnson *///: )12$9 is used by Pygmalion to thin' of #alatea7s

essence as language and social position% .ut the play masterfully refutes such correlation and

destroys the correspondence bet&een appearance and essence4 rendering human essence as

something ineffable% There is no ans&er to the Fuestion &hat human nature is4 and the old myth

of human essence as class consciousness and language is problemati5ed% Secondly4 Eli5a loo's

up at !iggins= she is a lo6lycharacter in the play4 &hereas !iggins is a#oveher% !e describes

Eli5a as >deliciously lo&7 8S 2-)% This spatial orientation is reminiscent of the same situation of

vertical domination at the moment of animation in +vid% #alatea loo's up at Pygmalion and is

subservient to him% Po&er is unconsciously understood as being in a higher position% The

primary metaphor More Is 7p8See La'off and ohnson *///: 3* is at play here% The higher

social and economic position of !iggins ma'es him superior to Eli5a% .oth the idea of full

correspondence bet&een Eli5a7s appearance and essence4 and the spatial orientation of Eli5a &ith

respect to !iggins are challenged in the play4 as the audience can see to&ards the end of the

e(periment%

The correspondence of Eli5a7s poor appearance and language to her essence as a human

being is problemati5ed to the point of dissociating language and self% 6hen Eli5a acFuires the

necessary techniFue and ta'es the e(pected appearance of an artificial duchess4 she claims that

her inner nature has never changed% t is the attitude to&ards Eli5a that has changed and not her

o&n self: >the difference bet&een a lady and a flo&er girl is not ho& she behaves4 but ho& she7s

treated7 8S 21,% Pygmalion is no& not one person but the &hole society &hich animates #alatea

in its perception% The impossibility of metamorphosis4 the mythical nature of the language in the

play4 can be implicitly conveyed at the very outset4 &hen ; on learning the name of the flo&er

girl ; !iggins and Pic'ering recite a children7s rhyme >Eli5a4 Eli5abeth4 .etsy and .ess7 8S 2--%

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Although !iggins is >declaiming gravely74 the seriousness of comedy at this moment may escape

the reader7s attention% Vet this rhyme could implicitly decipher the process of Eli5a7s

transformation from the state of a >draggletailed guttersnipe7 8S 2-) to a tal8ing dolland finally

a lady% All these names describe one and the same human being: they turn out to be appearances

&hich fail to define the human soul% #alatea7s human essence4 instead4 remains a mystery4 a

myth by itself% Pygmalion is misled by thin'ing that technology4 language4 and appearance

&ould animate #alatea% Language deceives Pygmalion4 and at the end of the play he understands

that he never &anted to achieve this 'ind of animation% The education of #alatea turns out to be

in vain4 for >the greatest teacher alive7 8S 2-) cannot animate the already animate human being%

The tas' of Pygmalion becomes superfluous and self$defeating% +ne has first to alienate #alatea

and deny her human nature to be able to animate her%

Pygmalion becomes a disinterested creator4 &hose primary goal is to prove the possibilityof animation% n these circumstances4 there is no room for romance% f #ilbert7s play is a comedy

&ith tragic implications4 Sha&7s Pygmalion is certainly not a romance% #iven that Eli5a is

constantly humiliated and bullied by her educator4 there can be no affection bet&een Eli5a and

!iggins% The play never allo&ed for Eli5a and !iggins to be lovers: >#alatea never does Fuite

li'e Pygmalion: his relation to her is too godli'e to be altogether agreeable7 8S 232% At the end

of the play4 Pygmalion7s domination is to be overcome not only through #alatea7s assertion of

freedom and independence4 but also due to the failure of animation% t is not accidental that the

end of the play has been changed a lot of times 8See Solomon */,14 including the first

performance 8Miller */99: -B/% The audience and even actors &ish for a happy ending in the

play4 not reali5ing that they thereby prolong Pygmalion7s sub0ugation of #alatea and reassert the

myth of animation%

After Eli5a7s metamorphoses4 !iggins informs the audience that he &as not only thin'ing

about >her confounded vo&els and consonants7 8S 2)24 but also &atching >her soul4 &hich is the

Fuaintest of the lot7 8S 2)2% Did !iggins really see Eli5a7s soulK Did he manage to >ta'e a

human being and change her into a Fuite a different human being by creating a ne& speech for

her7 8S 2)2 and hence close >the deepest gulf that separates class from class and soul from

soul7K or !iggins4 pronunciation and soul come together4 and he believes that improving Eli5a7s

pronunciation he has improved her soul% Pygmalion7s e(periment ends in failure because of this

false presupposition of a correlation bet&een appearance and essence4 speech and soul% or

Eli5a4 any metamorphoses &ere out of Fuestion: she only &anted to be herself4 >to be natural7

8S 23B%

The conseFuences of transformation are not foreseen by !iggins and Pic'ering= their only

preoccupation is the metamorphosis itself% After the end of the e(periment4 Eli5a does not 'no&

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&hat to do% She has to live by the rules of the middle class but does not belong to it% She becomes

homeless at home and is uprooted from her bac'ground &ithout finding a ne& place in the

higher social class% She is desperate &hen she deliberates on her position: >6hat am fit forK

6hat have you left me fit forK 6here am to goK 6hat am to doK 6hat7s to become of meK7 8S

21* !iggins suggests Eli5a could marry >some chap or other &ho &ould do very &ell74 to &hich

Eli5a retorts: >6e &ere above that at the corner of Tottenham Court "oad7 8S 21*% The metaphor

of domination as spatial orientation is convincingly reinterpreted by Eli5a% !iggins7s conception

that he &as superior to Eli5a is no& reversed on ethical grounds%

6hile language becomes Eli5a7s means of emancipation4 her moral uprightness has never

&avered% !er soul and ethics stayed the same% 6hen Eli5a manipulates language to out&it

!iggins4 he is outraged because his student uses his 'no&ledge to ridicule the teacher: >Don7t

you dare try this game on me% taught it to you= and it doesn7t ta'e me in7 8S 21,% !iggins &antsEli5a to cast a&ay her false appearance4 and he revels in his victory &hen she pronounces her

>A$a$a$a$a$ah$o&$ooh74 seeing >her father7s splendour7 8S 212% Eli5a said she could never go

bac' to her old &ay of spea'ing4 but here the spectator sees her return to the *isson Grove lingo%

!iggins is beside himself and e(claims: >IictoryQ IictoryQ7 8S 212 !is impotence to change

Eli5a for good seems in his delirium to be a victory% Shavian irony at its best in this frantic

e0aculationQ !iggins eventually recogni5es his loss &hen he admits that his technology does not

allo& him to animate Eli5a% !er voice and loo's are not &hat he aspires for: > can7t turn your

soul on% Leave me those feelings= and you can ta'e a&ay the voice and the face% They are not

you7 8S 21/% n the end4 Pygmalion understands the meaninglessness of the transformations he

has achieved in #alatea and sees a chasm bet&een #alatea7s appearance and her essence%

Language is unmas'ed as a mere tool and not an end in itself%

Pygmalion7s instrumental reason grants him magical po&ers and enslaves him &hen he

pledges blind allegiance to his trade% Sha& ma'es Pygmalion demonstrate that his po&ers are but

an illusion% Pygmalion mista'enly revels in his failure to animate #alatea4 &ho becomes the true

sub0ect of the play% !er transformations emancipate #alatea4 but also enslave her in the social

order of appearances% The te(t dismantles the correlation bet&een appearance and essence and

brea's the rigid opposition bet&een high and lo&% Language is demythologi5ed4 and the

relationship bet&een &ords and po&er is proved to be rather precarious% n contrast4 the audience

mostly loo's for re$enchantment and reinstallation of the myth in the play4 because the

contingency of the social order is reflected in the mass consciousness and any challenges to the

myth are inevitably resisted% Thus4 Sha&7s drama becomes a romance in the eyes of the audience

and asserts the Pygmalion myth as a myth of animation through learning a ne& language rather

than demythologi5es the story%

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9 Postmodern Pygmalionism

t is no& time for a short e(cursus into the postmodern condition of Pygmalionism% 6hile the

age of enlightenment ; despite critici5ing and undoing the myth ; accepts Pygmalion as its

paragon and disciple4 postmodernity does not trust grand narratives 8Lyotard */91: )2 and treats

Pygmalion as a liminal case: one of many other metaphors for the postmodern sub0ect% .ecause

the only grand narrative >li'ely to stand a chance of success is the acceptance of the

heterogeneity of dissensions7 8.auman *//*: -3*4 Pygmalion recedes from the public eye4 and

#alatea becomes a changeling left to the postmodern critic4 &ho ; by undermining the po&ers of

Pygmalion ; endo&s #alatea &ith unprecedented sub0ectivity and freedom% #alatea is allo&ed to

be different and independent4 but her animation becomes a myth once again% The sub0ect of

modernity may no& be symboli5ed not by Pygmalion4 &ho can be seen no longer4 but by theself$sufficient #alatea% n this frame of reference4 the myth once again reasserts its controversial

relation to oppression and domination4 becoming the celebration of individuality and

strangeness%

Let us not be deceived by the semblance of the emancipatory po&er of #alatea7s claim

to&ards her independence% Postmodernity does not resolve the problem of mythical

consciousness and the domination of Pygmalion% .auman 8*//*: -3/ must be right &hen he

states that >?t@he postmodern condition has split society into the happy seduced and unhappy

oppressed halves7% The happy seduced half of the society is no less dominated by the e(isting

order than the unhappy oppressed half% t is &orth 'eeping in mind that instrumental reason

conceals itself in the multivocality of postmodern myth% Pygmalion disappears as a hero4 but he

remains on the stage as a symptom% The true dialectic of the Pygmalion myth in postmodernity

lies in that Pygmalion becomes the rend; if to use Didi$!uberman7s terminology ; in the fabric

of the te(t= he is obliterated by the seduced narrator4 &ho conceives of #alatea as a

nonconformist and an emancipated individual% .y proceeding dialectically and focusing on the

split in the -B** novel by Lucinda .rant4 one can unveil Pygmalionism in its alleged absence

from the te(t and relate the postmodern Pygmalion to his modern origins%

Autumn Duchessis a marginal novel far a&ay from the mainstream literature4 and that is

&hy it is a good e(ample for the study of Pygmalionism as a liminal case in the postmodern

condition% t is a historical romance4 set in *2224 &hich tells the story of Antonia4 the Duchess of

"o(ton4 &ho mourns the loss of her husband and refuses to put a&ay the blac'% Later4 she falls in

love4 and the romance begins% The boo' is an eclectic novel4 full of anachronisms4 conflicting

ideas4 and incongruities4 &hich ma'es it consonant &ith the poetics of postmodernism

8See !utcheon -BB3: --1% The novel7s fetishism4 &ith its animation of the inanimate4

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PygmalionesFue motives4 and the inclusion of cacophonous discourses ma'e it a legitimate case

for the analysis of the postmodern Pygmalion% Let us loo' at the first t&o chapters of the novel

and pay particular attention to the minor character &hose importance cannot be recogni5ed by

the reader &ithout the 'no&ledge of the author7s allusions%

Autumn Duchessbegins &ith mutual adoration bet&een Antonia and onathan4 her future

lover% The reader &itnesses adoration from the point of vie& of onathan4 and Antonia is seen as

an >e(Fuisite feminine beauty74 the vision of &hom >stopped breath in his throat7

8.rant -B*-: *,4 &hich is reminiscent of the moment of adoration in other versions of

Pygmalion% The ga5e as the means of animating the ob0ect of adoration is contrasted &ith

reification as >it &as only natural he should give himself the leisure to drin' her in7 8A *% >!is

admiring ga5e7 8A * both animates Antonia and alienates her in the eyes of the reader4 &ho

succumbs to the ruthless logic of the romance% The reader can marvel at >the porcelain s'in ofher dcolletage glo&ing fla&less against the bottomless blac' of her go&n7 8A *4 not noticing

ho& he alienates a human being to the point of perceiving her as an inanimate ob0ect4 >as if she

&as a statue carved of alabaster draped in blac' cloth= as much a fi(ture of the ballroom as a

bla5ing chandelier or the enormous4 richly &oven tapestry hanging behind her7 8A -% 6hen the

dancers begin pairing up and &al'ing past her4 they do not notice Antonia4 as if she &ere only a

statue% Such reification is deemed unnerving and false= onathan &onders &hy she is >being

deliberately avoided7 8A -4 and finds no ans&er%

Lord Cavendish ; a secondary character in the novel ; e(plains to onathan that Antonia

>is a divinely beautiful4 s&eet$natured creature &ho is to be pitied74 as there are rumours that

>sorro& has unhinged her74 and her son had to invite Sir Titus oley4 >a dandified physician

&ho7s made a name for himself in the study and treatment of female melancholia7% There are first

symptoms of #alatea7s alienation: her strange behaviour is perceived as madness% !o&ever4

Antonia is a postmodern heroine4 a nonconformist &ho manages to stand out against the efforts

to normali5e her% The reader is given &hat he &ants to perceive: the painted veil of heterogeneity%

.ut before &e proceed to the celebration of difference4 it is &orth noting Sir Titus oley4 a

character &ho is mentioned at the beginning of the novel and then happily forgotten until chapter

eleven%

onathan misunderstands the reason for Antonia7s alienation% !e believes that >her son

'eeps her under loc' and 'ey7 8A *B% or him4 it is no >&onder she7s suffering from

melancholia74 as she >has no life at all= bullied and badgered and totally misunderstood7 8A *B%

,ubse)uently abbre*iated to 5#

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onathan7s misunderstanding of Antonia7s alienation places him in complicity &ith her son and

Sir Titus oley% Therefore4 she &ill not >need the peculiar attentions of a supercilious Fuac'74 and

onathan &ill become >someone to tal' to and a sympathetic shoulder to cry on7 8A *B for her4

only to reali5e the normali5ing scenario4 designed by her son% Thus4 onathan &ill involuntarily

accomplish the 0ob of Sir Titus oley and >cure7 Antonia7s melancholia4 because her alienation is

caused by the fact that her son &ants her to en0oy life and love again%

Antonia7s son does not 'no& &hat to do to >drag her out of the vat of grief and self$pity7

8A *-% She &as >once animated4 happy creature7 8A *)4 but no& her mourning is a cause of

sorro& and distress to her son= she is seen as an inanimate ob0ect4 lac'ing life% As a result4 he

decides >to try a different approach4 one ?%%%@ the eminent physician Sir Titus oley had assured

him &as the only &ay to sha'e his mother to her senses7 8A *)% Sir Titus oley is mentioned for

the second time in the novel% The Du'e resorts to his services to ma'e his mother happy again%The reader is led to believe that Antonia7s nonconformism does not &ane4 &hich happens for the

reason that one does not 'no& about Sir oley7s >different approach7 and can only surmise &hat

it involves% After a discussion &ith his mother about her mourning4 the Du'e informs Antonia

that he has invited Sir Titus oley 8A *1% Vet again Sir Titus oley emerges4 and mere

mentioning his name produces a shudder in Antonia: \)hat:7 she responded4 a Fuic' agitated

movement of a slender &rist flic'ing open her fan% She suppressed a shiver of loathing7 8A *1%

Sir Titus oley is >a disgusting4 fat$fingered Fuac'7 for her and his summoning is incroya#le

8A *1% The novel postpones revealing to the reader the ominous nature of oley7s treatment until

much later in the novel4 and one hardly understands &hy the Du'e can blac'mail Antonia by

saying that he &ill >gladly dispense &ith the services of Sir Titus oley4 despite his assurances

that he can cure ?Antonia@ of this e(cessive and unreasonable melancholy7 if she agrees to stop

mourning 8A *3% !is &ords send >a chill do&n Antonia7s spine74 and an un'no&ing reader may

believe that she >visibly stiffened7 after these &ords because she could not stand the idea of

conforming% >+ure her:7 mentally e(claims Antonia in disbelief 8A *3% 6hy does she become

cold and rigid li'e a statue &hen she hears the name of Titus oley and his intention to >cure

her7K The te(t beguiles the reader and seemingly meets his e(pectations by highlighting

Antonia7s refusal to conform as the reason for her agitation: >+onform:The &ord &asn7t in her

vocabulary% ?%%%@ She had al&ays been 0ust herself7 8A *,% Although Antonia does not conform

due to the treatment4 she is animated by onathan &hen she sees him4 and their relationship

becomes the driving force of the romance% Despite the postmodern insistence on difference and

nonconformism4 the te(t deceives the reader by presenting conformism in the guise of

independence and free &ill of #alatea%

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As in Sha&7s play4 Pygmalion is a collective image in Autumn Duchess4 &here the Du'e4

Sir Titus oley4 and onathan 0ointly fulfil the function of animating Antonia% 6hile the roles of

the Du'e and onathan in the process of animation are &ell decipherable4 Sir Titus oley stands

out as an opaFue reference to the psychological ideas at the da&n of the Age of "eason% The

reader is misled into believing that Antonia &as able to resist the normali5ing practices of >a

disgusting4 fat$fingered Fuac'7% +ne is set on the &rong trac' in interpreting her disgust to&ards

oley% .rant gives a clue to her readers later: in the author7s note4 she e(plains that Sir Titus

oley is based on the real$life model of Patric' .lair4 a doctor &ho treated melancholia in

&omen and used >&ater treatment to sadistic effect7 8A )3-% .ut she reveals this fact only after

the animation of #alatea4 presumably so as not to offend her readers7 sensibilities at the very

beginning% The instrumental reason of Pygmalion appears as a surreptitious symptom in the

novel% Antonia7s terror is turned into seemingly steadfast resilience and alleged non$conformity&hich crumble at the moment &hen she first sees onathan% 6hat the story could really tell

&ould be a story of domination4 Pygmalionism in its pure mythical nature%

Patric' .lair4 a psychiatrist in the early eighteenth century4 used a method of &ater

treatment remar'able for its cruelty and violence% !is >Cataritic' &ay of cold .athing7 8!unter

and Macalpine */9-: )-3 &as more than effective in treating patients &ho refused to be

normali5ed4 and Antonia &ould have hardly stood a chance4 in spite of her postmodern love for

difference and nonconformism% Patric' .lair treated his patients as malleable matter% !e &ould

pour &ater over their heads4 and his method relied on >surprise7= he &ould blindfold his patients

before sub0ecting them to &ater torture 8!unter and Macalpine */9-: )-3% n one of his notes

from *2-34 .lair spea's about >curing7 a married &oman &ho &as considered to be mad4 because

she did not love her husband and >neglected every thing7 8.lair */9-: )-2% This &oman is

similar to .rant7s Antonia in her refusal to love% !e treated her first &ith >freFuent bleedings4

violent Emetic's4 strong purgatives and potent Sudorific's and Harcotic's74 but none of these

conventional &ays of treating melancholia >&or't for a &ish7d for advantage7 8.lair */9-: )-2$

9% After a month of conventional treatment4 .lair noticed improvement in the condition of his

patient &ho >became insensibly to have the use of her "eason7= but she still refused to love her

husband4 only rarely allo&ing >her self to be called by his name &hich she could not endure

before7 8.lair */9-: )-9% +ne night4 he put >her in hopes of getting home from thence ?%%%@ but

&hen she &ent into the "oom in &hich she &as to Lay74 he ordered that she be stripped and

blindfolded= she &as >lifted up by force4 plac7d in and fi(t to the Chair in the bathing Tub7

8.lair */9-: )-9%


31/41


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for thought% Antonia7s humiliation does not transpire4 and her secret &ill stay &ith her for a long

time4 until the reader learns about Sir Titus oley much later in the te(t% Vet he remains a minor

character4 and Antonia manages to resist his Pygmalionism%

Postmodern interpretation of Patric' .lair as Sir Titus oley in the novel obfuscates

Pygmalion7s role in >curing7 Antonia% !aving e(plored the symptom of Pygmalionism inAutumn

Duchess4 &ould li'e to state that the Pygmalion myth is both refuted and reincarnated in the

novel% Antonia refuses to be normali5ed by Sir Titus oley4 and no treatment can ma'e her

conform% The myth of instrumental reason is unveiled as self$deception on the side of

Pygmalion4 &ho believes in the omnipotence of his domination over #alatea% +n the other hand4

Pygmalionism remains a gap in the understanding of the te(t4 as the Du'e7s assimilatory offer is

unconsciously accepted by Antonia &hen she falls in love &ith onathan% Accepting the offer4

Antonia succumbs to the po&ers of Pygmalionism &ithout reali5ing it% The reader is deceivedand is submerged into the myth of Pygmalion &hen Antonia comes to life than's to her love for

onathan% Sir Titus oley7s story appears as an innocuous pastiche% Postmodernism7s >protective

&all of playful unconcern7 8.auman *//*: -,B splits the novel and hides almost all the traces of

the sub0ugation of #alatea%

Pygmalion deceives himself &hen he thin's that #alatea is animated o&ing to his

mastery4 and #alatea escapes into an illusion of her independence from the normali5ing force of

Pygmalionism% The Pygmalion myth is dialectically e(perienced as both self$deception and

authentic reality of the modern sub0ect% Even the author of the myth is deceived in trying to

demythologi5e it% There is no possibility of &riting against the myth &ithout evo'ing it in the

mythical consciousness of the reader= but silencing the myth and distorting it is hardly a solution4

since it leads to even stronger support for Pygmalionism as a rend in the fabric of the te(t% t is

important to come to terms &ith the myth and achieve the balance bet&een mythical and critical

thin'ing4 both of &hich may be relinFuished in postmodernity4 &ith its validation of difference

and absolute not$'no&ing% +bliterating Pygmalionism misleads the reader and mythologi5es the

te(t from the perspective of #alatea4 &ho ; being unconsciously dominated and oppressed by the

same forces of instrumental reason ; is beFueathed &ith Pygmalion7s supernatural po&ers%

+onclusion

The discussion above gives support to my main thesis thatevery effort to unveil the myth ends in

developing a ne& metaphor to e(plain the metamorphosis of #alatea4 &hich leads to

reintroduction of mythical consciousness into the story% The artists of modernity &hose &or's

&ere scrutini5ed in this study &or'ed along these lines4 trying to demythologi5e the Pygmalion

myth and present creation as >eine voll'ommene T]uschung7 8.l hm */99: --4 a perfect

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deception% This dissertation has also outlined ho& the Pygmalion myth serves the purpose of

metaphorical evocation of the sub0ect of modernity &ith its inherent controversy and ambiguity4

and has argued that the dialectic of the Pygmalion myth is characteristic of the modern age% The

dialectical approach to&ards the myth and its interpretation allo&ed me to loo' at the moments

&hen the fabric of the te(t is rent by the incongruity bet&een the myth and its criticism% The

Pygmalion myth can be useful as a heuristic device in literary criticism4 and its further

application as a trope for interpreting the crucial facets of enlightenment and opening the

unresolved Fuestions &hich the literary studies have inherited from the age of modernity

promises ne& insights into the field and can provide better understanding of the dialectic of myth

and enlightenment%

The modern Pygmalion is a deceived deceiver &ho considers his &or' animated &ith his

po&ers4 &hereas the te(ts undermine this conviction and ma'e Pygmalion doubt thetransformation% !e is an artist or an educator4 and his art conceals art so &ell that he gives in to

self$delusion only to Fuestion it once again% #alatea comes to life4 but her status is eFuivocal%

The myth problemati5es the story4 and the reader has to balance bet&een understanding and not$

understanding the myth%


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reversal ma'e

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