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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE:
A GIS APPROACH.
A dissertation Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for a
Bachelor of ArtsSpecial Degree in Geography
By
A / 03 /547
Under the Supervision of
Senior Lecturer A.S.M. Nawfal
Faculty of Arts
Department of Geography
University of Peradeniya
Sri Lanka.
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my loving, caring and industrious mother and father
whose effort and sacrifice has made my dream of obtaining this degree a reality.
Words cannot adequately express my deep gratitude to you. I pray you will live long
to reap the fruits of your labor.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My appreciation goes to my mother and father for their efforts and suggestions
towards my progress in life.
I appreciate the constructive suggestions, criticisms and encouragement of my
supervisor in Dr. A.S.M. Nawfal who was very keen and humane in supervising me.
I remain indebted to the entire staff of Hecter Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research and
Training Institute, Colombo and other colleagues; Uchtha, Prasanna and Asanka
My gratitude is also given to Mr. Bandara who encouraged me in the first place to put
in for the course.
The help given by my roommate and friends, Kamal and Ranil with their moral
support during this course is enormous.
I also acknowledge the staff of divisional secretariat council, field officers of new
Hingurana sugar factory and farmers who provided me valuable information in this work.
Finally, deep gratitude goes to the entire students of GIS, University of Peradeniya
particularly those who have both served as valuable classmates and close friends and otherswhose names are not mentioned here.
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CONTENTS
PAGE
Title page....i
Dedication..ii
Acknowledgments..iii
Table of contents...iv
List of tables..vi
List of maps..vii
List of figures...viii
List of pictures.viii
List of acronymsixAbstracts.x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study.01
1.2 Objectives..03
1.3 Importance of the study and study area..03
1.3.1 Importance of the study..03
1.3.2 Importance of the study area..04
1.4 Research methodology...05
1.4.1 Study area...05
1.4.2 Selection of the sample..07
1.4.3 Methods of data collection.07
1.4.4 Interpretation and analyzing data...11
1.4.5 Identification of spatial detention in agricultural setting...12
1.4.6 Software used.131.5 Limitation of the study...14
CHAPTER TWO: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND AGRICULTURAL
PATTERN IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE
2.1. Physical characteristics in Madawalalanda village.16
2.1.1 Geomorphology and Geology...16
2.1.2 Soil17
2.1.3. Agro-ecological zone...24
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2.1.4. Irrigation canal.26
2.2. Agricultural Land use pattern.28
2.3. Agricultural Development..36
CHAPTER THREE: ECONOMICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF
AGRICULTURAL LANDS IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE
3.1. Economic background of farmers..39
3.2. Cost of production in agricultural lands.41
3.2.1 Cost of production in paddy cultivation...44
3.2.2. Cost of production in sugarcane cultivation45
3.2.3. Cost of production in Chena cultivation..47
3.2.4. Cost of production in Gherkin cultivation...47
3.2.5.Cost of production in vegetable cultivation.48
3.3. Profitability of Agriculture.48
3.4 Environmental issues in Agricultural Lands51
3.4.1. Major environmental issues related to agriculture
in Madawalalanda village.........51
3.4.2. Spatial dimension of environment issues...55
CHAPTER FOUR: IMPACTS AND POSSIBLE CHANGES FOR THE
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN MADAWALALANDA VILLAGE
4.1 Impacts on the Sustainable agriculture in Madawalalanda village
4.1.1. Spread of modernization.57
4.1.2. Rapid growth of population58
4.1.3. Poor performances of agricultural pattern in economic terms
of low productivity or land and labour.58
4.1.4. Introduction of new crops...59
4.2 Possible Changes of agriculture towards sustainable development
in Madawalalanda village.59
4.2.1. Environment protection strategies..59
4.2.2. Crop development strategies..60
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
5.1 Conclusion.62
5.2. Suggestions...64
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REFERENCE.66
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGES
1. Area Of The Major Soil Groups In Sri Lanka...21
2. Distinguishing Characteristics Of Agro-Ecological Zones
In Madawalalanda Village.26
3. Area Of Paddy And Sugarcane Cultivation Under Main Irrigation..28
4. Total Cultivation Lands Under Main Irrigations...28
5. Main Land Use Pattern In Madawalalanda Village...31
6. Land Area Under The Paddy Cultivation..33
7. Livestock In Madawalalanda Village35
8. Total Population39
9. Population by Employment Types40
10. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands Per Acre..42
11. Cost Of Production In Selected Paddy Cultivation Lands Per Acre.....44
12. Cost Of Production In Selected Sugarcane Cultivation Lands.46
13. Cost Of Production In Gherkin Cultivation Lands...47
14. Cost Of Production In Vegetable Cultivation Lands....48
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LIST OF MAPS
MAPS PAGE
1. The Boundary Of Madawalalanda Village.06
2. Location Of Madawalalanda Village In Simplified Geological Map Of
Sri Lanka17
3. Contour Map Of Madawalalanda Village..18
4. Soil Map Of Sri Lanka20
5. Soil Map Of Daman DS Division...22
6. Soil Map Of Madawalalanda Village.23
7. Agro-Ecological Zones In Ampara Districts..25
8. Agro-Ecological Zones In Madawalalanda Village..25
9. Location Of Eggal Aru Tank..27
10. Land Use Pattern In The Area30
11. Land Use Pattern In Madawalalanda Village.32
12. Selected Agricultural Lands In Madawalalanda Village41
13. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands
In Madawalalanda Village.43
14. Cost Of Production In Selected Agricultural Lands By Sectors...43
15. Profitability Of Agricultural Lands In Madawalalanda Villages...50
16. Levels Of Environmental Issues In Selected Agricultural Lands..55
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGE
1. The Source Of Data...07
2. Methods Of GIS Application13
3. Topography Of Madawalalanda Village..19
4. Soil Land Use By Soil Types In Madawalalanda Village....24
5. Land use pattern by Types...31
6. Total Population By Male And Female...39
7. Monthly Income Levels By Number Of Families...408. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Paddy Lands...45
9. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Sugarcane Cultivation Lands.46
10. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Gherkin Cultivation Lands.47
11. Average Cost Of Production In Selected Vegetable Cultivation Lands...48
LIST OF PICTURES
PICTURES PAGE
1. A Paddy Cultivation Area In Madawalalanda Village33
2. Chena Cultivation In Madawalalanda Village.....34
3. Homesteads In Madawalalanda Village...35
4. A Gherkin Cultivation Land.36
5. A Sugarcane Field.36
6. Micro Irrigation For The Cultivation In Madawalalanda Village.37
7. Land Degradation..51
8. Excess use of agrochemicals.52
9. The Pollution In The Agricultural Lands...54
10. A Broken Main Irrigation Canal54
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List of Acronyms
CH - Chena
DS - Divisional Secretariat
DZ - Dry Zone
ESRI - Environmental System Research Institution
GDP - Gross Domestic Production
GIS - Geographical Information Systems
GR - Gherkin
HARTI - Hector Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research and Training
Institution
HC - High Land Complex
HEPAL - High Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands
HPAL - High Profitable Agricultural Lands
KC - Kadugannawa Complex
LEPAL - Low Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands
LPAL - Low Profitable Agricultural Lands
MEPAL - Meddle Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands
MPAL - Middle Profitable Agricultural Lands
NGO - Non-Governmental Organization
NRM - Natural Resource Management
PA - PaddyPGIA - Post Graduate Institute of Agriculture
SAD - Sustainable Agricultural Development
SD - Sustainable Development
SU - Sugarcane
TC - Total Cost
TR - Total Revenue
VC - Vijayan Complex
VE - Vegetable
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WC - Wanni Complex
ABSTRACT
This study examines the relationship between physical characteristics
and sustainable agriculture in Madawalalanda village using
Geographical Information System. Initially, the agricultural pattern and
physical characteristics of study area was presented using maps.
Subsequently, an attempt was made that is found out the spatial
variation of environmental issues and productivity of agricultural lands
in Madawalalanda village. Obviously, the study explored the possible
changes of agriculture towards sustainable development in
Madawalalanda village. In achieving this sustainable agricultural
development, it was defined as extending the maximum productivity of
agriculture and reflecting the ability of future generation to meet their
agricultural needs. The result of the work shows a traditional
agricultural pattern that includes paddy cultivation, Chena cultivation
and vegetable cultivation do not have a serious influence on the
environmental health but gherkin cultivation that is one of the short
term new crops are highly influencing the environmental health of
agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village. Sugarcane cultivation that
is a direct market oriented monocrop have been increased the
productivity of land while affecting the environment in a moderate way
on the agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village. Suggestions were
therefore made at the end of the work that improving paddy
cultivation, sugarcane cultivation and vegetable cultivation with the
protection environmental health of village using new technology is the
way to the sustainable agricultural development in Madawalalanda
village.
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CHAPTER ONE
01. Introduction
01.1. Background of the StudyDespite the significant diversifications in its economic base through export-led
industrialization, Sri Lankas economy still remains fundamentally agrarian.
Basically, governments policies in Sri Lanka have been oriented towards generation
of agro-based economic growth. In term of contribution to GDP, the share of
agriculture has declined from 30 percent in 1978 to 21 percent in 1998, with
manufacture now accounting for 17 percent. The ten-year Horizon Development
Framework (Ten-year vision) issued in November 2006 along with the budget 2007 is
a broad policy framework consistent with the Mahinda Chinthana states that
Agriculture transforms traditional subsistence agriculture to commercially oriented
and highly productive sector (Central Bank Annual Report, 2006). In addition, this
ten-year vision has pointed out Enhancing agriculture productive efficiency through
mechanization and technological transformation.
Agricultural activities are practiced all over the country aiming at producing food and
fiber for domestic and export purposes in Sri Lanka. Dry zone agriculture plays animportant role in the economic sector and food production sector in Sri Lanka. The
dry zone accounts for nearly 60 percent of the total land area (6.54 million hectares)
of Sri Lanka ( Madduma Bandara, 1985). The land that can be used for agricultural
purposes is about 2.71 million hectares in Sri Lanka of which about 48 percent is in
dry zone (Abeyrathne, 1956). Dry zone agriculture is mainly based on the irrigation
system of the area.
Gal-Oya, Minneriya and Mahaweli projects are outstanding development projects in
Sri Lanka. Ampara district is one of the major agricultural areas, developed under
Gal-Oya development project that has achieved a significant success story in Sri
Lankan agricultural development history. But in past decades, agriculture in this area
has changed dramatically due to the new technology, mechanization, increasing of
chemical substances, specialization, and government policies. On one hand, these
modern practices of this intensive agriculture in this area have contributed much to
the deterioration of environment. On the other hand there is a decreasing trend of
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productivity of agricultural land in this area. Agriculture is a natural heritage. The
agriculture has befallen as a human heritage by the development of technology.
Madawalalanda village is one of the agriculturally important areas that represent the
many of existing agricultural patterns in Ampara district.
Initially, sustainable agricultural development extends the maximum productivity of
agriculture and reflects the ability of future generation to meet their agricultural
needs. The sustainable agriculture basically integrates with protecting environmental
heath, economic profitability and socioeconomic equality.
In the planning process of sustainable agricultural development, the decision makers
should have well understood regarding spatial dimension of agricultural systems of
the area and the distribution of environmental problems within this agricultural
setting. Agricultural setting of any area is dominated by human characteristics and
physical characteristics. The spatial dimension of agriculture also basically depends
on physical characteristics of a particular area. The maps are a major tool that show
practical path to identify both distributions of phenomena and dimensions of
phenomena for sustainable agricultural development planning. And an adequate
spatial information base is required to conduct sustainable agricultural development.
Geographic Information System is one of the major tools in geographical research.
Defined broadly, GIS is a set of powerful computer based tool for capturing, storage,
management, retrieval, query, analysis and presentation of spatial data. GIS provides a
common platform to integrate data and to require for adequate spatial information.
Using this potential power of GIS, this study will use the GIS as a tool to find the
relationship between agricultural setting and physical characteristics in
Madawalalanda village of the Ampara district such as soil types, drainage systems and
irrigation systems to explore the possible changes of agricultural setting towards
sustainable development.
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01.2. Objectives
Primary objective
The primary objective of this study is to explore the possible changes of agricultural
setting towards sustainable development and the relationship between agricultural
setting with physical characteristics such as soil types, drainage systems and irrigation
systems in Madawalalanda village of the Ampara District
Secondary Objectives
1. To find out spatial dimensions of environmental problems related agricultural
setting.2. To evaluate the economic background of farmers and their sustainability.
01.3. Importance of study and study area
01.3.1. Importance of study
By nature, geography is a spatial science that studies the spatial dimension of human
activities. Geography also applies relationship of phenomena to deepen their
understanding about real world problems. And also human- environmental
relationship is mainly studied in the subject of geography. Exactly, this study utilized
these major themes in geography to criticize the agro- based problems in study area to
explore the possible changes of agriculture towards the sustainable development.
Intellectually, there is inadequacy of research that study about sustainable agriculture
by finding out the relationship between physical characteristics and agriculture of any
selected area. Thus, this research is important intellectually. It also has a social
importance as it examines the possible changes of agriculture in the study area
towards sustainable development. The world is facing different types of
environmental problem with the agricultural development. Therefore, the practice of
sustainable agricultural development has a worldwide acceptance now. On one hand,
decreasing of production negatively effects on the society. On the other hand, with
practices of intensive agriculture for high production, it directly deteriorates the
environment health. Thus, there is a challenge for balance between agricultural
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development and environment. This study saw a practical geographical answer for
this development paradox.
There is a negative trend in agriculture of Madawalalanda that the deteriorating the
environment health and decreasing productivity of agricultural land. Thus, this
research found out geographical answer to explore the possible changes of
agricultural setting towards sustainable development by finding out the relationship
between agricultural setting and physical characteristics such as soil types, drainage
systems and irrigation systems in Madawalalanda village of the Ampara District
01.3.2. Importance of study area This study mainly focuses on agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village.
According to the GN reports, total agricultural land use area is 508 Acres
including paddy, Chena, coconuts, vegetables, fruits, home gardens and mixed
farming.
Madawalalanda village is an agriculturally important area that developed under
the village expansion scheme of Gal-Oya development project. On the other hand
past decades, agriculture in this area has changed dramatically due to the new
technology, mechanization, increasing of chemical substances, specialization, and
government policies.
River Valley Development Board has developed most of the irrigation works in
this village under the Gal-Oya development project. Geography of This area
rapidly has changed after the intervention of this development project
Geographical location of Madawalalanda is also very important. There are
different types of soil types, drainage systems and irrigation systems that affected
for agricultural distribution of area as physical characteristics those, which
associated agriculture of area.
On the one hand agro-based economic activities are very diverse than other close
areas in Damana DS division where Madawalalanda village is administratively
located.
On the other hand the farmers of this village are facing various types of economic
problems as a result of decreasing productivity of agricultural land where the
study carried out.
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01.4. Research Methodology
The following methodology applied to explore the possible changes of agricultural
setting towards sustainable development in Madawalalanda village.
The methodology of study can be mainly divided into five parts
1. Selection of study area
2. Selection of sample.
3. Collecting and analyzing of relevant data in order to derive final result.
4. Identification of spatial dimension in agricultural setting.
5. Analyzing of the maps using GIS software.
01.4.1. Study areaSri Lanka is an island situated in the Indian Ocean at the southern tip of Indian
subcontinent. It lies between 5 5 to 9 5 northern latitudes and from 79 4 to 81 5
east longitudes with total Island area of 65,610 square kilometer. The main livelihood
of people is agriculture or agro-based industries. The agricultural of country is vastly
based on its physical characteristics such as soil type, drainage systems, and irrigation
systems.
The Madawalalanda GN division is a main agricultural area, located in Amparadistrict of Northeast part of Sri Lanka. It lies between from 7 10 to 7 10 with
total area of 2655 Acres (DMR report, 2006). According to agro-ecological
classification of Sri Lanka, the area belongs to DL2a (NRM map, Ampara district,
2007). The main soil types of the area are Alluvial soils variables drainage and
texture, Rock knob plain and Reddish brown earth and immature brown looms;
rolling, hilly and steep terrine (NRM map, Ampara district, 2007). The annual rainfall
varies from 1500mm to 2000mm and annual temperature is more than 27.5 C
(Arjunas Atlas, 1997).
The irrigation systems of the area have been developed under Gal-Oya development
project. Eggal Aru River also provides water to agricultural activities. In the boundary
of village, there is Malayadiya tank fed by Iginiyagala reservoir through right bank
irrigation channel. Paddy cultivation is shredded in the most part of this area. The
irrigation channels of the area and rainwater are mainly utilized to this paddy
cultivation. On the other hand, the Chena cultivation, sugar cane cultivation rainfed
upland crops and mixed farming can be seen in this area. The flat land, irrigation
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channel soil types and climate directly facilitate to this cultivation pattern of area. The
forest area is mainly being utilized to Chena cultivation. As a result of expansion of
agricultural activity, many environmental problems have emerged in this area.
Administratively, W/27 Madawalalanda GN division belongs to the
Weugampaththuwa south in Damana DS division, Ampara district (map-01). The
boundary of village Helagampura and Ambalan Oya GN division from North,
Ambalan Oya from east, Timbirigolla from south and Madana and Alahena GN
division from west.
Map-01
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01.4.2. Selection of the sample
The stratified random sampling method was used to select the sample. The sample
includes twenty: (20) agricultural lands.
Initially, the sample mainly represents the spatial dimension of agricultural settingwithin the selected physical characteristics of the area. The strata for the sampling
were generated after considering agricultural practices and physical characteristics of
the area. In the irrigated areas, cluster was selected in head, middle and tail of
channels to represent the cultivation patterns. In the rainfed areas, criteria such as
drainage or soil types were used to select representative clusters.
At the second stage, Landowners of selected agricultural lands were chosen to
evaluate the economic background of the farmers.
01.4.3. Methods of Data collection
The Data for the study was collected from the primary and secondary sources (Fig-
01).
1. First step- Secondary data
2. Second step- Primary data
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Fig01-The source of Data
18
Data
Primary Data
Field based
observation
Interviews
Secondary Data
Existing maps
Other documents
Spatial data Agro-economic data
Map making and Digitizing
Analyzing
Input parameter for Sustainable agriculture
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First step
In the first step, secondary data was collected for the study. These data was collected
from the following sources.
1. G.N. Office.
2. D.S office.
3. Department of agriculture.
4. Hecter Kobbakaduwa Agrarian Research And Training Institute.
5. Other government offices
6. Research papers and thesis
7. Internet websites
8. News paper articles and other publications
The G.N. office provided very important socio-economic data for the study. From
these data, the study could figure out actual agricultural situation of Madawalalanda
village. Despite providing socio-economic data, Grama Niladari gave the information
about agricultural changes of village and agro-based issues in the village.
The Gama Naguma project report that prepared by D.S office revealed many
demographic and agricultural data for the study. Most of maps as a source for GIS
mapping and analyzing were collected from the planning division of DS office.
Department of agriculture in Ampara office gave some other important agricultural
information in Ampara district. But this information was not specified for
Madawalalanda village as it gives some general idea about agricultural background of
Ampara district.
Most of the information about Gal-Oya development project and sustainable
agricultural research was collected from the HARTI.
New Hingurana sugar factory office, NECORD project office and some other NGOs
provided relevant data for the study.
Some relevant information about agricultural background of the area was collected
from the theses and research papers that were available in the library of PGIA,
University of Peradeniya.
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Second step
In the second step, the primary data was collected. As a primary data collection
methods following methods were used.
1. Participatory observation methods
2. Interviews
3. Questionnaires
4. Field based observation
1. Participatory observation methods
The research vastly uses this method to select the agricultural lands in
Madawalalanda village in order to achieve final objectives in the study.
2. Interview
Interview method is specially used to collect information for the study. Semi
structured questionnaires were employed for the interview to make easy this
endeavor of study.
GN officer in Madawalalanda village was interviewed to take some
important information about agriculture and socioeconomic
background of Madawalalanda village.
Field officers in Department of agriculture and New Hingurana sugar
factory were interviewed to understand agricultural issues and their
opinions to reduce these issues using sustainable methods in
agricultural land of Madawalalanda village.
Five old villagers were interviewed to understand the changing pattern
of agricultural land use in Madawalalanda village with different time
period.
03. Questionnaires methods
A questionnaire is a format containing a list of questions sequentially ordered to
obtain information relevant to the objectives of the study. In this study, most of the
data in order to analyze for achieve the objectives were collected using
questionnaires that were distributed among the farmers. This questionnaire was
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mainly used to collect some important socioeconomic data and farmers ideas for
the sustainable agricultural development of Madawalalanda village.
This questionnaire was given to 20 farmers those who have landownerships of the
selected agricultural land in Madawalalanda village. Primacy objective of this study is
explore the possible changes of agriculture toward the sustainable development of
Madawalalanda village, thus this study gave great attention about farmers ideas about
sustainable agricultural development that extends the maximum productivity of
agriculture and reflects the ability of future generation to meet their agricultural needs
with environment protection.
04. Field based observation
Researcher used field based observation methods in order to understand the actual
nature of the problem in the agricultural land of Madawalalanda village.
05.Accuracy of data
Sample was selected to represent different physical characteristics that are associated
to the agriculture in Madawalalanda village. The data that were collected from
government institutions, GN officers and farmers were compared to protect the
accuracy of data.
01.4.4. Interpretation and analyzing of Data
The data that were collected from above methods were analyzed using following two
methods
1. Qualitatively
2. Quantitatively
The profitability of agricultural lands was calculated per one Acre. The very common
economic formula was employed for this calculation. It is
TR TC =
TR= Total Revenue (Data from farmers)
TC= Total Cost (Data from farmers)
= Profit
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Profitability of one Acre in agricultural land = / Total Acres
Then, the whole profitability of lands was classified in different classification, under
the following main category.
1. High profitable agricultural lands (HPAL).
2. Middle profitable agricultural lands (MPAL).
3. Low profitable agricultural lands (LPAL).
The environmental problems in the study area were evaluated qualitatively, using
field-based observation methods. Then, they were classified as
1. High environmental polluted agricultural land (HEPAL).
2. Middle environmental polluted agricultural land (MEPAL).
3. Low environmental polluted agricultural land (LEPAL).
Finally, it was found the relationship between environmental problems, profitability of
agricultural land and physical characteristics of the study area in order to derive final
result.
01.4.5. Identification of spatial dimension in agricultural setting
The ArcView GIS 3.2a software was used to make maps and analyze the relationship
between physical characteristics and sustainable agriculture. Main three characters
were mapped from the sample. Namely,
1. Agricultural land use patterns
2. Environmental problems (High, Middle, Low)
3. Agricultural profitability of the land (High, Middle, Low)
04. Analyzing of maps Using GIS
The relationship was found through overlapping of themes in ArcView 3.2a. Main
steps of this process were
1. Digitizing of the map
2. Creating the theme for every maps
3. Find out relationship
4. Making Layouts
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Fig02-Methods of GIS application
1.4.6. Software Used
Basically, three softwares were used for preparation of this report viz;
ArcView 3.2a with extension used to make maps and analyze the relationship
between physical characteristics and agriculture
Surfer 7.0 (Golden software) used to create three-dimensional view of the area.
Microsoft word was used basically for the presentation of the research.
Microsoft Excel was used in producing the bar graph.
23
Assessment of Individual Thematic map
Study of Map in
CombinationGIS
Assessment of relationship between
Physical Characteristics and Agriculture
Suggestion and Possible Changes For
Sustainable Agricultural development
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01.5. Limitations of study
There were following limitations in this research.
1. Conceptual issues
The concept sustainability is differently defined in the development literature. The
sustainable development should be studied in interdisciplinary approaches. Despite
understanding about environment and economy, sustainable agricultural development
should concern regarding society. This study did not deeply investigate the socially
important concepts that are related to sustainable agriculture.
2. Accuracy of Maps
Existing maps were used to make and analyze maps using ArcViwe GIS 3.2a software
therefore accuracy of maps was a considerable issue.
3. Evaluation issues
Farmers economic background was evaluated using questionnaires and interview
methods. Some responses were not useful to achieve final objectives. Environmental
issues were evaluated using observation methods and questionnaires that were
distributed among the farmers. These environmental issues were not evaluated using
physical scientific method.
04. Limitation of data collection
Limitation of books, reports, research and other publications is a main issue that faced
in this research. Most of the books were only social studies that considered about the
traditional social systems, cultural importance of the area. Even though there are
many researches that studied about Gal-Oya development project but those are not
directly related with the study area.
Many limitations occurred in the application of interview methods and questionnaires
methods in order to collect primary data for the study.
Most of the government institutions did not give data due to prevailing security
situation in the area. Specially, it was hardly possible to collect data for the map
making. Department of agriculture had not implemented any data collection or any
research about the agricultural activities in Madawalalanda village. Some data could
be collected from the village rehabilitation project report that prepared by the NGOs
but the data accuracy is considerable.
In the application stage of questionnaires methods to evaluate economic backgroundof farmers, the study underwent many difficulties. Some farmers did not understand
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the nature of questions due to the lack of education that they had. On the other hand
some responses were not useful to achieve final objectives. Thus, there were many
limitations in the data collection of this research.
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CHAPTER TWO
02. Physical Characteristics and Agricultural pattern
in Madawalalanda villageThe physical characteristics directly dominate the agricultural land use pattern,
distribution, changes and agricultural development in any area. There are specific
physical characteristics that are associated to the agriculture in Madawalalanda village
such as geomorphology and Geology, soil, drainage and irrigation canals and natural
vegetations. This chapter describes these physical characteristics and agricultural
pattern in Madawalalanda village.
02.1. Physical characteristics in Madawalalanda village
02.1.1. Geomorphology and Geology
The village name Madawalalanda is derived from the physical environmental
condition, covered around the village.
If name of the village is divided into three parts, then we can clearly identify this
condition of the village.
Mada+ Wala+ Landa = Madawalalanda.
Mada is Sinhala word for mud
Wala is Sinhala word for pit
Landa is Sinhala word for forest.
There can be identified those three physical environment condition. Topographically,
it is located in a low land area relatively to the other areas. If we consider soil type of
Madawalalanda, it is more alluvial soil, which encourages the paddy cultivation.
According to theory of plate tectonics, Sri Lanka is a small fragment of an ancient
super continent Pangeas. Geologically, Sri Lanka is a part of the south Indian
peninsula separated by a series of lineament in the Palk Strait area. Most parts of the
country is underlain by crystalline rocks of Precambrian age, the rest of being made
up chiefly of Miocene limestone in the north and northwestern coastal regions and
quaternary deposits along the northwestern, southern and eastern. The Precambrian
rocks, which are a part of one of the very ancient, stable part of the earths crust are
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subdivided into three main and one subordinate unites, on the basis of the rock types
and structure present in them.
They are
(i) The Highland complex (HC), occupying the central highland and the
extending from southwest to the northeast to the west of the island.
(ii) The Wanni complex (WC), formerly known as the Western Vijayan
complex and occupying the lowland to the east of the HC.
(iii) The Vijayan complex (VC), formerly known as the Eastern Vijayan
complex and occupying the lowland to the east of the HC.
(iv) The Kadugannawa complex (KC), which lies within the HC but consists of
rock types markedly different from those of the HC.
The study area that is Madawalalanda village belong to VC, according to the
geological map of Sri Lanka ( Map-02)
Map-02
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The Vijayan complex (VC) consists of variety of hornblende and biotite-bearing
orthogeneisses and granitoids, with inclusion of metaquatzite and calc-silicate rocks.
As in the WC, therefore, a matasedimentary series must originally have been
presented. Metamorphosed basic dykes and strongly migmatised granite rock also
present. The metaqurtzites are about 1100 m.y old, thus indicating that the enclosing
granite rocks are younger.
On the one hand the geology of Madawalalanda that indicates the very similar
geological features, discussed under the VC complex.
On the other hand, the geomorphologicaly, despite having plain terrine in the large
part of the village, there are some isolated two rock mountains in the Madawalalanda
village, namely
1. Podi Kanda
2. Mattayagala Kanda
The Podi Kanda is smaller than Mattayagala Kanda (Map-03 / Fig-03). There is very
small tank that called Malayadiya tank, fed by Iginiyagala reservoir through right
bank irrigation cannel. In the interior part of village, there is rocky plain
( Gamaneguma project report,2008).
Map-03
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Fig-03
2.1.2. Soil
The process of soil formation is indeed very slow, and is governed by the climate,
kind of parent rock, the relief of the land and vegetation in combination with living
organism. The combined effects of all these factors over a period of a few hundred to
thousands of years result in formation of soil profile which is made up of a defined
sequence and arrangement of layer or horizons.
Fourteen Grate Soil Groups have been recognized in Sri Lanka (Map-04). These soil
groups and their surface area are given in Table 01
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Map-04
It is generally clear that the major factor influencing soil formation in this country is
climate (rainfall), followed by parent materials and topography.
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Table01-Area of the major soil groups in Sri Lanka
Soil group Area
(000ha)
Reddish Brown Earths 1610
Low Humic Gley Soils 950 Non calcic Brown Soil 163
Red Yellow Latosols 280
Calcic Red Yellow Latosols 40
Immature Brown Loams 205
Solodized Solonetz 210
Grumusols 15
Red Yellow Podzolic Soil 1460
Reddish Brown Latosolic Soils 60
Alluvial Soil 450
Regosls 190Bog and Half-Bog Soil 60
Lithosols 200
Old Alluvium 30
Source- Land use division, irrigation department
According to the soil map (Map-05), there are eight types of soil in the Damana DS
division. These soil types in Damana DS division are namely as follows
1. Alluvial soil of variable drainage and texture; flat terrain,
2. Erosional remnants,
3. Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil; undulating terrain,
4. Reddish Brown Earth & Immature Brown Loom; Rolling, Hilly and Steep
terrain,
5. Reddish Brown Earths & Low Humic Gley soil; undulatin terrain
6. Reddish Brown Earth & Solonetz; undulating terrain
7. Reddish Brown Earths, Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil;undulating terrain
8. Rock knob plain
Map-05
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According to the soil map of Madawalalanda village (Map-06), the main soil types are
1. Alluvial soil of variable and texture; flat terrain
2. Noncalcic Brown soil & Low Humic Gley soil; undulating terrain
3. Rock knob plain
Map-06
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Alluvial soil is mainly have formed on alluvium that has been deposited on flood
plain, valley depression, river and steam bank and their backslopes. Because of the
great variation in the texture and drainage they are all grouped under soil of variable
texture
and drainage. Non-Calcic Brown soil exclusively developed on weathered products
of acid rock that have a low content of ferromagnesian minerals. The colour of the
surface A horizon is dark grayish brown, and that of the subsoil or B horizon is
yellowish red to yellowish brown.
Large area of Madawalalanda village covered by the Noncalcic Brown soil variable
drainage and texture; flat terrain. Its land use cover percentage is 46%, nearly one half
of the land area.
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Fig04-Soil Land use by Soil types in Madawalalanda village
12%
46%
42%
Alluvial soils of variable
drainage and texture; flatterrain
Noncalcic Brown soils &
Low Humic Gley soils;
undulating terrainRock knob plain
02.1.3. Agro-Ecological zone
There are five-agro ecological zone in Ampara district (Map-07), according Agro
ecological zones map of Sri Lanka. Madawalaland village belong to the two agro-
ecological zones (Map-08).Distinguishing Characteristics of Agro-Ecological zones
in Madawalalanda village shows Table02
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Map-07
Map-08
Table02-Distinguishing Characteristics of Agro-Ecological zones inMadawalalanda village
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AEZMONTHLT HISTOGRAM OF 75% RAINFALLPROBABILITY RESPECTIVE REGION (mm)
75%EXPECT
ANCYVALUE
OF
ANNUALRAINFALL
DESCRIPTION
(Land use/ Terrain/ Major
soil group)
DL2a
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
J F M A M J J A S O N D
>1,300
Rainfed upland crop,
Paddy, Natural forest,
Sugarcane, Scrubs
Undulating
NCB, RBE, LHG& Old
alluvial soil
DL2b
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
J F M A M J J A S O N D
>1,100
Paddy, Rainfed upland
crops
Undulating and flat
NCB, RBE, old alluvial,
LHG, Regosol &
Solodized- Solonetz soil
Source- NRM center, Department of Agriculture
02.1.4. Irrigation canal
The irrigation ecosystem has been used to describe these stable man-made ecological
systems, and the term has been accepted by the International Commission on
Irrigation and Drainage. Very briefly in the irrigation ecosystem perspective water is
seen as an animate agent in biological process, essentially the vehicle for conveyance
of nutrients in natures eternal biogeochemical cycle. In the hydraulic engineering
perspective, water is seen as an inanimate agent in various engineering functions such
as land preparation and provision of irrigation facilities.The irrigation cannels in
Madawalalanda village have been developed by the Gal Oya development project
under the right bank development schemes. Egal Aru tank mainly provides water to
the agriculture (Map-09).
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Ekgal Aru tank data
Gross capacity - 23500 Ac/ft
Catchments area - 13.4 sq miles
Gross storage - 22200 Ac/ft
Area of full supply level - 1015 Acs
High flood level - 212 ft above MSL
Irrigable area - 2850Acs
Main canal length - 57400ft
Distributory canal length - 114800 ft
There are 35 branches in the issue tree of Ekgal Aru scheme. Water for the cultivation
activity of Madawalalanda village is provided through the EK 28. A and EK 29.
According to the irrigation department data (Table-03), the Paddy and sugarcane
cultivation area under these two canal as follows.
37
Map09-Location of Egal Aru tank
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Table03-Area of Paddy and Sugarcane cultivation under main irrigation
Name of canal Paddy (Hectares) Sugarcane (Hectares)
EK 28. A 20.24 6.07
EK 29 20.24 40.49
Total 40.48 46.56
Source- Department of irrigation, Ampara
Table04-Total cultivation lands under the main irrigation canals
Source- Gama Naguma project report
2.2. Agricultural Land use pattern
Agriculture is the science or practice of farming. Agricultural land use means the
manner in which human beings employ the land and its resources for their agricultural
activities. Agriculture sector accounts for the majority of land use in Sri Lanka.
Plantation agriculture, irrigated annual crops, market gardens, home gardens,
permanent rainfed cropping and rise cultivation as a major sub sectors in agriculture
accounts for 2.5 million hectares or 40% of the land area.The dominant land use patterns in agriculture with important features that distinguish
the regions as follows:
1. Tea, rubber, coconut and home gardens in upland area and rice in valleys in
the rolling to undulating low country wet intermediate zone ( elevation less
than 300m)
2. Tea, rubber and coconut and minor export crops in upland areas and rice in
valleys and terraced slopes of mid-country wet and semi-wet intermediate
zone (elevation between 300 and 1,000m)
Name of irrigation Land area (Acres) No of families
Goda Mada Goda Mada
EK 28 25 80 09 08
EK28/1 12 25 12 05
EK 29 40 200 10 15
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3. Tea, fruits and high value crops on upland slopes of the up-country wet and
intermediate zone (elevation higher than 1,000m)
4. Rice, fruits and vegetables in the mid-country intermediate zone (elevation
between 300-1,000m)
5. Irrigation rice and field crops in the low country dry zone.
6. Partly irrigated rice in valleys and rainfed upland crops in the low country dry
zones.
7. Rainfed rice in dry zone (in the coastal belt)
8. Irrigated market gardens, high valley crops on the Regosol belt.
9. Irrigated high value crops in low country dry zone (Jaffna)
The area where Madawalalanda village is Located based on the agricultural land use.
Most of the area is among the Paddy cultivation (Map-10). The physical
characteristics in the area have encouraged the paddy cultivation.
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Map-10
Agricultural land use pattern also play an important role in the Madawalaland village
because of the economy of village largely base on the agro-based economy.
Following table 05 shows the importance of agricultural land use in Madawalaland
village.
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Table05- Main Land use pattern in Madawalaland village
Land use Area (Acres)
Paddy 300
Chena cultivation 150
Coconut 10Vegetable 10
Fruit 03
Home Garden 15
Mixed cultivation 20
Natural forest 800
Grass Land 500
Water bodies 50
Reserved areas for Roads 150
Source- Gama Naguma Project report, 2008
Map-11
41
Fig05-Land use Pattern by Types
15%
7%
0%0%0%1%1%
41%
26%
2% 7%
Paddy
Chena cultivation
Coconut
Vegetable
FruitHome Garden
Mixed cultivation
Natural forest
Grass Land
Water bodies
Reserved areas for Roads
Legend
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In the topographical map (Map-11), the total land area of Madawalalanda village is
classified as Chena cultivation, forest, homesteads, marsh, paddy, water bodies and
other.
Scrubs cover the larger part of land use in Madawalalanda village.
The dominant agricultural land use in Madawalalnda village as follows:
1. Paddy- Rainfed or irrigated cultivation of wet rice. There is variation in Maha
and Yala seasons.
2. Chena cultivation- chilies, brinjal, bitter gourd, tomato,maize,green gram,
groundnut, manioc and black gram are mainly cultivated in Chena cultivation
area.
3. Homesteads- Family residential units surrounded by the home garden and
open space, cultivation include fruit trees, spices and smallholding of coconut.4. Other- Sugarcane, Gherkin and livestock can be taken as other cultivation
pattern.
Paddy cultivation
Paddy cultivation is practiced in a large area in Madawalalanda village (Pic-01).
Paddy farming is highly labour intensive in Madawalaland village. It is also carried
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out for mainly market-oriented purpose and partly for the subsistence purpose. The
average size of a paddy land in the village is more than one acre. There are variations
in Maha and Yala periods in paddy cultivation in the area. During the Yala season, the
paddy cultivation is practiced only based on the major irrigation cannels but in the
Maha season, farmers use other lands for the paddy cultivation. The total extend of
paddy cultivation in Maha season is about 600 acres (Table-06) and it represents
higher level than Yala season in Madawalalanda village. As the main staple food crop
in the village, farmers have given the highest priority to the paddy cultivation in
Madawalalanda village.
Table06-Land area under the Paddy cultivation
Season Area (Acres)
Under major
irrigation channel
Under micro
irrigation channels
Rainfed
Yala 300 -- --
Maha 300 -- 300
Source- Gama Naguma project report
Pic01- A Paddy field in Madawalalanda village
Chena cultivation
Rainfed upland farming in the village (pic-02) is Chena cultivation. This shifting type
of cultivation system is important as livelihood in Madawalaland village, which goes
back beyond the Gal Oya development project that expanded the agricultural land use
of village. Many ecological and agronomic constraints are being appeared in Chena
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cultivation system as land scarcity, shortened fallow periods, recurrent clearance of
shrubs for cultivation etc.
It is found that many changes and adjustments have been taken place within the
traditional agriculture sector in the village with the demographic changes taken place
after the Gal oya development project. It is being gradually transformed to produce
not only for the subsistence, but also for additional incomes to meet non-food
requirements. In the areas where no irrigation facilities were enough developed or
existing traditional system were ruined and ineffective, the pressure for land took lead
to making expansion of cultivation area to forest resource reserves in this area.
Pic02- Chena cultivation in Madawalalanda village
Homesteads
Homesteads play an important role in the rural economy of the village (pic-03).
Family residential units surrounded by the home garden and open space, cultivation
includes fruit trees, spices and smallholding of coconut are undertaken as homesteads
in Madawalalanda village. Most of the homesteads cultivations are practiced only for
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the subsistence purposes. Farmers do not use agrochemical or any machines in
cultivating homesteads. It is also practiced using simple traditional technologies.
Pic03- A Homestead land
Other
After the Gal oya development project, the sugarcane cultivation expanded rapidly in
the area (pic-05). Total cultivation mainly was market oriented. All the sugarcane
cultivation lands were controlled by Hingurana sugar factory. But after sugar factory
was permanently closed, the lands which were used for sugarcane cultivation was
transformed into paddy cultivation using irrigation water supply.
Gherkin cultivation is also practiced in some area in Madawalalanda village (pic-04).
Agrochemical usage is very high in the areas where the Gherkin cultivation takes
place.
Cattle farming and poultry farming are important in Madawalalanda village, as
livestock practices. But farmers do not use any developed technology to this
agricultural practice as most of the cattle faming is carry out in small holding level.
The statistics of livestock shows table07
Table07-Livestock in Madawalalanda village
Animal category No: of Animals No: of families
Cattle farming 260 35
Poultry farming 120 90
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Pic04-A Gherkin cultivation land
Pic05- A Sugarcane field
2.3 . Agricultural Development
The importance of the agricultural sector in Madawalalanda village is evident from its
contribution to the economy and the workforce. According to the GN report there are
65 farmers those who are directly involved with the agricultural activities.
The agricultural patterns have been dramatically changed after the Gal Oya
development project in this village. The transmission from the traditional agricultural
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pattern to modern agricultural sector has developed various socio economic condition
of the village. The transmission of knowledge about the new techniques is carried on
extension services, which covers the educational aspects as well as the functional
aspect of credit supplies and marketing.
The low productivity of the village agricultural sector was largely due to the
traditional methods of production. In order to adopt certain basic condition with
regard to input and finance, irrigation water, fertilizers, certified seed and
agrochemicals.
The development of irrigation system that related with the agricultural development
relatively new began after the Gal Oya development project. Madawalalanda village
is located in the right bank of Gal Oya development project. There are many
advantages in the development of irrigation system that affected to the development
of agriculture in the area. First though the irrigation system development, it adopted to
water managing and water serving system in the area. Second, water is suited to the
difficult terrain. Actually, the development of irrigation system mainly utilized to
develop agricultural sector of the dry zone.
Introducing various policies by the government have developed agriculture in
Madawalalanda village. Some government institution like department of agriculture,
irrigation department, agrarian service department have promoted agriculture in the
village. The credited system that introduced by the central bank also has helped to
develop the agriculture in the area.
Present farms in Madawalalanda village diversify their cultivation like chilies,
groundnut, vegetable and gherkin. The new trend of village agricultural development
in Madawalalanda is many farms cultivated gherkin in water log areas using micro
irrigation technologies (pic-06).
Pic06-Microirrigation for the cultivation in Madawalalanda village
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Various organizations under different subsidy project have encouraged the gherkin
cultivation. Hingurana sugar factory also provides facilities for farmers to develop
the sugarcane cultivation in the area. Most of the farmers do not depend on the
traditional agricultural system in the area. They use advanced technology from first
step to final step of cultivation process in Madawalalanda village.
CHAPTER THREE
03.Economical and environmental aspects of
agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village
3.1 Economic background of farmers
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Madawalalanda village is an agricultural area, which is located in Ampara district.
The demographic characteristics of village shows in table 08. This statistics also
shows that the female population is higher than male population in Madawalalanda
village. But the female participation for the agricultural activities is less than male
participation.
Tbale08-Total population 2008
Female Male Total Population Density per
square Km
No: of population 548 521 1069 42.76
Source- Gamanaguma Project report
Table09-Population by employment types
Types of Employment No: of population
Female Male Total
Agriculture 09 56 65
Government Service 22 116 138
Private sector 08 29 37
Self employments 05 09 14
Livestock 03 02 05Fishing 02 08 10
49
Fig06-Tatal population by Male and Female
Female
51%
Male
49% Female
Male
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Carpenters 00 02 02
Masons 00 03 03
Foreign employments 03 01 04
Hired labour 16 32 48
Unemployed 32 49 81
Source Gamanaguma Project report
According to table 09, employments in the agricultural sector are higher than the other
sectors excluding government services.
The monthly income level shows in fig-06 by the number of families in
Madawalalanda village.
Fig07-Monthly Income Level by the number of
families (Rs:)
1768
36
12
16
20
10,000
Source- Gama Naguma project report
It shows that monthly income level of most of the people in Madawalalanda village is
below than Rs. 750/-. Number of families in this low-income category is 176. Most of
low-income category families are employed in agricultural sector. The major reason
for this situation is the total cost of production of agriculture is high in
Madawalalanda village.
3.2 Cost of production in Agricultural lands
In this study, the total cost of production was calculated per acre (for a season). The
studied twenty agricultural lands include 08 paddy lands, 04 sugarcane cultivation
lands, 02 Chena cultivation lands, 03 gherkin cultivation lands and 03 vegetable
cultivation lands. The location of these twenty agricultural lands of which the cost of
production was calculated shown in the map 12: A code system is used to identify
each land uniquely.
Map-12
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The cost of production varies one agricultural activity to another i.e. the cost of production in paddy cultivation absolutely different from cost of production of
sugarcane cultivation. There is also having a variation within physical characteristics
of area in cost of production. The cost of production is calculated using details that
were collected through interviews from farmers (Table-10).
51
PA - Paddy CH -Chena
GR -Gherkin VE -Vegetable
SU - Sugarcane
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Table10-Cost of Production in selected agricultural lands
Selected agricultural Land Cost of production (Rs:)
Material Labour Power Total
Paddy
PA1 7,500 6,000 18,000 31,500
PA2 6,000 4,000 18,000 28,000
PA3 7,500 4,000 18,000 29,500
PA4 5,500 3,000 12,000 20,500
PA5 8,000 4,500 18,000 30,500
PA6 7,500 5,000 18,000 30,500
PA7 6,500 8,000 12,000 26,500
PA8 7,500 6,000 18,000 31,500Sugarcane
SU1 15,000 6,000 14,000 35,000
SU2 13,000 6,000 11,000 30,000
SU3 14,000 4,000 10,000 28,000
SU4 13,000 7,000 15,000 35,000
Chena
CH1 2,000 5,000 5,000 12,000
CH2 2,000 3,000 4,000 9,000
Gherkin GR1 28,000 7,500 7,500 44,500
GR2 28,000 6,000 5,000 39,000
GR3 28,000 8,000 6,000 42,000
Vegetable
VE1 15,500 8,000 14,500 38,000
VE2 20,000 6000 16,000 42,000
VE3 15,000 6000 14,000 35,000
Source- field survey
Map-13
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Map-14
53
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3.2.1 Cost of production in paddy cultivation
Table 10 shows the total cost (cost of cultivation including farmer owned input) per
acre for the selected paddy cultivation lands. According to HARTI survey, the average
cost of production in Ampara district for one acre of paddy cultivation land (for oneseason) is Rs.267993.00 (2005) but actual present cost of production is higher than
this indication.
The total cost is divided into three main components namely labour, material and
power. In general, labour accounts 50% of the total cost in paddy cultivation. As
indicated by the total number of labour days, farmers in the rainfed areas use the
highest number of labour days to cultivate a unite area. The exchange labour
(aththam) is not widely use in Madawalalanda village while the hired labour is widely
used under major irrigation. Farmers in the major irrigated areas have to carry out the
land preparation simultaneously, considering water issued from the irrigation
schemes. Consequently, harvesting of all fields take place at the same time. Also land
preparation and harvesting require grater number of labour days. These two reasons
contribute to the highest demand for hired labour to cultivation activities under major
irrigation. Average wage rate per day was around Rs 500/- per man and Rs 350/- per
women without meals.
Land preparation ( ploughing and leveling) harvesting and drawing, threshing and
winnowing are the main operation in paddy cultivation, which can be mechanized.
Most of the farmers use tractors for land preparation.
Table11-The cost of production in selected Paddy cultivation lands per acre
Code of Paddy land Material (Rs:)Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:) Tota(Rs:)l
PA1 7500 6000 18000 31500
PA2 6000 4000 18000 28000
PA3 7500 4000 18000 29500
PA4 5500 3000 12000 20500
PA5 8000 4500 18000 30500
PA6 7500 5000 18000 30500
PA7 6500 8000 12000 26500
PA8 7500 6000 18000 31500
Average 7000 5063 16500 28563
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Source- data collected from farmers
The fertilizer application also varies within the physical characteristics of any area.
This variation can be clearly understood in paddy cultivation areas.
3.2.2. Cost of production in sugarcane cultivation
Sugarcane is grown in the Dry and Intermediate zone in Sri Lanka. Cane has been
grown for over 30 years. The crops were raised as monocrops and most of the
operations, such as land cleaning, land preparation and inter-cultivation are
mechanized while manual labour was used for planting, harvesting and some aftercare
operations such as weeding, irrigation and protection.
According to recent data, the seasonal cost of production in sugarcane cultivation per
one hectare is Rs. 75,000/-. This cost is included all the operations which is related to
the sugarcane cultivation. The normal income from one ton of sugarcane is Rs.
2300/-. According to information that was collected from the field officers of
Hingurana factory, the Average production of sugarcane for a one-hectare is 140-120
ton.
But the cost of production varies one sugarcane cultivation land to another. This
situation can be understood using Table11. Farmers, who used the domestic labour for
cultivation operations, reduce the cost of production but the material cost showsaverage cost in all the sugarcane cultivation lands.
55
Fig08-Average cost of production in selected paddy
lands per acre
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
Material Labour Power Total
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Table12-Cost of Production in Selected Sugarcane Lands per one acre
Sugarcane
Code Material(Rs:) Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:)
Total
(Rs:)
SU1 15,000 6,000 14,000 35,000
SU2 13,000 6,000 11,000 30,000
SU3 14,000 4,000 10,000 28,000
SU4 13,000 7,000 15,000 35,000
Average 13,750 5750 12,500 32,000
Source- data collected from farmers
The material component of cost of production includes fertilizer, pesticides, seeds etc,
Labour component includes labour force usage in all the operations of sugar
cultivation activity and the power component includes mechanization operation of
cultivation.
However, over the years the productivity of plantation declined due to various
reasons such as increased pest damage, disease lack of machinery for timely
operations and all above all bad management.
The sugarcane cultivation in Madawalalanda village was begun after 1962 with the
establishment of Hingurana sugarcane factory. But after the closing down of factory,
all the lands were transformed into other cultivation patterns. At present, some areas
have been cultivated by the new Hingurana sugar factory with new management
system that totally different from old factory systems.
56
Fig09-Average Cost of Production of Sugarcane
Per one Acre
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,00030,000
35,000
Material Labour Power Total
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3.2.3. Cost of production in Chena cultivation
It is hardly possible to calculate the cost of production in Chena cultivation. But the
new Chena cultivation activities mainly base on the hired labour. Thus, the cost of
production has increased than early period. The land cleaning, preparation and mostof the activities are mechanized in Madawalalanda village. Also land preparation and
harvesting require grater number of labour days than other cultivation activities. To
some extent, the domestic labour usage is higher than the other cultivation in Chena
cultivation. Most of the farmers use tractors for land preparation and the production
of Chena cultivation is sufficient for domestic consumption of them.
3.2.3. Cost of production in Gherkin cultivationGherkin cultivation is one of the new crops that was introduced into Madawalalanda
village. The cost of production of gherkin is relatively higher than the other
cultivations that are grown in Madawalalanda village (Table12). The main reason for
this higher cost of production is the high level of agrochemical usage of gherkin
cultivation. Otherwise, this cultivation is very sensitive to the climate changes and
should be harvested within the suitable period. The labour cost varies one land to the
other depending on physical characteristics and domestic labour usage.Table13-Cost of production of Gherkin cultivation Lands
Code of Gherkin Land
Material(Rs:) Labour(Rs:) Power(Rs:)
Total
(Rs:)
GR1 28000 7500 7500 43000
GR2 28000 6000 5000 39000
GR3 28000 8000 6000 42000
Average 28000 7166.6 6166.6 41333.3
Fig10-Average Cost of Production of Gherkin cultivation
per one Acre
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
Material Labour Pow er Total
Source- data collected from farmers
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3.2.4. Cost of production in vegetable cultivation
The major component of total cost of production in vegetable cultivation can be
categorized as labour, material and power. In the selected vegetable cultivation area,
there was mixed cultivation of vegetable.The using two-wheel tractor was the most popular method of ploughing in vegetable
cultivating areas. Generally cost of cultivation for ploughing, fertilizer application,
water management, pest and disease control and harvesting and drawing were
proportionally high. Family labour account for a large proportion of the labour cost
component.
Table14-Cost of production of vegetable cultivation Lands (Rs:)Code of Vegetable
Material Labour Power Total
VE1 15,500 8,000 14500 38,000
VE2 20,000 6000 16000 42,000
VE3 15,000 6000 14000 35,000
Average 16833.3 6666.6 14833.3 38333.3
Fig11-Average Cost of Production of Vegetable
cultivation per one Acre
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
45000
Material Labour Pow er Total
3.3 Profitability of Agricultural lands
Profitability of agriculture was worked out on per acre basis. Gross return or income
was calculated by using information that was collected from the farmers. After the
calculation of the gross income, following formula was employed to calculate the
profitability of agricultural lands. It is
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TR TC =
TR= Total Revenue (Data from farmers)
TC= Total Cost (Data from farmers)
= Profit
There is a profitability variation between one agricultural practice to another. This
situation shows in table14.
Table14-Profitability of selected Agricultural lands (Rs:)
Selected agricultural Land Total income Cost of Production Profitability
Paddy
PA156,000 31,500 24,500
PA2 50,000 28,000 22,000
PA3 52,000 29,500 22,500
PA4 50,000 20,500 29,500
PA5 55,000 30,500 24,500
PA6 62,000 30,500 31,500
PA7 42,000 26,500 15,500
PA8 46,000 31,500 14,500
Sugarcane
SU1 110,400 35,000 75,400 SU2 155,000 30,000 125,000
SU3 142,000 28,000 114,000
SU4 150,000 35,000 115,000
Chena
CH1 12,000
CH2 9,000
Gherkin
GR1 160,000 44,500 115,500
GR2 130,000 39,000 91,000 GR3 150,000 42,000 108,000
Vegetable
VE1 45,000 38,000 7,000
VE2 35,000 42,000 -7,000
VE3 50,000 35,000 15,000
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3.4.1. Major environmental issues related to agriculture in
Madawalalanda village.
The major environmental issues that are related to the agricultural activities in
Madawalalanda village can be discussed under following points.
1. Land degradation and soil erosion
2. Issues related to Agrochemicals
3. Water related issues
01. Land degradation and soil erosion
The degradation of the environment in Madawalalanda village has worsened in the
current period by the rapid population growth and uncontrolled introduction of cash
crops into the area. Otherwise, the land preparation and shaping have also accelerated
the land degradation and soil erosion in the village (pic-07).
Pic07 Land degradation
Tillage of the reddish brown earth soil for cultivation creates conditions, which favor
soil erosion. The impacts of rain drops on bare soil breaks up the aggregates into the
constituent particles, which then rearrange themselves on the surface into a layer with
very much lower infiltration rate than the original soil. If heavy rain continues, then
sooner or later a stage is reaching when the rainfall intensity is grater than infiltration
rate, surface run-off occurs. Then structure is destroyed and soil aeration is reduced.
On paddy fields the position is somewhat different, for this reason:
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There is provision to retain ponded water
Soil structure and air circulation are not grate importance in paddy cultivation.
Specially, there is high land degradation rate in the gherkin-cultivated lands in
Madawalalanda village. The major reason to this situation, the land preparation of this
cultivation has broken up the aggregates of soil. Chena cultivation shows low soil
erosion rate in the area. The soil structure of this Chena cultivation land is main
reason that reduced the soil erosion of the area. Otherwise, there many traditional
methods that are used by the farmers to protect the soil fertility in the Chena
cultivation land. But vegetable cultivation also did not shows accreted land
degradation or soil erosion in the village. The vegetable cultivators do not switch to
any advanced technology or land preparation method for their cultivation. Most of thevegetable cultivation is implemented using domestic labour force in Madawalalanda
village. It is not market-oriented cultivation. Other hand, the sugarcane cultivation
also shows some impacts on the lands. The major reason to this situation is that the
farmers those who cultivates the sugarcane cultivation, totally oriented to the market.
Thus, they used many advanced methods to the land preparation and cultivation
practices. The total process of tillage is done using tractors that highly impacted on
the land in the sugarcane cultivation.
02. Issues related to Agrochemicals
As a result of expansion of agrochemical use for the agricultural practices in
Madawalalanda village (pic-08), there are emerged many issues those, which partly
and directly related to the environment and heath of human as well as other living
things. Most of the farmers use agrochemicals than recommended level (excess use).
Pic08-Ecess use of agrochemicals
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The major reason to this excess use is that farmers make an effort to take high result
from the excess use of agrochemicals. It directly impact on the health of soil and other
living thing that assist to good health of crop in the land. Specially, most of the paddy
farmers and gherkin farmers use agrochemical than the recommended level.
Farmers use agrochemical in scheduled spraying without impact on the crop. If there
is not any impact on there crops, there it is not necessary to use any agrochemicals
into the cultivating land. This scheduled spraying also increase the cost of production
in the agricultural lands.
Some framers mixed various agrochemicals using their own knowledge without any
instruction. This situation creates high impacts on the environment.
The major reasons to this misuse of agrochemicals in Madawalalanda village are:
Lack of information about the agrochemical use
Poor knowledge of farmers to understand the usage of agrochemicals
Weakness of rules and regulations related to agrochemicals
03.Water related issues
Since in the Madawalalanda village there is a distinct and long dry period from May
to September, and shorter dry periods are common occurrences at other times of theyear too, water conservation is an important factor in increasing agricultural
production.
The conservation of water for dry periods can be partly achieved by reducing the
evaporative loss from soil surface, but this is a relatively minor methods.
In paddy cultivation, unlike in the case of most other crops, a considerable amount of
water is often used for land preparation. The water utilization differs within physical
characteristics of the area and land preparation methods that are used by the farmers.
Much more water is needed on the field for ploughing with tractors, and secondly,
movement of tractor result in the considerable breaching of field bunds and surface
overflows are very great.
As the many increased activities, the water pollution has been increased in the
agricultural area of Madawalalanda village (pic-09).
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Pic09- The pollution in the agricultural land
Most of the canals that provided water in the cultivation areas have broken down in
the village (pic-10).
Pic10-A destroyed main irrigation canal
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3.4.2. Spatial dimension of environment issues
According to the observation, the environmental issues in the selected agricultural
lands were categorized as follows.
HEPAL -High Environmental Polluted Agricultural LandsLEPAL - Low Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands
MEPAL - Middle High Environmental Polluted Agricultural Lands
Map-16
LAND_CODE Levels
PA1 HEPAL
PA2 MEPAL
PA3 LEPAL
PA4 MEPAL
PA5 LEPAL
PA6 MEPAL
PA7 LEPAL
PA8 MEPAL
GR1 HEPAL
GR2 HEPAL
GR3 MEPAL
SU1 MEPAL
SU2 MEPAL
SU3 LEPAL
SU4 MEPALVE1 LEPAL
VE2 LEPAL
VE3 MEPAL
CH1 LEPAL
CH2 LEPAL
According to the observation, selected two gherkin cultivated lands show high
environmental issues than other agricultural lands. The agrochemical usage of
gherkin cultivation is higher than other cultivation in the area. This is a main reason
that shows the higher level of environmental issues in this cultivation. The paddy
cultivation lands range from low-level environmental pollution to middle level
environmental pollution. The variation of activities of farmers in paddy cultivation
lands varies the environmental issues of paddy cultivation. The PA1 paddy land shows
the higher level of issues, PA2, PA4, PA6, PA8 paddy lands show middle level
environmental pollution in Madawalalanda village. Other studied entire paddy lands
(PA3, PA5, PA7) are low-level environmental polluted agricultural lands.
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Sugarcane cultivation lands also show the middle and low-level environmental issues.
Third out of four from selected sugarcane cultivation are middle level environmental
polluted lands and other one is low-level environmental polluted agricultural land.
Excluding VE3 vegetable cultivation land, all the other vegetable and Chena
cultivation lands are low-level environmental polluted lands.
According to the above analysis, excluding gherkin cultivation lands, most of the
agricultural lands show low and middle level environmental pollution in the selected
agricultural lands of Madawalalanda village.
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land was filled before the construction started. Yet another process appears to affect
the paddy farming system in the village. This is the slow, yet steady process of paddy
land, considered unsuitable for paddy, being brought under vegetable cultivation.
The gherkin cultivation that is introduced by various private organizations is also one
of the modern farming systems in the village. Some farmers converted their paddy
cultivation lands into the gherkin cultivation, as total income of gherkin cultivation
per acre is higher than paddy cultivation. Most of the gherkin-cultivated lands are low
productive as paddy cultivation due to lack of irrigation water. This farming system
mostly uses other method to supply water for the cultivation.
4.1.2. Rapid growth of population
It appears that the deteriorating land-person ratio is one of the most important factors
bringing pressure on the agricultural system by affecting both economic expansion
and the living condition of those engaged in agriculture in the village.
According to the literature, there were only 20-30 families, before the Gal-Oya
development project.
One who goes from Damana to Madawalaland, he should passthere has
approximately 20-30 homes and 80-100 population (Ranjan, Maya,
Degamadula Aescharya)
But according to recent statistics, Total population of village is 1069 people. The
transfer of excess population from other area to Madawalalanda village under village
expansion schemes has increased the population of the village.
4.1.3. Poor productivity performance of agriculture as a major
inhibiting factor on Madawalalanda farming system
It would appear that the problem in agriculture in Madawalalanda village is low
productivity of land and labour. This applies not only to paddy farming but also to
other agricultural activities in the village.
Agricultural production levels are low, not in water logging land but can also seen in
the homestead gardens and surprisingly in traditional irrigated paddy cultivation also
in the paddy lands.
Lack of intensive paddy production has already started in withdrawing lands from
paddy cultivation. Some lands are left over for a long period until the area is taken up
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for housing or vegetable farming. Yet the organization of vegetable cultivation as a
form of market-oriented farming system in the village is generally limited. This is
due to the debilitating factors such as the complexities arising out of the prevailing
land tenure practices on paddy land and other cultivations, lack of capital,
unsuitability of certain lands for agriculture like marshy paddy lands.
4.1.4. Introduction of new crops
The introduction of new crops that is total market-oriented has impacts on the
agricultural sustainability of the village. Specially, with the expansion of the gherkin
cultivation in the area, there have increased many environment problems. The farmers
do not have good knowledge about the agrochemical use and land preparation processfor the new crops therefore the environment impact of these new cultivation is higher
than other traditional cultivation in Madawalalanda village.
4.2 Possible Changes of agriculture towards sustainable development
in Madawalalanda village
The main strategies that are oriented toward sustainable agricultural development
should consider the protection of environmental health and increasing the productivity
of agricultural lands. If a sustainable agricultural system is to be developed and
successfully established, then a number of formidable issues need to be addressed in
village. The major issues that are affecting the sustainable agricultural development in
Madawalalanda village are increased environment problems and low productivity of
the agricultural land. Principally, all the changes of agriculture towards sustainable
development of Madawalalanda village can be pointed out as follows two strategies.
4.2.1. Environment protection strategies4.2.2. Crop development strategies
4.2.1. Environment protection strategies
Initially, Land degradation and as soil erosion is one of the major environmental
issues in the agricultural lands of Madawalalanda village.
Land degradation is defined as the temporary or permanent lowering of the
productive capacity of land covering various forms of soil degradation, adverse
human impacts on water resources, deforestation and lowering of productive capacity
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of range lands. The soil erosion is extreme cause for the land degradation. Soil
erosion results in loss of productivity of soil, necessitating the use of fertilizer to
maintain yield. The soil erosion can be reduced using various techniques.
The soil erosion that occurs in agricultural land is therefore mainly the loss of soil in
the surface overflows of water. By proper regulation of these overflows it would be
possible to minimize soil erosion. Apart from this there are no other major soil
conservation measures required on agricultural lands in Madawalalanda village.
Secondly, the agrochemical related environmental issues are major environmental
issues in agricultural land of Madawalalanda village. There are many practical
changes that are related to reducing environment impact of agrochemical usage.
Excess usage of agrochemical should be minimized. Major step to reduce the impact
of agrochemical on the environment is increase training and awareness about
agrochemicals. Increase the number of available training courses on agrochemical
use. The issues covered should include the appropriate application of pesticides and
chemical fertilizers (given different soil types), potential impacts of chemical
fertilizers and pesticides to health, pest resistance, soil and water quality, awareness of
banned pesticides, and possible alternatives to chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
(e.g., organic fertilizers, integrated pest management).
4.2.2. Crop development strategies
The government is aware of serious consequences of this ever-increasing demand for
land and the resulting issues of land degradation and recognizes the urgent need for
sustainable and productivity-enhancing programs in dry zone resource management.
Community in Madawalalanda village depends on their livelihood upon a
combination of crop production from rainfed upland, home gardens and irrigated
lands. The introduction of perennial cropping with multipurpose tree crops, the use of
simple agro-forestry systems, grass strips and barriers would not only improve the
degrading rainfed upland resources base but also the integration of livestock in the
farming system would enable the use of forage products of vegetative conservation
works to improve livestock production where ever possible.
There is a great potential for livestock development and integration of livestock with
crop production in Madawalalanda village. Therefore families with access to forest
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and scrub jungle and perennial crop areas with natural under pasture, livestock
development can be an alternative proposition.
The lack of water resource in Madawalalanda village greatly has reduced the
profitability of agricultural land. The irrigation canals should be repaired to provide
water in