Singing and Communicating in English

Singing and Communicating in English

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSinging and communicating in English : a singer'sguide to English diction / Kathryn LaBouff.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-19-531138-9; 978-0-19-531139-6 (pbk.)1. Singing—Diction. 2. English language—Phonetics. I. Title.MT833.L132007783'.043—dc22 2006030318

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SINGINGand Communicating in

ENGLISHA Singer's Guideto English Diction

Kathryn LaBouff

OXFORD2008

FOREWORDRenée Fleming

Kathryn LaBouff has developed an approach to singing in the English language which is

wonderfully user-friendly, and which has surely saved much wear and tear on my voice.

It is a technique that has empowered me with the knowledge and skills to bring a text to

life and to be able to negotiate all of the sounds of the language with the least amount of

effort. I have found her clever and creative use of substitute consonants or combinations

of consonants in diction utterly delightful because they are surprising and because they

work. These techniques have been equally useful when singing in foreign languages. I

now apply these concepts to every language I sing in.

We sopranos are not usually known to have good diction, particularly in our high

range. I found that working with Kathryn improved my ability to be understood by an

enormous percentage of the audience and caused me much less vocal fatigue than I would

have experienced if left to my own devices.

My artistic relationship with Kathryn LaBouff began while I was a student in the Juil-

liard Opera Center. She prepared the diction for Gian Carlo Menotti's opera Tamu, Tamu

in which I sang the soprano role. Over the years I have worked with her on several other

projects as well. She coached me in the roles of Rosina, in the premiere of The Ghosts of

Versailles, and Ellen Orford, in Peter Grimes at the Metropolitan Opera. Kathryn prepared

the diction and dialects for the arias on my CD / Want Magic, and was a supportive pres-

ence and advisor during the recording sessions. Her work with me and the rest of the cast

of Andre Previn's A Streetcar Named Desire created an unusually positive response from

members of the audience regarding our ability to be understood, an important aspect in

any opera in English but most especially in a premiere.

I have often told my colleagues enthusiastically of her interesting solutions to the

frustrating problems of diction. I am thrilled that her techniques are now in print for all to

benefit.

Enjoy and be understood!

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PREFACE

Terrence MacNally, the wonderful playwright and librettist for the Broadway musical

Master Class and the opera Dead Man Walking, gave the commencement address at the

-milliard School in 1998. In his speech to the graduates he said: "Words on a page only exist

in two dimensions, as do notes in a score. The arts we're talking about this morning—

theater, music, dance—exist, happily, in three dimensions. We need you to bring them to

life. I know I am not William Shakespeare, but a good actor, an honest actor, an artist, can

make me sound like good McNally. And I'm very grateful."

That is our fundamental job description as artists, isn't it—to make them grateful.

Who are They? Not only the poet and the composer whose art our job is to re-create but

the listeners in the audience whose hearts and souls we hope to touch; the arts adminis-

trators whose years of planning can come to fruition in a turn of a phrase; the producers

and creative team whose collective visions are dependent upon your skills. By bringing

the music and the texts to life and "into the third dimension" as Mr. McNally so brilliantly

states, we serve the poet, we serve the composer, we serve the art, we create the art. With-

out us it is merely ink on a page. And when They are grateful, the art that is created will

be sustained. The audience will return again and again for their sustenance.

As fundamental and simple as this concept is, it is a daunting and illusive task. Why

do even our best and most emotionally commited performances sometimes not reach past

the footlights? Technique! Art is all about discipline and technique. Without it, the art can

only be a fraction of what it could have been. Singing is such a stylized art form. Like

ballet is to walking, singing is to talking. In essence it is a cultivated scream. And while

one is screaming (beautifully), the thoughts expressed in the text need to be transmitted in

slow motion.

So that's what this book is about. It is about technique: the technique involved in

working with this stylized art form in which texts need to be sustained over long phrases

in extreme ranges and extreme volumes. It is about the technique of how to maneuver

around all of the consonant-laden English language with its non-Italianate vowels and still

sing it with real, honest vowel sounds beautifully. It is about the technique of transfering

to the lyric line the nuances and expressive cadence of the language that is so instinctively

expressed by native English speakers in everyday speech, but often sounds bland and

emotionally detached in the performance of a song.

In addition to offering techniques for "getting it across," I hope to offer an approach

to singing in English that is singer-friendly and vocally beneficial. To my mind, there is

no point in using an approach that ties you up in knots. My years as a singer and a voice

teacher leave me with a mission to make the singer sing well in English. From my twenty

years of work with professional singers in opera productions and my students at the Juil-

liard School, the Manhattan School of Music, and the Curtis Institute of Music, I have

been able to try out my ideas on thousands of singers. If I asked something of them that

vocally tied them up in knots, I immediately scrapped that idea and found some other way

to get the text clear, expressive, and well sung.

I spent three years in Rome in the studio of the belcanto opera coach Maestro Luigi

Ricci, where I worked on my own roles as well as sat in on his coaching as a translator.

Many of his approaches to phrasal doublings, legato connection, and technique of "Ap-

poggio," which I have called "pulsing the phrase," I have transferred to the treatment of

the English language.

From my collaborative work on productions and recitals, I have concluded that there

seem to be three specific English dialects that are most frequently requested by conduc-

tors and stage directors. They are American Standard, known in the American theater as

Theatre Standard, used for North American repertoire; British Received Pronunciation,

used for British works; and the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic pronunciation, used for works

of European origin that are not specifically British. Because a proficiency in these three

dialects is most useful to singers, these are the three dialects I have focused on in this

book.

So—let's get on with the business of making Them grateful!

viii PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank my wonderful students over the years for allowing me to try my ideas out

on them. Having a full-year course to build a diction technique with them and then work-

ing with them throughout their professional careers has been one of my greatest joys. I want

to thank all of the conductors, coaches, and singers who have been so supportive of my

work and encouraged me to make this book a reality. I also want to thank my colleagues,

Linda Jones at the Cleveland Institute of Music, Renée Santer at the Mannes College of

Music, and Allison Voth at Boston University for their feedback after having taught from

the manuscript of this book. I also want to thank Dawn Kasprow Wolski, Camille Zamora,

and Stephen Paul Spears for their generous help with proofreading and editing the early

manuscript versions.

For this final version, I thank Alexander Sartakov for inputting all the musical examples

into Sibelius, and Mateusz Wolski for technical support. Thanks to Dr. Catherine Sangster

of the BBC for her guidance on usage of RP versus BBC English in current broadcast

speech in the United Kingdom. Special thanks to dialect coaches Terry Besson and Gillian

Lane-Plescia for their guidance on the English regional dialects. Thanks to Abe Jacobs,

director of sound for the New York City Opera, for his guidance on microphone technique,

and to Bob Taibbi, recording engineer at the Juilliard School, for his expertise in record-

ing the texts, and to Barry Banks, Richard Suart, and Sir Thomas Allen for repertoire sug-

gestions and applications from the United Kingdom. Special thanks to Marti Newland for

guidance on source information for Gullah dialect. I thank the team at Oxford University

Press: executive editor Suzanne Ryan, assistant editor Norm Hirschy, senior production

editor Bob Milks, and Lynn Childress for copyediting and Jade Myers for preparing the

illustrations.

And finally I thank Dawn Wolski, my amazing assistant on this project. As a voice stu-

dent at Manhattan School, she volunteered to edit the earlier manuscript for me. For this

edition, she obtained all the publisher permissions, copyedited, formatted, edited, and in-

putted all the phonetics into the musical examples.

To the many composers that I have contacted and worked with in developing lists of

their works, I thank you for all of your valuable input. The repertoire lists have grown too

large to be included in this book. They have led to a second book project focusing on the

repertoires lists themselves. Though you are not included now, I know you will have even

greater visibility in the near future.

x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

CREDITS

I wish to thank the following publishers for their kind permission to reprint excerpts of

their copyrighted works:

"A Minor Bird" from The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copyright ©

1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright © 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted by per-

mission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

"Buddy on the Nightshift" by Oscar Hammerstein II and Kurt Weill. Copyright © 1981 by Coda Pub-

lishing (administered by European American Music Corp.) and Bambalina Music Publishing

Company (administered by Williamson Music). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Re-

served. Used By Permission.

"Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schir-

mir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by per-

mission.

"Every Ranch Hand I Ever Knew" from Of Mice and Men by Carlisle Floyd. © Copyright 1971 by

Carlisle Floyd. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Agent. Reprinted by permis-

sion of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.

"Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd. Words and music by Stephen Sondheim.

© 1978 Rilting Music, Inc. All Rights Administered by WB Music Corp. All Rights Reserved.

Used by Permission of Alfred Publishing Co., Inc.

Laurie's Aria from The Tender Land by Aaron Copland. © Copyright 1954, 1956 by the Aaron Cop-

land Fund for Music, Inc. Copyright renewed. Boosey & Hawkes, Inc., Sole Publisher & Li-

censee. Reprinted by permission of Boosey and Hawkes, Inc.

"Love Too Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951

by Boosey & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey &

Hawkes, Inc.

Lucretia's Aria from Rape of Lucretia by Benjamin Britten. © Copyright 1946,1947 by Hawkes and

Son (London) Ltd. Copyright renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.

"Lullaby" from The Consul by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1950 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir,

Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by permis-

sion.

"Lullaby" by Thomas Pasatieri. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley Agency.

CREDITS

"Manhattan Joy Ride" by Paul Sargent. Copyright ©1946 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc.

(ASCAP) International. Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission.

"Must the Winter Come So Soon?" From Vanessa by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti. Copy-

right © 1957 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All

Rights Reserved. Text reprinted by kind permission.

"No Word from Tom" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey

& Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.

"Oh, Lady Be Good!" Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924 WBMusic

Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarks of Gersh-

win Enterprises. All Rights Reserved Used By Permission.

"See How They Love Me" by Ned Rorem. Copyright © 1958 by Henmar Press. Used By Permis-

sion. All Rights Reserved.

"Somewhere" from West Side Story by Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim. © 1957, copyright

renewed, Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All rights administered by Universal-

PolyGram International Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP. Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved.

"Sure on This Shining Night" by Samuel Barber. © by James Agee, permission of The Wiley

Agency.

"The Black Swan" from The Medium by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1947 (Renewed) by

G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Text re-

printed by kind permission.

"The Crucifixion" by Samuel Barber. From The Romanesque Lyric: Studies in its Background and

Development from Petronius to the Cambridge Songs, 50-1050 by Philip Schuyler Allen. Copy-

right © 1928 by the University of North Carolina Press. Used by permission of its publisher.

"The Idle Gift" from Five Songs for Tenor and Piano by Gian Carlo Menotti. Copyright © 1983 by

G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by

permission.

"There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti by Leonard Bernstein. © 1957, copyright renewed,

Leonard Bernstein Music Publishing, LLC. All right administered by Universal-PolyGram In-

ternational Publishing, Inc. / ASCAP Used By Permission. All Rights Reserved.

"Things Change" from Little Women by Mark Adamo. Copyright © 1998 by G. Schirmir, Inc.

(ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission.

"Tom Rakewell's Aria" from The Rake's Progress by Igor Stravinsky. © Copyright 1951 by Boosey

& Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed. Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.

"What's the Use of Wondrin'" by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II. Copyright © 1945

by Williamson Music. Copyright Renewed. International Copyright Secured. All Rights Re-

served. Used By Permission.

"Where the Music Comes From" from 13 Songs by Lee Hoiby. Copyright © 1990 by G. Schirmir,

Inc. (ASCAP) International Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission.

"Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge by Samuel Barber and Gian Carlo Menotti.

Copyright ©1959 (Renewed) by G. Schirmir, Inc. (ASCAP). International Copyright Secured.

All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by permission.

Tom Sails Away by Charles Ives. Copyright 1935, Merion Music, Inc. Bryn Mawr, PA 19010. Text

reprinted by kind permission of Carl Fischer, LLC, on behalf of Merion Music, Inc.

xii

CONTENTS

Foreword by Renée Fleming v

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Diction 3

Diction: What Is It? 3

Why Do Native English Speakers Need English Diction Study? 3What Is the Ultimate Goal of English Lyric Diction Study? 4

Why Is This Goal Often Not Realized? 4

Expectations of the English-Speaking Audience 5

What Is Neutral English? 6

References for English Pronunciation 7

Approach to English Diction Study 8

Introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet 9

How to Use This Book 10

The International Phonetic Alphabet for American English 11

Exercises 14

CHAPTER 2 Communicating the Thought 17

Communication through Appropriate Stress 17

Syllabic Stress within Words 18

Stress/Sense within the English Phrase 20

The Hierarchy of Stress 21

Stress versus Interpretation 25

The Division of Syllables 26

Exercises 27

CHAPTER 3 Introduction to Vowels 31

Preparation for Vowel Production 31

The Vowel Chart 35

xiv CONTENTS

Eliminating Glottal Attacks 36

Exercise Drills for Glottal Attack Elimination

Easy Onset Exercises 38

CHAPTER 4 The Fronting Vowels 43

[i] Production 43

Exercises 45

[i] Production 47

Exercises 49

[e] Production 50

Exercises 52

[æ] Production 53

Exercises 55

Review of Front Vowels 55

[a] Production 56

Exercises 57

CHAPTER 5 The Backing Vowels 59

[u]/[ju] Production 59

Exercises 61

[u] Production 63

Exercises 64

[o] Production 65

[o] Production 66

Exercises 69

[D] Production 70

CHAPTER 6 The Mixed Vowels 71

[A]/[9] Production 71

Exercises 74

|>]/[e] Production 75

Exercises 77

CHAPTER 7 Diphthongs 79

[ai] Production 81

Drill 83

Exercises 83

[ei] Production 84

Exercises 85

[01] Production 86

Exercises 87

38

CONTENTS

[ou] Production 89

Exercises 90

[au] Production 91

Exercises 92

The R-Colored Diphthongs 93

Exercises 94

Triphthongs 96

Exercises 97

CHAPTER 8 The Three Semi-Vowel Glides 99

Vowels or Consonants? 99

[w] Production 102

[j] Production 103

[j] Production 105

Drill for Alleviating Trilled R's 108

Exercises 109

CHAPTER 9 Introduction to Consonants 11 3

The English Consonants 115

Exercises 11 7

CHAPTER 10

CHAPTER 11

The Plosives 119

[b]/[p] Production 120

Exercises 122

[d]/[t] Production 123

Practice Drill 125

Exercises 126

[g]/[k] Production 126

Exercises 130

Implosions 131

[d3][tf] Production 133

Exercises 134

Save Breath for Shadow Vowels

Exercises 138

135

The Fricatives 141

Merges: The Legato Builder 141

[v]/[f] Production 143

Exercises 145

[z]/[s] Production 146

Drills for Overcoming Lisping S and Z 148

XV

XVI CONTENTS

Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives 149

Exercises 151

[3]/[f] Production 154

Exercises 155

[a]/ [6] Production 157

Exercises 159

[h]/[m] Production 160

Exercises 164

CHAPTER 12 The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L 167

[m] Production 167

Drill 168

[n] Production 169

Drill 170

[rj] Production 1 71

Drill 172

Drill 174

Exercises 177

Sing through and Resonate the Nasal Consonants 1 79

[1] Production 179

Drill 181

Exercises 182

CHAPTER 13 The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots 185

The Legato Connection: Connect It Up! 185

Implosions and Merges 187

Exercises 190

Expressive Doublings: Get It Off the Printed Page! 192

Pulsing the Phrase 202

Exercises 203

CHAPTER 14 Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain" 207

International Phonetic Alphabet for British

Received Pronunciation 208

IPA Drill 211

British Received versus American Standard 214

Rules for British Received Pronunciation 215

Exercises 216

contents

[D] Production 21 7

Exercises 218

[ou] versus [su] 219

Exercises 220

The Reduced R Colourings 221

Exercises 222

Shall We D-ah-nce? 223

Exercises 226

Usage of the "Liquid U" in Historic versus Modern RP 228

Unstressed Words and Syllables 229

Stress Patterns 229

Trilled and Flipped R's 231

Exercise 234

Articulating the Letter T in RP 236

Exercises 237

CHAPTER 15 The Mid-Atlantic Dialect 241

The Default Dialect 241

[a] 242

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview 243

Repertoire Suggestions for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation 244

Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation 245

Exercises 246

[a] Production 247

Exercise Drills 248

Exercises 250

Afterword: The Finesse Factor 255

A Final Cautionary Note 255

A Word about Interdependence 256

Strive for the Third Dimension 256

APPENDIX 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet for English 259

APPENDIX 2 Three-Dialect Overview 263

APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire 265

Glossary 291

Music Publishers Guide 305

xvii

xviii SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

Selected Bibliography and Resources 309

Index of Song Texts 315

General Index 319

Exercise Guide

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Singing and Communicating in English: A Singer's Guide to English

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Singing and Communicating in English


CHAPTER ONE

Introduction to Diction

Diction: What Is It?

"Diction," according to Webster's International Dictionary, is the execution of text with

regard to pronunciation, enunciation, and expression. The study of sung speech may be

separated into these three distinct areas:

Pronunciation: The cultivation of sung speech that is free from regionalisms and is

easily understood by the audience.

Enunciation: The study of the physiology of speech sounds in order to deliver the

vocal text with ease, clarity, and minimal tension.

Expression: The communication of the meaning and emotion of a vocal text within the

parameters of the musical setting given to us by the composer.

Before we begin to tackle all of this, it is important to answer several questions that

many whose native language is English may have.

Why Do Native English Speakers NeedEnglish Diction Study?

If we are native speakers, we tend to be very careless with our language. Since English is

easy for us to speak and understand, we assume our facility with it will automatically be

transferred to our singing in English. As native speakers, we focus usually on the ideas

that we are trying to communicate, not on the specific sounds that make up the words we

are using to express ourselves. For most of us, little time is spent analyzing the specific

vowel sounds and consonant sounds. If we are to sing effectively in English, we must treat

3

SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

the English language with as much care and precision as we give the foreign languages in

which we sing. The distinct vowels, of which there are 16, must be very clear and precise

when they are sustained in music. In everyday speech, vowel precision is not a require-

ment for intelligibility. But when a word must be sustained musically in slow motion, it is

very important that the vowel sound is precise or else no one will know what we are

singing about!

What Is the Ultimate Goal of English LyricDiction Study?

The principal goal of lyric diction is communication.

For an English-speaking public, operas performed in their vernacular, whether the

original language or in translation, can be profoundly moving. With effective English dic-

tion, we have the unique opportunity to have an immediate communicative connection

with the audience that is not possible with works in foreign languages.

Why Is This Coal Often Not Realized?

There are many factors involved. The absolute essentials of effective communication are:

1. You must be heard.

2. You must be understood.

If either of these two does not occur, much of the connection with the audience is lost. If

the voice does not carry over the orchestra because of heavy orchestration, problems with

staging, or positioning on the stage, the singer will not be heard well enough to be an ef-

fective communicator. These are some of the many factors creating problems in reaching

the goal of effective communication. However, some of these are beyond the control of

the singer. Assuming that we can be heard, there are still many things to consider that im-

pede our communication of the text with our audience.

Perhaps the fault of non-communication lies with one of the following:

1. An overwhelming concern on the singer's part for producing beautiful tones and

little concern for the projection of the text. Of course, the voice needs to be the

number one concern for a classical singer, but beautiful singing with muddy dic-

tion is not as exciting for the listener as beautiful singing in which the text is also

4

CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction

clear. Actually, muddy diction can result in muddy singing. The techniques of

beautiful singing and good diction need to go hand in hand. Rarely does a singer

sing only vowel sounds. In every language, singing almost always involves nego-

tiating around the consonants.

2. The transference of foreign pronunciations into the English language rather than

singing English vowels. This is called "singerese." This has consciously or un-

consciously slipped into the English diction of almost all singers at one time or

another, whether out of habit or choice. Even if vowels need to be modified for

vocal reasons, the modifications should not be detectable to the audience. English

vowels must always "read" as real and honest to the listener.

3. A gross inconsistency among performers in any kind of standard pronunciation

of the same text within the same cast and production. Often, some singers will

be singing in several different regional American dialects while the others are

singing in a British dialect.

4. An almost cavalier assumption on the part of some performers and administrators

of musical organizations that since this is the vernacular, English speakers al-

ready have an "inborn skill and sensitivity to singing in English" and therefore

need give no further attention to its communicative delivery. This would never be

the case for classically trained actors. Sadly, this is often the case with singers.

Expectations of theEnglish-Speaking Audience

The English-speaking audience has a very different expectation for the musical perform-

ances it hears in English from a performance in a foreign language. They expect and want

to understand most of the text on first hearing. Not all of the audience members have

grown up listening to opera and therefore come to a classical music performance with

very little background in the work, its text, and its plot. If we hope to forge a connection

with the younger generation, maintain, and even build opera and concert attendance, the

text needs to be clear and communicative.

Our fast-paced, stressful modern lifestyle is partly to blame. Rarely do we have the

time or energy to come prepared to a concert or opera by having previously read the li-

bretto and familiarized ourselves with the music. For these reasons, we need the musical

exposure to classical music performances to be very accessible and "audience-friendly."

The text must be clear and intelligible on first hearing.

Of course, 100 percent intelligibility of the text is virtually impossible. With heavy or-

chestration and words set in extremely high and low vocal ranges, some of the words will

5


inevitably be lost. But 90 to 95 percent of the text clarity is realistic and definitely possible

for singers trained with good diction knowledge and technique.

In this book, we will strive to achieve 90 to 95 percent intelligibility in English lyric

diction. To that end, we must consider these things.

1. Neutral Pronunciation: The standardization of English pronunciation for com-

munication with the majority of the audience. This is accomplished through the

study and knowledge of neutral pronunciation of American English and British

English, one that is free of regionalisms and that conforms to the norms of the

theatrical stage and public usage—that is, the pronunciation of news broadcast-

ers, television actors, and national mass media performers.

2. Physiological Clarification: The clarification physiologically of the production of

the speech sounds of the English language and the release of tensions of everyday

speech that will aid in freer vocalism.

3. Study of the English Cadence: The innate accents of inflection of the English lan-

guage, which leads not only to communication but also to expressive delivery of

the language.

What Is Neutral English?

Neutral English in North America is called American Standard, or AS. It is a pronun-

ciation of North American English that is most recognizable and understandable to the

majority of North Americans.

Neutral English in the United Kingdom is known as Received Pronunciation, or RP.

Historic forms of RP are used in classical theater and eighteenth- and nineteenth-century

opera. Modern RP is used by the broadcasters on BBC 1 and 2 and has been determined

to be the most easily accessible to the listening public. The current trend in the United

Kingdom seems to be use of RP colored with and inclusive of some of the regional pro-

nunciation of the broadcaster. The far-reaching influence of the mass media has resulted

in instant communication of news and world events to all parts of the English-speaking

world. Even with some inclusion of regionalism, news broadcasters and other public

speakers have cultivated a neutral speech pronunciation that bridges regional speech bar-

riers and facilitates easier communication with this broad area of population.

This is not to imply that neutral pronunciation has greater merit than any of the re-

gional dialects. It is also a dialect, but one without any regionalisms. It is, however, the

dialect that is used by trained speakers and performers for public usage. The way we speak

6

CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction

English regionally is part of our personal identity. It is something that should be used and

maintained in our everyday speech. However, when we are speaking or performing in a

public forum, neutral English should be used, so as to erase regional barriers and com-

municate most effectively with the most people.

In this book, we will focus on three dialects that are most readily used by professional

singers.

1. American Standard: used for North American repertoire.

2. Received Pronunciation: both the historic and modern forms of RP that are used

for repertoire by composers from the British Isles.

3. Mid-Atlantic Dialect: a hybrid of North American and British pronunciation that

blends the two dialects. It is frequently used in oratorio and works of European

origin that are not specifically British.

References for English Pronunciation

American Standard Pronunciation

The Pronouncing Dictionary of American English, John S. Kenyon and Thomas A. Knott, editors.

All entries are listed in IPA. The preferred pronunciation for American Standard, AS, is listed

first, followed by variant regional differences.

The NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, revised and updated by Eugene Ehrlich and Raymond Hand,

Jr. Used as a reference book by broadcasters, this is an excellent reference for current words and

foreign words found in English. Unfortunately, it has no listings in IPA.

Longman Dictionary of American English, edited by J. C. Wells. This is an excellent teaching dic-

tionary for English as a foreign language. Listings are in General American. Excellent quick ref-

erence guides are scattered throughout.

Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A. Kretzsh-

mar, Jr., and Rafal Konopka. This is excellent for both American and British current pronuncia-

tion. Good for the General American Dialect, colloquial American usage.

British Received Pronunciation

The Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Peter Roach and James Hartman. This

is the new seventeenth edition of the original dictionary listed below. It is an excellent dictionary

for British Received Pronunciation. It lists both RP and American pronunciations; however, it is

not a clear guide for American Standard pronunciation. The determination of what is considered

American Standard is far clearer in the Kenyon and Knott Pronouncing Dictionary listed above.

It comes with an interactive CD-ROM.

7

Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by Daniel Jones. The basis for the Cambridge

Dictionary listed above, it is an excellent source of historic British Received Pronunciation. It is

very helpful for the Baroque and Classical repertoire. Unfortunately, it is out of print.

Longman Pronouncing Dictionary, edited by J. C. Wells. Developed as a teaching tool for English

as a foreign language programs, this is a very clear dictionary with excellent informational

guides scattered throughout. It has an accompanying CD-ROM.

Oxford Dictionary for Pronunciation for Current English, edited by Clive Upton, William A.

Kretzschmar, Jr., and Fafal Konopka. It is an excellent source for modern RP and colloquial

American English.

Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation

The vowel sounds for Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are generally American vowels with the

r-colorings lessened. Use of flipped and rolled R's is also frequent. The use of the sources

for both the American Standard and British Received Pronunciations will be helpful.

Since Mid-Atlantic is not a spoken dialect but rather a hybrid pronunciation used to blend

AS and RP, no dictionaries are found for this pronunciation.

Approach to English Diction Study

Most people learn a language through imitation by trial and error. A more accurate way to

learn pronunciation of a language is through phonetics, the scientific study of speech

sounds and their formation.

Ear training is important; we first must be able to hear the sounds within ourselves cor-

rectly. But it is not enough to drill the sounds through rote imitation. Minute exactness is

required in lyric diction because the sounds are sustained for a much longer time than

when spoken. They must be absolutely correctly produced for communicative clarity and

to avoid vocal tension.

Many singers find singing in English the most stressful vocally. This is often the fault

of transference of improper speech production into their singing. As a general character-

istic, we are laconic, tense-jawed speakers with little tongue and lip independence when

producing the speech sounds.

Before we begin in depth, we must familiarize ourselves with the actual sounds we

will be dealing with. The most efficient way to do this is through knowledge of the Inter-

national Phonetic Alphabet.

SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH8

Introduction to the InternationalPhonetic Alphabet

All spoken languages are made up of sounds. Most languages have unphonetic character-

istics, that is, the words are not pronounced the way they are spelled. This is especially

true of English. For example, the words, "rough," "dough," and "through" are all spelled

with the same vowel combination but are pronounced with three different vowel sounds.

This poem sums up just how difficult English can be to learn and pronounce!

When the English tongue we speak,

Why is break not rhymed with freak?

Will you tell me why it's true

We say sew but likewise few;

And the maker of a verse

Cannot cap his horse with worse ?

Beard sounds not the same as heard;

Cord is different from word.

Cow is cow but low is low;

Shoe is never rhymed with foe.

Think of hose and dose and lose;

And think of goose and yet of choose.

Think of comb and tomb and bomb;

Doll and roll and home and some;

And since pay is rhymed with say,

Why not paid with said, I pray?

We have blood and food and good;

Mould is not pronounced like could.

Wherefore done but gone and lone ?

Is there any reason known?

And, in short, it seems to me

Sounds and letters disagree.

(Anonymous, "Our Queer Language")

The International Phonetic Alphabet, known as the IPA, is a pronouncing alphabet that

indicates the exact sounds of all languages regardless of their spelling. It was devised in

1888 by a group of European scientists and linguists.

9CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction

1. It is made up of conventional letters from the Roman alphabet plus some new

symbols.

2. Each letter of the alphabet equals one sound and always the same sound.

3. All letters are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish them from normal language

spellings.

4. The IPA, or the International Phonetic Alphabet, is a key to all languages and is

therefore a perfect tool for singers who must be able to switch easily back and

forth between the pronunciations of several languages. For example, the same [u]

"oo" vowel sound in the words "food," "jewel," and "wound" is the same sound

as in the words "ruhe" in German, "luce" in Italian, and "douce" in French.

5. Here is a vowel comparison for English, German, Italian, and French. All four

languages use the Roman alphabet and have the same five vowel letters: "a," "e,"

"i," "o," "u." However, the same five vowel letters represent a different number of

vowel sounds in each language:

Italian has 7 vowels using these letters.

German has 14 vowels, including unlauts and open and closed vowels.

French has 14 vowels, including nasals and mixed vowels.

English has 16 vowels, including diphthongs.

How to Use This Book

This book focuses on three different dialects: American Standard (AS), Received Pro-

nunciation (RP), and Mid-Atlantic (MA) pronunciation. You may choose to work with AS

at the beginning of the book and continue straight on through, or start directly with RP or

MA found at the end of the book. For the purpose of clarity, these three dialects have been

dealt with separately throughout the book. Although the book begins with American Stan-

dard pronunciation, it is not necessary to focus on this pronunciation first. The chapters in

the middle of this text, chapters 2 through 13, focus on the production of consonants and

vowels and are applicable to all three dialects. The treatment of the text within the context

of the musical setting for expression and musicality again applies to all three pronuncia-

tions. The specifics of British Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation are

found in chapters 14 and 15 at the end of the book.

If you are a British or British Commonwealth speaker, you may want to familiarize

yourself first with the International Phonetic Alphabet as it applies to the British Received

Pronunciation. It is found in chapter 14 on page 208. Once you have gone through chap-

10 SINGING AND COMMUNICATING IN ENGLISH

ter 14, continue on with chapter 2. Chapters 2 through 13 will contain applications and

texts for both American and British English. Throughout all the chapters, American texts

are treated in American Standard and the British texts are treated in Received Pronuncia-

tion and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation.

If you are a North American English speaker, just continue on in chapter 1 to learn the

IPA as it applies to American English speech sounds. Chapters 2-13 will contain applica-

tions and texts for both American and British English. The American texts are treated in

American Standard pronunciation and the British texts are treated in Received Pronunci-

ation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation.

An Exercise Guide with phonetic transcriptions and applications for all the exercises

and drills can be found on the companion website.

IT'S DECISION TIME!!

FOR

IPA for American English IPA for British English

Continue below Go to page 208

On to the IPA . . . !!

The International Phonetic Alphabet forAmerican English

Consonants

The following symbols are identical to the letters of our English (Roman) alphabet:

[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]

The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist

in the Roman alphabet:

Symbol Key Words

[rj] (ng) in sing, think

[6] (th) in thin, thirst

11CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction


Symbol Key Words

(th) in thine, this

(hw) in whisper, when

in y_ou, y_es

(sh) in she, sure

(ch) in choose, church

in vision, 'azure*

in George, joy

in red, remember, every (the burred r)

Vowels

Key Words

in father, hot

in wed, many, bury

in hit, been, busy

in me, chief, feat, receive

in pretty_, lovely_

in cat, marry, ask, charity

in too, wound, blue, juice

in view, beautiful, usual, tune

in book, bosom, cushion, full

in obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables only)

in awful, call, daughter, sought

in learn, burn, rehearse, journey (stressed syllables only)

in father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (unstressed syllables only)

in hum, blood, trouble, judge (stressed syllables)

in sofa, heaven, nation, joyous (unstressed syllables)

* See alternate pronunciation and stress pattern in RP.

** The use of rolled [R] and flipped R's [r] is found in the British RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects. Theyshould not be used in American Standard pronunciation.t [3-] and [a--] are the r-colored vowels characteristic of American Standard pronunciation, AS.

Symbol

(ah)

(eh)

(ih)

(ee)

(ee)

(oo)

(oh)

(aw)

(er)

(er)

(uh)

(uh)

CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction 13

Triphthongs

Symbol Key Words

in fire, choir, admire

in our, flower, tower

Listed below are some frequently used words that are transcribed into the International

Phonetic Alphabet; American Standard pronunciations are listed.

Now give these exercises a try. (Note that the phonetic characters in exercises and text

throughout the book are in different fonts and some appear slightly different from each

other in the two fonts.)

Diphthongs

Symbol Key Words

in night, buy, sky_

in day, break, reign

in boy, voice, toil

in no, slow, reproach

in now, about, doubt

in air, care, there

in ear, dear, here, tier

in pour, four, soar, o'er

in sure, tour, poor

in are, heart, garden

sing

word

walk

jaw

church

this

bear

dawn

new

song

would

war

judge

choose

thou

beard

double

nuisance

singer

wonder

whisper

joyous

children

thine

burden

darkness

numerous


EXERCISES

IPA Drill

1. Change the following words in IPA symbols into English spellings:

2. Change the following English words into corresponding IPA symbols:

charm

pensive

flood

zephyr

earth

anoint

4. Find a short paragraph from a newspaper or magazine and transcribe it into

phonetics.

5. Change the following texts in IPA into English spellings:

American Standard pronunciation:

CHAPTER ONE Introduction to Diction 15

bought

winter

hatch

absurd

passion

usage

younger

beautiful

worthy

vision

once

giant

year

enough

difficult

languish

pronounce

technical

3. Write your name in IPA symbols


2.

CHAPTER TWO

Communicating the Thought

Through my years of working with singers, I have found that the singing of exact vowels

and correct pronunciation is of the utmost importance; however, in order to communicate

the text to the audience, of even greater importance is the correct application of the natu-

ral stress and inflection patterns of the English language. If you have had the experience

of trying to understand a person speaking to you with a thick foreign accent, you have

probably dealt with the difficulties about to be described. If a non-native English speaker

speaks to us and most of the grammatically stressed words are properly emphasized, we

can understand them. However, if they speak with almost exact vowels but their "em-

PHAsis is on the wrong syLLAble," we have to re-translate, putting the syllabic accents

right before we comprehend what they are saying. The adherence to the correct stress and

inflection patterns of English, both syllabically within the words and within phrases,

seems to be primary to language clarity and communication. For this reason, I will dis-

cuss appropriate stress first.

Communication throughAppropriate Stress

For native English speakers, it is second nature to communicate clearly and effectively in

conversational speech. Unless we mumble or drop the ends of our phrases, usually we can

be understood. Because it is second nature to us, we probably have never analyzed just how

we communicate through our language. If we hope to successfully transfer our abilities in

17

spoken English to sung English, we need to take the time to understand how we commu-

nicate, listen to, and process text.

The study and understanding of the innate cadence or inflection patterns of the English

language is imperative for effective lyric communication. Rarely as listeners do we listen

to every word that a speaker is saying. Instead, we instinctively listen for key words and

phrases in order to exact the meaning of the person's speech.

Our ears are so tuned to listening for the stressed syllables within a single word as well

as the stressed words within a phrase that if the syllabic or phrasal stress is incorrect, we

often have to re-process the words, mentally adding the correct stresses in order to com-

prehend the meaning. When a person with a thick foreign accent speaks, if the cadence or

stress patterns are correct, we will still easily understand him regardless of his inaccurate

vowels or consonants. However, if the vowels and consonants are accurate but the stress

and inflection are wrong, it will be very difficult for us to comprehend.

Let's analyze the stress patterns of English.

Syllabic Stress within Words

The weak and strong pulses within words in English are an integral part of the language.

When all the syllables are stressed (or conversely, unstressed) within a word, even if the

pronunciation is precise, the words are often not understood. A syllable can be an entire

word (sing) or a subdivision of a word with a single vowel sound (re-hearse). The listener

does not listen to individual speech sounds but rather recognizes the syllabic stress within

a word.

Stress can occur in all positions in English words. There can always be found a pri-

mary stress, sometimes a secondary stress also, and occasionally a word will contain a

double primary stress. Primary stress is indicated by an accent mark above and before the

stressed syllable ('), while secondary stress is indicated by an accent mark before and

below the syllable (,).

Primary Stress Primary + Secondary Stress Double Stress

'mu-sic ,ad-ver-'tise-ment (AS) 'sun-'rise

re-'mem-ber ,re-cog-'ni-tion 'rose-'bud

in-'flec-tion ,cha-rac-te-'ris-tic 'diph-'thong

In general, the majority of words have only one primary stress. The predominance of

a weak/strong stress pattern within English words is what makes English unique among

the lyric languages.


CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought 19

The Unstressed Neutral Vowel

In order to energize the strongly accented syllables with sufficient stress, strength must be

taken away from weak syllables. We do this by shortening and neutralizing the weak syl-

lables by the use of the [9] schwa vowel. For example, with the word "problem," we would

pronounce the second syllable with a [9] vowel [piabtam] in AS or [paobbm] in RP rather

than with an [e] vowel [pja/oblem]. If it were pronounced like the second version, "prob-

lem" would sound to our ears like a double stressed word and sound like the German "kein

pro'blem" rather than English.

This neutralizing of the weak vowel does not occur in the Romance languages and ap-

pears only in a limited fashion in German with the neutral schwa occurring in weak final

syllables.

E X A M P L E S English

'aria

a'merican

Italian

'aria [aria]

a'merican

Though unstressed, the Italian vowels do not become weaker and neutralized. The

Italian vowels remain pure and full while the English vowels shift to the reduced schwa

vowel to accommodate the stressed syllable.

RULE The unstressed syllables »n English should be pronounced with a neutral

schwa [0] vowel or one of the possible substitutions

E X A M P L E S heaven

motion

melody

In other words, as singers we have several vowels choices when singing the unstressed

syllables of English.

DIAGRAM 2.1

or possible

or possible

or possible

for schwa.

for schwa.

for schwa.

In many instances, the [a] vowel may seem like too dark or dull a vowel color for cer-

tain syllables. In this case, [i], [u], [e], or [o] may be substituted. The bottom line is tha

it must sound natural and normal.

RULE When there are two adjacent unstressed syllables in a word, the use of a

[a] vowel as well as one of the substitute vowels is preferable to two adjacent [a]

vowels.

For example, beautiful, [bjutiful] or [bjutifal], when sustained with any duration, would

command the listener's attention more than [bjutafal] because of the variety of adjacent

vowel sounds.

The choice of the substitute vowel will depend on the individual preference of the

artist and the vocal ease of certain vowels in specific ranges. For example, in the higher

tessitura, the more closed and rounded vowel substitutions [i] or [u] would perhaps be

easier to negotiate. No matter which schwa substitution you choose, remember that it must

sound normal to the listener's ear. If it sounds modified or distorted, it will only confuse

the listener and sabotage your efforts.

Tips for Vocal Ease

In the passaggio, try using [u] for the schwa substitute as in a word like "heav[u]n." The

lip rounding adds more head resonance and comfort. In the lower register, try using [i] or

[e] as a schwa substitute for more point and resonance.

Stress/Sense within the English Phrase

Similar to the strong/weak patterns of individual words in English, a strong/weak pattern

strongly exists within the English phrase or sentence. In order for the listener's ear to be

directed to the relevant ideas of a sentence or phrase, the strong word-types must be en-

ergized and highlighted. Without this highlighting, the phrase or sentence will make little

to no sense. In daily speech, native speakers respond almost instinctively to proper word

stress of a sentence or phrase in order to communicate their ideas. But, because the natu

ral speech rhythm is stretched and slowed down when English is set to music, singers can-

not immediately transfer what they would instinctively in speech. A conscious grasp of

English grammatical structure is very helpful for the singer to understand how a listener

receives the ideas of his lyric text.



Telegram the Message!

Before the advent of email, people would send telegrams in emergencies. Telegrams were

charged by the number of words sent over the wire. So, it was important to be brief in

order to cut down on the cost. If we were to send a telegram home, we would have little

trouble determining the important words that must be sent in order to convey our message.

Rather than writing, "My flight from Rome has been canceled. I will be arriving in New

York Thursday at 4 p.m." we would send "FLIGHT CANCELED. ARRIVING NEW

YORK THURSDAY 4 P.M." We would choose just the words necessary to convey the

message and nothing more. Essentially, we would choose the strong word-types to con-

vey our message—the nouns, active verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. This same principle

needs to be used when "telegramming" our musical texts. For example:

Come away, come away, death,

And in sad cypress let me be laid.

Fly away, fly away, breath,

I am slain by a fair, cruel maid.

(William Shakespeare,Twelfth Night, act 2, scene 4)

In telegramming this text by Shakespeare, we would choose "Come death, cypress laid,

fly breath, slain maid" to transmit the thought. We have chosen the nouns and active verbs.

For greater depth of meaning, we might also include the adverbs "away" and perhaps the

adjectives "sad, fair, and cruel." Let's look at this in a more organized, coherent fashion.

The Hierarchy of Stress

The strong/weak word-types are listed below:

Stressed Words Unstressed Words

Nouns Articles (the, a, an)

Active Verbs Prepositions (in, through)

Adjectives Conjunctions (and, or, but)

Adverbs Pronouns (me, I, he, she)

Negatives Auxiliary/linking verbs

Interrogative pronouns

(who, what, where, when, why, how)


HIERARCHY OF STRESS

DIAGRAM 2.2

There is hierarchy of stress among the list of stress word-types. The primary stress

should be placed on the nouns and the active verbs, with secondary stress placed on the

words that modify them—the adjectives, adverbs, and negatives.

Usually the articles, prepositions, conjunctions, and auxiliary/linking verbs are not

stressed. There will occasionally be exceptions to this rule. In the sentence, "John went

under not over the bridge," a comparison is made between the prepositions "under" and

"over." In this instance, these prepositions need to be stressed.

Pronouns, even if they function as the subject of the sentence, are usually not stressed.

Like the prepositions above, they should be stressed only when there is a comparison be-

tween them. For example: "/ went to class, YOU did not!"

Care should be taken not to inflate the modifiers over the words they modify. In the

Shakespeare text above, if the adjectives "fair" and "cruel" are stressed more than the noun

they modify—"maid"—then the listener is confused as to what is fair and cruel.

To serve as a memory aid, let's notate the hierarchy of stress by circling the primary

stress words and underlining the words with secondary stress.

(Come) away (come) away, (death/)

And in sad (cypress) let me be (TaidT)

(FlyJ away, (fly) away, (breath)

I am (slain) by a fair, cruel (maid)

The words that are (circled) are the nouns and the verbs. These transmit the thought

to the listener. They must be treated with great care and should always be stressed. The

words that are underlined are their modifiers—the adjectives, adverbs, interrogative pro-


nouns, and negatives—which add greater depth to the transmitted thought. In order to

communicate with your listener, you must always stress the circled words, but you may

choose which of the underlined words you would like to stress.

To Be or Not To Be? The Question Is "Is the Verb

'to be' Stressed?"

RUii Do not stress any forms of the verb "to-be"- unless they are in the subjunc-•%

Wve mood or conditional tense. Only the subjunctive mood, which is contrary to

fact or the conditional tense should stressed. The verb "to be" is a weak, non-

active, intransitive verb form. Its modifiers, the predicate nominative or predicate

adjective that follow the vertv should receive primary stress.

Let's see how this applies to a line of poetry.

Is she (kind) as she is (fair?)

(William Shakespeare, "Who Is Sylvia?")from Two Gentlemen of Verona, act 4, scene 2

The verb "is" does not need be stressed. Rather "kind" and "fair," the adjectives that

follow "is," should be stressed. They are predicate adjectives. They were adjectives but

now have become part of the verb or predicate and now function as predicate adjectives.

"Is" in essence, now functions as the auxiliary verb and therefore does not need to be

stressed.

For the grammarphobes, a short grammar review is found in the glossary! Let's try an-

other example.

(Rose leaves) when the (rose) is (dead/)

Are (heaped) for the beloved's (bed;)

(Percy Bysshe Shelley, "Music When Soft Voices Die")

Here the forms to the verb "to be" ("is" and "are") do not need to be stressed. Like the

Shakespeare example above, the adjective "dead" takes on primary stress because it functions

as a predicate adjective and becomes part of the verb phrase. "Heaped" is passive tense and

receives primary stress because "are" in this case functions merely as an auxiliary verb.


And for the brave of heart, let's try another example.

R U L E On the stressed syllable of the stressed word types, swell on the vowelsound and relax the sounds down into the body. This is called pulsing the phrase.

It should feel like you are sighing or moaning on these stressed syllables. Deepen the body

connection with the tone and use a full sound that relaxes down into the center of the body.

Pulsing the phrase refers to singing into and opening up the voice on the stressed syllables

of the stressed words. If the stressed syllables are pulsed and sung into, the important words

will be targeted vocally and musically for the listener. The unstressed syllables will be in bal-

ance when the stressed words and syllables are pulsed. The pulses are notated with an arrow:

Flowers alone are chaste.

For their beauty is so brief. . . .

Years are their love,

and time's their thief.

(Benjamin Britten, "Lucretia's Aria"from The Rape ofLucretid)

In the first two lines of "Lucretia's Aria," "chaste" and "brief1 function as predicate

adjectives. In the second two lines, "love" and "thief," which were already nouns, have be-

come part of the verb and function as predicate nominatives (nominative = noun).

Pulsing the Phrase

English is a Germanic stop-language. It does not have an innate legato and words are often

punched when we want to emphasize them. To sing well in English, English must be

treated as though it were Italian; we must swell on the stressed vowel sounds rather than

punching them.

Come away, come away, Death. And in sad cypress let me be laid.

Fly away, fly away, Breath. I am slain by a fair, cruel maid.

24

CHAPTER TWO Communicating the Thought

Imitate "The Count"!

For those of you who grew up watching Sesame Street, it helps to remember the speech

pattern of the Dracula character, "The Count," who taught all the children to count their

numbers. "The Count" had a thick Hungarian accent and would "SWEEEELL on the

Vowel Sounds"! Rather than punching at words like English speakers do, he spoke with

in a very "sing-songy" voice and would count "Ooooone! Twoooooo! ThRRRRreeeeeee!

Ha! Ha! Ha!"

Though trying to imitate "The Count" may seem ridiculous, it can be a helpful aid

to feel what it is like to swell on the stressed vowel. English speakers need to be able to

"override" the habit of punching, which is inherent in English speech patterns. Actually,

a good intermediate step before singing a text is to intone the text and swell on the stressed

vowels. Then try to transfer the sensation of "the swell" or "the pulse" into your singing.

Now let's apply this technique to the Roger Quilter setting of "Come away, Death."

Find a copy of the music and do the following:

1. First say the words in rhythm. Then intone them in rhythm.

2. Now do it again and remember to imitate "The Count"!

(It helps to say "Ha! Ha! Ha!" after each phrase.)

3. Now try singing the musical phrases and make sure to swell on, not punch, the

stressed vowel sounds.

Stress versus Interpretation

The stress/inflection patterns of English are the groundwork for artistic interpretation,

which is something that needs to be very personal and individual for each singer. For basic

communication, the nouns and active verbs must be stressed. After that, it is the individ-

ual artist's personal choice as to which of the modifiers he or she would like to emphasize.

In the example above, a singer might choose to emphasize the fairness rather than the cru-

elty of the maid or vice versa, or choose to stress neither of the adjectives. This is their

artistic license and the element of an artistic performance that makes it interesting and

unique.

25

26

Now that we know what ought to be stressed, how do we give stress vocally with the

musical phrase? By putting an overlay of the stress and inflection pattern upon every

musical text setting that we sing. In other words, all musical and vocal stresses must cor-

respond with the stress of the text. This will be dealt with in chapter 13 on expressive

singing.

Before we begin to tackle the individual speech sounds of English, it is necessary to

look at one more aspect of the language: how the division of syllables is affected when the

words are sung rather than spoken.

The Division of Syllables

The conventional division of words into syllables in most dictionaries, or often in musi-

cal scores, does not always coincide with the division of syllables needed in song for

clarity and vocal legato. In print, words are divided structurally. This will be dealt with in

depth as we work with the specific consonants. But for now, in singing, consonants are

shifted over to begin the next syllable.

For example, the word "diction" would be divided in the dictionary as "dic-tion." For

singing, we would divide it "di-ction." This is done in order to allow the singer more time

to sing and swell on the stressed vowel sound.

By shifting the consonants over to begin the next syllable, more vocal time can be

allowed to elongate the vowels and thereby avoid the choppiness that is characteristic of

spoken English. It is often this choppiness or lack of inherent legato in the English lan-

guage that causes many singers to feel more vocal tension while singing in English than

while singing in any of the Romance languages.

E X A M P L E S Syllables in Print Treatment in Song

A-mer-i-can A-me-ri-can

char-i-ty cha-ri-ty

good-will goo-dwill

dif-fer-ence di-ffe-rence

wis-dom wi-sdom

ex-cel-lent e-xce-llent

heart-break hear-tbreak

in-no-cent i-nno-cent

doubt-ful dou-btful



EXERCISES

1. Transcribe the following words into the IPA, divide them syllabically for singing

legato, and indicate the stress:

repertoire poverty

sensitivity dazzled

withdraw theater

interest candidate

important dictionary

extremes characters

presumptuous approval

2. Transcribe the following text into the IPA and indicate the stressed word-types by

circling the nouns and verbs, and underlining their modifiers:

In the scented bud of the morning O,

When the windy grass went rippling far!

I saw my dear one walking slow

In the field where the daisies are.

We did not laugh and we did not speak,

As we wandered happ'ly to and fro,

I kissed my dear on either cheek,

In the bud of the morning O!

A lark sang up, from the breezy land;

A lark sang down, from a cloud afar;

As she and I went hand in hand,

In the field where the daisies are.

(James Stephens / Samuel Barber, "The Daisies")

3. Get a copy of Barber's song "The Daisies." Practice intoning and swelling on

the stressed syllables of the words. See if you can maintain the swell when you

sing it.

28

4. Transcribe the following texts into I PA* and indicate the stressed words by circling

the nouns and verbs and underlining the modifiers:

She walks in beauty, like the night

Of cloudless climes and starry skies,

And all that's best of dark and bright

Meet in her aspect and her eyes;

Thus mellow'd to that tender light

Which heaven to gaudy day denies.

One shade the more, one ray the less,

Had half impair'd the nameless grace

Which waves in every raven tress

Or softly lightens o'er her face,

Where thoughts serenely sweet express

How pure, how dear their dwelling-place.

And on that cheek and o'er that brow

So soft, so calm, yet eloquent,

The smiles that win, the tints that glow

But tell of days in goodness spent,

A mind at peace with all below,

A heart whose love is innocent.

(Lord Byron, "She Walks in Beauty")

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:

Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,

And summer's lease hath all too short a date;

Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,

And often is his gold complexion dimm'd;

And every fair from fair sometime declines,

By chance or nature's hanging course untrimm'd:

But thy eternal summer shall not fade

Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st;

* Ideally these two British poems should be transcribed into RP or Mid-Atlantic. However, forthe purpose of focusing on the grammatically stressed words, use whichever dialect is most fa-miliar to you.


Nor shall Death brag thou wand'rest in his shade,

When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st;

So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,

So long lives this and this gives life to thee.

(William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18)



CHAPTER THREE

Introduction to Vowels

Preparation for Vowel Production

Before we begin our work on producing specific vowels correctly, we must concern our-

selves with body awareness and relaxation. Throughout the day, many develop tensions that

must be released. Let's concentrate on isolated areas of the body. The entire body works

better when it is aligned properly. The muscles surrounding the articulators—the jaw, lips,

tongue, teeth, lips, soft palate, and hard palate—must not be tense. The diaphragm must

be soft and pliable. Here are some exercises to release the tension in these areas.

1. Alignment of Spine: Concentrate on sitting or standing tall, with both feet on

the floor and knees unlocked. Feel the neck elongated upward. When the head is

aligned on the vertebrae of the neck, the jaw will drop easily and the tongue

will function efficiently.

2. Facial Massage: Massage the hollows of the cheeks, upper lip, lower lip, temples

and forehead.

3. Tongue/Neck Massage: Massage the tendons on the side of neck, walking your

fingers upward toward your jaw. Walk your fingers along the lower jawbone to-

ward the chin. The soft muscle under the chin is the base of the tongue. Push up

gently with your thumbs, softening this muscle if it is tight.

4. Lip Buzz: Blow air lightly through your closed lips and let them flap on the air.

5. Tongue Stretch: Stick your tongue out as far as is comfortable. Point your

tongue toward your left cheek, right cheek, chin and nose. Repeat this several

times.

31

6. Cud Chew: Chew slowly and deliberately, moving your tongue all around your

mouth. Pause to count "one" in an exaggerated fashion and continue chewing as

you count to ten. When you are finished, the tip of the tongue should rest easily

against the inside of the lower front teeth. The jaw should feel like it is hanging

lower and is more released. The facial muscles should feel more pliable.

7. Neck Stretches: Tilt your head slightly forward, diagonally forward, and to

the sides, holding in each for ten seconds. Be careful not to push head down

in these positions, but rather let it hang from its own weight.

8. Shoulder Rolls: Roll shoulders one at a time forward and backward ten times

each. Roll both shoulders together ten times forward and ten times backward.

9. Diaphragm Massage: Massage the diaphragm muscle with your fist in a circular

motion. It is relaxed when it is soft enough that you press your fingers in under

your rib cage to your second knuckle. Many hold tensions there. When one is

angry, nervous, upset or tense, our diaphragm muscle is usually very rigid.

10. Puff Exercise: Take a full breath, purse your lips, and exhale the air with five

puffs. The diaphragm should remain relaxed while you tuck in slightly for each

puff.

11. Soft Palate Stretch: Encourage yourself to yawn several times. Lift and lower

the soft palate by alternating the sounds [rj] and [a].

Hopefully by now the articulators and the muscles directly involved with producing

sound feel relaxed and activated. We need to be in a state of active relaxation. Inactive,

flaccid muscles do not respond well to our brain impulses and tense muscles cannot re-

spond well either.

This is the state of relaxation we need before beginning the vowel drill work. When

the tongue is relaxed, the tip stays easily in contact with the lower front teeth, the front

and back of the tongue will adjust easily to the required position of the specific vowels.

Also, the throat will remain open since it is not crowded by a bulky, tense tongue.

These exercises should be included in your vocal warm-up routine everyday. With

your diaphragm, shoulders, neck, facial muscles, and the articulators in a state of active

relaxation, your singing and speaking voice will respond much quicker to your vocal

warm-up exercises.

Although the native English speaker can make most of the tongue adjustments for var-

ious vowels almost automatically, it is often with stress or tension. It is hoped that study-

ing the detailed analysis of the production of each vowel will help each singer to discover

any problems with production that they individually carry over from their speech. The

detailed vowel descriptions should also be very helpful to the non-native English singer

who is perhaps approaching the study of English diction for the first time.


CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels 33

The Organs of Speech

Before we move on to vowel production, let's discuss some specifics about the articula-

tors that we have been working with.

FIGURE 3.11 Lips (Labia)2 Teeth (Denies)3 Gum Ridge (Alveolar Ridge)4 Hard Palate5 Soft Palate (Velum)6 Uvula

a. relaxedb. raised

7 Nasal Passage8 Mouth (Oral Passage)9 Tongue (Lingua)

10 Tip of the Tongue11 Blade of the Tongue12 Front of the Tongue13 Middle of the Tongue14 Back of the Tongue15 Throat (Pharynx)16 Epiglottis17 Voice Box (Larynx)18 Vocal Folds and Glottis19 Wind Pipe (Trachea)20 Food Passage or Gullet (Esophagus)

What Are the Essential Articulators?

They are:

The jaw

The lips

The teeth

The tongue

The hard palate

The soft palate

What Do the Articulators Do?

The articulators move in very precise coordination to form the consonants and vowel

sounds that we speak and sing.

How Do They Work?

The Jaw

The jaw closes by contracting the jaw muscles. When you release the jaw muscles, the jaw

will drop open. You do not need to pull the jaw open; gravity will do the work for you.

The Lips

The upper and lower lips are muscles that can work together to form a smile, a frown, a

pucker, a whistle position, or work independently.

The Teeth

The teeth are connected to the jaw and are positioned closer or further apart by opening

or closing the jaw.

The Tongue

The tongue is a flexible muscle that can be moved in many ways. The front can be lifted

to touch the upper gum ridge or the teeth. The middle can be arched to bring it closer to

the hard palate. The back can lift up closer to the soft palate. The entire tongue can move

forward out of the mouth or can be drawn back and bunched in the back of the mouth. The

tongue is a very long muscle and is problematic for many singers. The base of the tongue

actually attaches just above the larynx or voice box, and if it is tense, it can distort the

vocal quality.

The Hard Palate

The hard palate, or roof of the mouth, is actually bone cartilage and cannot be moved.

The Soft Palate

The soft palate is soft muscle tissue that is attached to the back of the hard palate. It can

be raised and lowered to open or close off the passage from the throat into the nasal space.

As children, we learned to use our speech articulators by experimenting and imitating

the speech of the people around us. It took several years to learn how to talk. We imitated

our parents and picked up both their good speech habits and often also their tensions. As

we become aware of the specific control we have over the articulators, we will be able to

release negative tensions and produce more optimal vocal sounds.

Now let's look briefly at an overview of how the English vowels are produced.


CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels

The Vowel Chart

DIAGRAM 3.1

The Fronting Vowels:

These require the fronting of the tongue. The middle of the tongue slides forward and rises

toward the hard palate. The tip of the tongue should be in contact with the lower front

teeth. The vowel [i] has the highest tongue arch; [ae] has the most relaxed arching of the

tongue. Lips are spread.

The Backing Vowels:

The arch of the tongue is raised toward the soft palate; the tip of the tongue touches the

lower front teeth. Lips are rounded. The vowel [u] has the highest tongue arch; [D], the

lowest.

[a]

The tongue is in the lowest position—neither front nor back. The tongue is still slightly

arched but in a relaxed, neutral position. Lips are relaxed and neutral.

The Mixed Vowels:

The mixed vowels have characteristics of both the fronting and backing vowels. They re-

quire the tongue position of one of the fronting vowels plus the lip position of the back-

ing vowels. These will be described in depth later on.

35

A Word of Caution

The backing of the tongue in no way refers to pulling the tongue backward and bunching

it in the throat. It refers to the forward arching of the tongue that, in relation to the soft

palate, is slightly further in "back" of the hard palate. In any case, the tongue should al-

ways be felt in contact with the lower front teeth.

Tips for Vocal Ease

In general, when singing in the upper register or the passaggio, try shifting the vowel up

toward the next closed vowel on the vowel chart for more vocal comfort.

For difficulty in the passaggio with:

Substitutions Examples

try [e] for "man" —> sing m[e]n

try [e] without second vowel for "heaven" —> sing h[e]ven

in diphthong

for "body" —> sing b[o]dy

for "exalted" —>sing exh[o]lted

For [i] and [i], try using the umlauted or mixed vowels from French or German.

[i] try [yj for "dream" -»sing dr[y]m

[i] try [Y] for "hill" —> sing h[v]ll

A Word of Caution

If a vowel is modified or substituted for greater vocal ease, it must be done in such a way

that the vowel change is not discernible to the listener. The listener needs to hear real

vowel sounds and should not have to struggle with a text sung in "singerese." Use the

modifications only in the passaggio or the extreme ranges of the registers. In the middle

range, always use precise and correct vowels.

More suggestions for these vowel modifications can be found in the chapters for the

specific vowel sounds.

Eliminating Glottal Attacks

Before we speak or sing these vowels, let's discuss the way they should be initiated for

optimal vocal health. The initiation of a vowel is called an attack or an onset. In other


words, the attack or onset is the way in which the vowel is started in your throat and

mouth.

RULE AH vowels should be initiated with breath pulses or breath lifts, rather

than by glottal attacks.

When glottal attacks occur, the breath below the opening of the vocal folds does not es-

cape evenly because of tension at the vocal folds. Most English speakers initiate all words

beginning with a vowel with a glottal attack. To isolate the feeling of the tension of the

glottal attack, bring the vocal folds together as though beginning to cough. Habitual use

of harsh glottal attacks may lead to severe vocal problems. In singing, the glottal attack

should be used rarely and purposefully with great caution.

In order to give stress to key words that begin with vowel sounds, breath lifts may be

used to effectively separate the stressed word from the word that precedes it. A breath lift

requires a tuck in at the diaphragm that results in the release of a small jet of air helping

to initiate the separated vowel. One way to easily find the sensation of the breath lift is to

insert the [h] consonant before initial vowels. For example, "earth" would be sounded as

"h-earth."

Of course, starting vowels with a breathy [h] sound is not the ultimate goal. But we do

want to initiate vowels with the sensation of the release of breath that accompanies the

beginning of phonation. For now, however, we need to insert the [h] in order to break the

ingrained habit of harsh glottal attacks.

RULE Break the legato line and use a breath lift only when a primary stressed

word begins with a vowel. Do not break the legato line with a breath lift on un-

stressed words, such as prepositions, conjunctions or pronouns that begin with a

vowel.

E X A M P L E S Break: My [']only hope Her languid ['jeyes

Connect: Getting —> and spending we lay waste —> our powers

37CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels


As they low-ered the bright 'awn - ing At the 'out- door ca - fe

("Early in the Morning," Ned Rorem)

EXERCISE DRILLS FOR GLOTTAL ATTACK ELIMINATION

1. Count slowly to twenty. Concentrate on beginning number 8 and number 18

with breath lifts rather than glottal attacks.

2. Read across the columns, adding a glottal attack [?] to the first column and an [h]

to the words in the second column. Then try to duplicate the sensation of vocal

relaxation in the third column, silencing the [h] and instead using a breath lift ['].

'aim

'owe

'unto

'out

'eye

'under

'awful

'always

[?] = glottal attack

['] = breath lift

EASY ONSET E X E R C I S E S

In the field of speech therapy, glottal attacks are referred to as hard onsets. In other

words, when you start a vowel with a glottal attack you have a hard onset of the vowel.

If you start a vowel on the impulse or lift of the breath, you have an easy onset of the

vowel.

Practice using easy onsets on the stressed words. Final consonants may be shifted over

to an unstressed vowel to avoid glottals on words that are unstressed.

? aim

? owe

? unto

?out

?eye

? under

? awful

? always

^ aim

[ti] OWe

^ unto

^ out

[h] gyg[h] under

w awful[h] always

Modera

'Eat_an 'apple 'every day. 'Oliverând 'Audrey were 'unruly.

'Enjoy the 'opera! 'It was_an 'awful 'accident.

Go 'outsideând smell the 'orchids. Get 'outôf my sight!

'Under 'eye 'ointmentsâre 'oily. 'Eggs with 'olives taste 'awful.

' Honesty and 'integrity _are 'admirable. 'An 'Astin Martinôrâ Bentley

would be 'awfully nice!

Determining Your Optimum Pitch

Another very harmful speech habit a lot of singers have is speaking too far above or below

their optimum pitch. The great American baritone Jerome Hines wrote about vocal fatigue

in his book, Great Singers on Great Singing. He found that his own vocal fatigue was not

from his opera performances but from speaking improperly. His work with a speech ther-

apist led him to interview his colleagues and discuss their personal approach to classical

vocal technique.

Singers are trained ideally to have a three-octave range of optimum pitches when they

sing. But when they speak, there is a fairly narrow optimum pitch range that is best for

their speaking voice. An optimum pitch is a pitch at which the speaker is most physically

comfortable and the voice resonates and projects most easily.

Most of us learned to speak by imitating our parents and caregivers. It is not a coinci-

dence that when visiting our childhood home, we answer our parent's telephones and the

person on the other end exclaims, "Oh, you sound just like your Father/Mother!" Unfor-

tunately, imitating our parents does not mean that we are speaking in the pitch range that

is best for our own voices.

Part of it is also cultural influence. Girls are often encouraged to sound "ladylike" and

have soft, high-pitched voices; boys are encouraged to sound "masculine" and macho.

Often classically trained singers are encouraged to speak in their singing range rather

than their optimum speaking range. I call it the '"Hi, I'm a tenor' syndrome." So, how do

you find where your optimum pitch for speaking is? Gather around the piano with some

friends or colleagues and listen to each other speak.

Ladies:

Start out at middle C. At medium volume repeat a phrase like "Hi! How are you?" on

several pitches. Make sure you are speaking on these pitches and not singing on them.

First try middle C, then go up or down by half steps. Listeners, listen for the pitch that

sounds the most resonant and brings out the most unique quality to their speaking voice.

For most sopranos, the optimum pitch is somewhere between B-flat and D. For a high

39CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels

coloratura, it might be an E. For most mezzos, the optimum pitch range is often between

middle A-flat and C. There may be one or two pitches that seem correct. After a week or

so of using the voice in that range, the speaker will settle in on the one that seems most

natural and comfortable.

Gentlemen:

Start your search around the D below Middle C. Again, repeat a phrase like "Hi, how are

you?" on several pitches. Remember to speak on the pitches; don't sing on them. Go up

and down by half step and listen to the feedback of your listeners. When the voice seems

to resonate naturally and the partials seem to come into the vocal color, then you are close

to the optimum pitch. For tenors, the range is often somewhere between D and F. For

baritones, the range is often between B and D. For basses, A and C. Again, if it is a toss

up between two notes one half step apart, give it a week and see which one ends up being

the best fit for you.

Speaking at Your Optimum Pitch Range

Once you have determined approximately what is your optimum pitch, use a short mem-

orized text to practice with. It could be a speech or prayer or anything that you have by

rote memory. Play your optimum pitch on the piano and start every phrase of your mem-

orized text on that pitch. Try to stay within an interval of a third on either side of your de-

termined optimum pitch. That way, when you naturally inflect your voice you will stay only

a note or two above or below it. Many singers make the mistake of trying to speak with a

wide range. The optimum pitch range is only the range of a perfect fifth or a sixth.

If you begin using your optimum pitch range regularly, you will find that you will have

less vocal fatigue and that you will not have to push your voice to be heard. It is especially

important to use it when speaking on stage or in the midst of a crowd.

Here are some more exercises to work with eliminating glottal attacks while using your

optimum pitch range.

1. Go through the vowels of the Vowel Chart on page 35 in order. Initiate each

vowel with a breath lift. Be careful not to use glottal attacks.

E X A M P L E S Tongue vowels:

Lip vowels:

Mixed vowels:

Now go through all the same vowels above, instead alternating between [m] and a

breath lift ['] before each vowel. Concentrate on staying near your optimum pitch.


CHAPTER THREE Introduction to Vowels

E X A M P L E S

2. Try alternating between breath lifts and glottal attacks on Lady MacBeth's desper-

ate cry in her sleepwalking scene:

'Out damn'd spot! 'Out I say! vs. ?Out darnn'd spot! ?Out I say!

Lines this dramatic are much more effective with glottal attacks. This is an ex-

ample where a breath lift would not be expressive enough. In singing, try to use

glottal attacks only when the dramatic intensity requires it. Otherwise, always

substitute breath lifts to maintain healthier vocalism.

3. Look for five examples in your own repertoire where breath lifts could be substi-

tuted for glottal attacks on stressed word-types beginning with a vowel.

4. Prepare the following poem for dramatic reading. Indicate the stressed word-

types. Practice initiating the stressed words that begin with vowels with breath

lifts. (Note that the breath lifts on the stressed words have been indicated. The

unstressed words should not have glottal attacks.)

Thus Dullness, the safe 'opiate_of the mind,

The last kind refuge weary Wit can find,

Fit for 'all stations, andjn 'each content,

Is satisfied, secure, and 'innocent.

No painsjt takes, and no offencejt gives:

'Unfeared, 'unhated, 'undisturbedJt lives.

And if 'each writing 'author's best pretence

Be but to teach the 'ignorant more sense,

Then Dullness was the cause they wrote before,

As 'tis at last the cause they write no more,

So Wit, which most to scorn Jt does pretend,

With Dullness first began, in Dullness last must 'end.

(Alexander Pope, "On Dullness")

Breath lifts were added before each of the stressed words that begin with a vowel. All

unstressed words that begin with vowels should be initiated with breath lifts if they are

at the beginning of a line, as is the natural onset in a healthy singing technique. Un-

stressed vowels that begin words in the middle of the line should be connected with a

liaison (_) to the word preceding them.

41


CHAPTER FOUR

The Fronting Vowels

[i] Production

The international vowel sound [i], also found in German, Italian, and French, is the high-

est and most forward of the English vowels. It is found in words such as: he, she, need,

peace, scene, people, feat, and receive. The vowel [i] occurs only in stressed syllables.

FIGURE 4.1 [i]

43


Action

Tongue tip on lower front teeth

front of tongue arched forward toward hard palate

sides of tongue touching upper molars

Jaw lower jaw released, loose

no teeth clenching

drop as if yawning

teeth most closed together but must practice producing [i]

with teeth further apart for passaggio and high notes

Lips/Facial Muscles lips horizontal, soft, relaxed

energize cheek muscles surrounding lips and cheek bone area

Pitfalls to Avoid

No glottal attacks.

No "on-off glides." For example, "steal"- stea-(uh)-!, which occurs when [1] is

anticipated.

Be careful not to tense throat muscles, flatten tongue, or grin by pulling lips back at

corners of the mouth.

Avoid nasality when [i] is adjacent to [m] and [n].

Tips for Vocal Ease

In the passaggio or the extremes of the register, try modifying [i] to the umlauted or mixed

vowel [y] for greater vocal ease and more point and focus on the lower notes.

Wil - low, if he once should be re - turn - ing

("Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)

The Lowered [i] Vowel

In Standard American Speech for the Stage and British Received, there is a lowered [i]

vowel used for final unstressed "y" endings as in the words "pretty" and "only." This sound

[y]

CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels 45

is halfway between [i] and [i]. The [i] symbol is used in the IPA for an unstressed mixed

vowel. It was chosen in this book because it is the best visual reminder to de-intensify an

unstressed final "y" ending.

E X A M P L E S daisy [deizi]

beauty [bjuti]

duty [djuti]

carry [kaejt]

daisies [deiztz]

beauties [bjutiz]

duties [djuttz]

carries [kaejtz]

EXERCISES

1. Practice intoning and singing the following words:

2. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the rules above:

merrily

only

sunny

mysteries

very

journey

joyfully

visionaries

melodies

3. Practice examples from vocal texts:

He shall speak peace unto the heathen.

(C. F. Handel, Messiah)

The unstressed prefixes in the third column above should be pronounced with [i] (rule, p. 48).** Avoid off-glides with the letter I.

me

he

she

we

seal**

read

weep

creed

queen

shield**

deceive*

believe*

release*

relieve*

reveal**

achieve

pleasing

people

eagles

yield**

RULE Final unstressed "y" and its plural("-les" endings) should always be sungas[i].

0 sleep, why dost thou leave me?

(G. F. Handel, Semele)

Over the ripening peach

Buzzes the bee

Splash on the billowy beach

Tumbles the sea

But the peach

And the beach

They are each

Nothing to me!

(W. S. Gilbert, Ruddigore)

4. Transcribe the following text and intone/sing it:

1 shall find for you shells and stars,

I shall swim for you river and sea.

Sleep, my love, sleep for me,

My sleep is old.

I shall feed for you lamb and dove.

I shall buy for you sugar and bread.

Sleep, my love, sleep for me

My sleep is dead.

Rain will fall but Baby won't know,

He laughs alone in orchards of gold.

Tears will fall but Baby won't know,

His laughter is blind.

Sleep, my love, for sleep is kind.

Sleep is kind when sleep is young.

Sleep for me, sleep for me.

I shall build for you planes and boats.

I shall catch for you cricket and bee.

Let the old ones watch your sleep.

Only death will watch the old.

Sleep.

(Gian Carlo Menotti, "Lullaby" from The Consuf)



[i] Production

FIGURE 4.2 [i]

The international vowel sound [i] is also found in German, but not in Italian or French. It

is found in both stressed and unstressed syllables.

Compared to [i], the [i] vowel sound is generally shorter in duration. It is found in

stressed positions in words such as: it, been,* build, women, sing, think. It can be found

in unstressed positions such as: beautiful, individual, and all "ing" endings such as:

singing, going, and loving. It is also frequently used as a substitution for the unstressed

[3] schwa vowel, for example, musical, delicate.

Action

Tongue

Lips

Jaw

*AS and weak form in RP/MA [bin].

tip behind lower front teeth

front arched slightly less toward hard palate

sides touching upper molars

horizontal, relaxed

cheek muscles energized

dropped slightly

more open


Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid singing substitution of [i] for [i].

E X A M P L E I love h[i]m not h[i]m

[i] [i] [i] [']She bid me take life easy

Do not let sound fall back in throat.

Do not keep jaw too wide.

Do not keep tongue too slack or arched too low.

Avoid regional substitutions of [e] for [i].

E X A M P L E S [him] not [hem]

[pin] not [pm]

been [bin] not Ben [bm]

Avoid southern off-glides.

E X A M P L E S him

since

Tips for Vocal Ease

In the passaggio and register extremes, try modifying [i] to the mixed German or French

vowel [Y] for greater vocal ease.

Dream - ing

("The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe, Douglas Moore)

as I watch it gleam,

Y y

'-ing'and '-ic' use [I] as well.

RULE The unstressed prefixs or syllables spelled're-','be-','se-','de-','e-',

and 'e' plus a consonant as in the words recive,beleve,select,deceive,elect,

and escape as well as 'Im-' and 'in-'should be sung with[I].The suffixes

CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels

lidPTI0N S 1. When the unstressed syllable Is elongated or at a very slow

tempo, use a full vowel sound, either [I] or [t] as jqdpropifatte

2* The stressed 're-' pref ix, stressing that an action is perfoiwtfed

again, also uses [i]. For example, words like-revisljif

"reconnect"

E X A M P L E S [i] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I]

remember delight excite secure important include singing

Since this vowel sound is found only in the lyric repertoire in English and German, it

often poses difficulties for native speakers of the Romance and Asian Languages. Great

care must be taken to drill and differentiate between the [i] and [i] vowel sounds.

The following is a list for non-native speakers. They are the most frequently found

words that are pronounced with [i]. Memorizing this list should greatly decrease the mis-

taken substitution of [i] for the [i] vowel in at least the most common usages.

Always [i]

it, is, him, with, which, this, since, been,* slip, sing, live, sick,

sin, bid, sit, will, lips, ship, still, win, wing, hit, winter, pity,

wither, whither, miss, lit, lids, give, city, kiss, whisper, pity, riches.

* In RP, "been" has two pronunciations: sf [i] wf [i].

EXERCISES

1. Read aloud the following words alternating, between the [i] and [i] columns:

[I]itch

slip

rid

mill

been

sin

[i]

each

sleep

read

meal

bean

seen

[i]

hitting

filling

bitter

dipper

riches

living

[i]

heating

feeling

beater

deeper

reaches

leaving

49


2. Transcribe the following song text into IPA using care to differentiate between the

[i] and [i] vowels. Then read and sing it aloud:

Down by the Sally Gardens my love and I did meet,

She passed the Sally Gardens with little snow white feet.

She bid me take love easy, as the leaves grow on the tree

But I being young and foolish with her did not agree.

In a field by the river, my love and I did stand,

And on my leaning shoulder she laid her snow white hand;

She bid me take life easy as the grass grows on the weirs,

But I was young and foolish and, now am full of tears.

(W. B. Yeats, Traditional)

3. Transcribe the following words into IPA observing the prefix rules above:

4. Transcribe the following text in IPA and practice speaking/singing it using care to

differentiate the [i] and [i] vowels:

"If with all your hearts ye truly seek me,

Ye shall ever surely find me," Thus saith our God.

Oh! that I knew where I might find Him,

That I might even come before His presence!

(Felix Mendelssohn, Elijah)

[s] Production

The international vowel [e] appears in varied versions in Italian, German, and French. It

is found in stressed syllables like in the words: wed, many, bury, friend, head, guest, any,

says, said, and saith (saith is archaic form of said, the past tense of "to say" and is pro-

nounced as [se0]). It is also a frequent substitute for the unstressed [a] vowel.

50

decision

restore

begun

secure

erode

enjoy

deserve

rejoice

belittle

seduce

event

enhance

delightful

respond

behavior

seclusion

elusive

exaggerate


FIGURE 4.3 [e]

Action

Tongue

Lips

Jaw

tip in contact with lower front teeth

front of tongue less arched toward soft palate

lowest of lip vowels to still have contact with upper molars

relaxed, slightly spread

cheeks still energized

lower than for [i] or [ei] diphthong

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid tense tongue, lips, or mouth.

Avoid glottal attacks.

Avoid off-glides: [heed] for head [hed].

Avoid nasal Midwestern twang.

E X A M P L E S many—not [mini] but [mmt]

any—not [int] but [eni]


Tips for Vocal Ease

If the [e] spreads in the passaggio, try closing to a more closed [e], as in the first vowel of

the diphthong [ei]. Be careful to just sing [e] and not add the second [i] vowel.

Larghetto e piano [e

He shall feed His flock like a shep - - - herd

("He Shall Feed His Flock" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

EXERCISES

1 . Practice intoning/singing the following words:

get

met

well

said

death

wed

let

tell

saith

breath

bed

next

quell

says

bells

head

send

quest

fetch

heaven

guest

gentle

bury

weather

whether

2. Transcribe and practice reading the following text:

I attempt from Love's sickness to fly in vain,

Since I am myself my own fever and pain,

No more now, no more now,

Fond heart, with pride no more swell:

Thou canst not raise forces enough to rebel

(Henry Purcell, from The Indian Queen)

Avoid American Southern substitution of [i] for [e].

E X A M P L E S pencil—not

forget—not

but

but


3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA and practice with care the [t] vowel sounds:

Low as the singer lies

In a field of heather,

Songs of his fashion bring

the swains together.

And when the west is red

With the sunset embers,

The lover lingers and sings,

And the maid remembers.

(Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Bright Is the Ring of Words")

[ae] Production

The vowel [ae] is a distinctively English vowel that is not found in German, Italian, or

French. A long vowel sound in duration, it is the most common stressed vowel in English.

In American Standard pronunciation, all [ae] vowels are pronounced alike.

FIGURE 4.4 [ae]


Because the [ae] vowel does not exist in the other lyric languages, it is often over-

looked and seldom vocalized. A well produced [ae] can be a very beautiful sound.

Action

Tongue tip in contact with lower front teeth

front arched less than for [e]

sides of tongue aligned with lower molars

first vowel to be in contact with lower teeth

Lips released, not spread

cheeks still energized

Jaw more open than for [e]

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not stretch lips against teeth.

Do not pull back corners of mouth.

Do not tighten tongue muscles under chin.

Do not nasalize by directing vowel through nose.

Do not substitute [a] for [ae] vowel—it sounds affected

E X A M P L E S hand:

man:

not [hand]

not [man]

Be careful not to produce flat, nasal sound when adjacent to nasal consonants.

E X A M P L E S hands, lands, sang, dance

Avoid Midwestern regional substitution of [e] for [ae]

E X A M P L E S tarry

marry

not terry

not merry

Tips for Vocal Ease

For greater comfort in the passaggio and high range, modify [ae] to [e]. Be sure to really

sing a true [ae] in the middle range, or else the listener can hear that the vowel has been

modified and your diction will sound artificial.

CHAPTER FOUR The Fronting Vowels

EXERCISES

1. Practice intoning/singing the following words, avoiding nasality:

bag magic hallowed understand

2. If you find that you are tempted to substitute [E] for [ae], which is common pro-

nunciation for many people who live in areas of North America, practice the

following words using the correct [ae] pronunciation:

arrow

marry

Arab

carry

marriage

Carol

charity

narrow

Harry

embarrass

paradise

Paris

3. Practice maintaining an [a?] vowel without nasalization when in close proximity

with nasal consonants:

Repeat:

had/had/hand bad/bad/band

sad/sad/sand cad/cad/candy

lad/lad/land mad/mad/mandate

glad/glad/gland gad/gad/gander

Review of Front Vowels

Repeat the following words, carefully differentiating between the various vowel sounds:

cat

hat

sad

than

hand

man

valley

lamb

land

stand

happy

capture

passion

matter

balance

rapture

55

[i]bean

read

feast

seat

Pete

peel

keen

[i]been

rid

fist

sit

pit

pill

kin

[ei]bane

raid

faced

sate

pate

pail

cane

[E]

Ben

red

fest

set

pet

Pell

Ken

[a]ban

rad

fast

sat

pat

pal

can


The same approach can be helpful with finding the mouth position for [i]:

[i] . .. [i] , . . [e] or [e] ... [i] ... [i]

Although [a] is neither considered a fronting nor a backing vowel, it will be included

here because of the physiological sequence of the vowel chart.

[a] Production

The [a] vowel is the most favored sound in singing internationally. It is found in various

forms in Italian, French, German, Russian, and so on. It is the most open of all English

vowels. In American Standard, it is found in words such as: father, God, calm, hot, and

doctor. In RP and MA, the words spelled with "o," God, not, honour, are pronounced with

[D]. See page 217.

FIGURE 4.5 [a]

If you experience difficulty in finding the [ae] vowel easily, practice drilling back and

forth between the adjacent vowels on the vowel chart:

It is a long vowel in duration. In the United States, [o] is often substituted in areas of

Germanic immigration; and [D] is often heard in New England and the Eastern seaboard.

Action

Tongue tip on lower front teeth

body of tongue lying in lowest position

front of tongue fiat, middle still slightly arched

Lips relaxed, no specifications

no protrusion toward [o]

cheeks still lifted and energized

Jaw most relaxed, lowest vertical drop

Pitfalls to Avoid

No pressure under chin.

Do not press tongue down.

Do not protrude lips—results in [o] vowel.

No lip rounding or tensing lips.

No off-glides to [9] vowel—for example, calm not [ko(9)m].

Avoid [a] or [D] substitutions in AS.

Tips for Vocal Ease

Try singing [a] with [Y] placement if the [a] poses problems in the passaggio. Again, to

the listener, this vowel must always sound exact and not Italianate or artificial.

EXERCISES

1. Intone/sing the following words focusing on [a] for AS pronunciation:

*While many regionalisms may pronounce the letter "I," it is in fact silent in all neutral pronun-ciations (AS, RP, and MA).


body

doctor

got

Robert

Psalm*

not

John

box

common

collar

calm*

upon

bomb

shock

Tom

motto

palm*

on

accomplish

possibility

problem

popcorn

balmy*

God


If the [a] pronunciation on these "o" spellings seems very foreign to your regional

pronunciation, keep a list of [a] words for frequent reference.

2. Transcribe the following text into American Standard Pronunciation IPA and prac-

tice intoning/singing it:

Sure on this shining night

Of star made shadows round,

Kindness must watch for me

This side the ground.

The late year lies down the north.

All is healed,

All is health.

High summer holds the earth.

Hearts all whole.

Sure on this shining night

I weep for wonder.

Wand'ring far alone

Of shadows on the stars.

(James Agee / Samuel Barber, "Sure on This Shining Night")

58

CHAPTER FIVE

The Backing Vowels

[u]/[ju] Production

The vowel sounds [u] and [ju] are related in English. The vowel [u] appears in German,

Italian, and French, though the European version has more intensity. The vowel [ju] is

found only in English. The vowel [u] is found in the words: too, wound, blue, juice; [ju]

in the words: view, beautiful, usual, music.

FIGURE 5.1 [u]/[ju]

59


Action

Tongue tip touching lower front teeth

back of tongue arched toward soft palate

sides of tongue in contact with upper molars

for [ju]-movement begins with [j] glide position—

sides in contact with inner surface of upper teeth,

then glides forward as it merges with [u]

Lips round, smallest circular shape

lip rounding essential to accurate production

the rounder the lip contour, the higher the tongue arch

Jaw mouth opening and jaw very small vertically

wide opening in center of mouth between tongue and hard palate

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not arch tongue too high in back.

Do not hold tongue/jaw too stiffly—muffles sound.

Do not nasalize [u] when adjacent to m, n—moon, fume.

Do not form vowel in throat—squeezed and guttural.

Avoid regional substitution of [o] for [u].

E X A M P L E S

Avoid off-glides with 1.

E X A M P L E S

[ju] PRONUNCIATION: THE LIQUID U

Certain words often spelled "u" or "ew" can have two different pronunciations—

either [u] or [ju]. The words "duty" and "duke" can be pronounced either

[dutt] or [djuti], [duk] or [djuk]. The second pronunciation, commonly called

the Liquid U, is considered preferable when singing art song, oratorio, and opera

and is the only pronunciation for RP and MA. Of course, there are exceptional cir-

cumstances. In North American songs with a juvenile text or colloquial flavor, the

[ju] sounds too stuffy.

roof:

root:

not

not

not

not

fool [ful]

school [skul]

CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels

The words with two possible pronunciations usually contain the English

spellings "u," "ew," "eu," or "ue" and are preceded by one of the following con-

sonants: d, n, I, s, t, or th.

Below is a list of the most commonly used of these words:

d duty, duly, due, dew, duke, endure, induce, duplicate

n new, knew, renew, news, nuisance, numerous, nuclear*

I lute, alluring, illusion, elude, prelude, interlude

s suitor, pursuit, assume, consume, presume, resume

t tune, Tuesday, tumult, student, stupid, gratitude, multitude, astute, tutor

th enthuse, enthusiasm

Exceptions to these spellings are words that should be pronounced with [u]

only: blue, blew, clue, include, exclude, flute, flew, flue, glue, plume, slew, and

words spelled with "u" but that have an [A] pronunciation: dumb, numb, lung,

sung, tumble, thunder, and so on.

[ju] only: There are some words not listed that always use the [ju] pronuncia-

tion. The most common of them are:

music, amuse, huge, few, cure, imbued, human, Hugh,

humility, humorous, excuse, calculate, refute, future,

beautiful, mute, value, hue, unison, university, unit,

usurp, community

* Nuclear is often mispronounced in the United States asdard pronunciation is

EXERCISES

1. Practice intoning/singing the following words containing [u] vowel:

* Avoid off-glide [9] by not anticipating [1].

61

The American Stan-or

too

through

fruit

roof

gloom

June

school*

cool

lose

moon

choose

soothe

bruise

fool*

blue

who

noon

glue

tomb

peruse

tool*

blew

whom

flute

flew

wounded

recruit

cool*


2. Practice making the distinction between [u] and [ju] in the following words:

stoop —> stupid noon -> new

two -> tune do -» dew

pooh —» pew who —> hue

coo -> cue flute -»lute*

3. Transcribe and recite the following text:

I have wished a bird would fly away

And not sing round my house all day.

I have clapped my hands at him from the door

When it seemed as if I could bear no more.

The fault must partly have been in me,

The bird was not to blame for his key.

And besides there must be something wrong

In wanting to silence any song.

(Robert Frost / Celius Dougherty, "A Minor Bird")**

4. Transcribe the following song text:

Slowly, silently, now the moon

Walks the night in her silver shoon;

This way, and that, she peers, and sees

Silver fruit upon silver trees;

And moveless fish in the water gleam,

By silver reeds in a silver stream.

(Walter de la Mare / John Duke, "Silver")


See how they love me,

Green leaf, gold grass,

Swearing my blue wrists

Tick and are timeless.

See how it woos me,

*ln AS and Historic RP/MA, [ljut], in Modern RP/MA, [lut].

**From "A Minor Bird" in The Poetry of Robert Frost, edited by Edward Connery Lathem. Copy-right 1928, 1969 by Henry Holt and Company. Copyright 1956 by Robert Frost. Reprinted bypermission of Henry Holt and Company, LLC.

62

CHAPTER FIVE The Backing Vowels 63

Old sea, blue sea,

Curving a half moon

Round to surround me.

Yet you rebuke me,

O love, I only pursue,

See how they love me.

(Howard Moss / Ned Rorem, "See How They Love Me")

[u] Production

The vowel [u] is a very characteristic vowel in English that is considered short in dura-

tion. It appears in German, but not in Italian or French. In English, it can be found in

stressed words such as: good, could, book, full, bosom, cushion; or in unstressed positions

as a substitute for [9]: fulfill, joyful, supreme, today.

FIGURE 5.2 [u]


Action

Tongue tip behind lower front teeth

back of tongue arched toward soft palate but lower than for [u]

Lips rounded but less firm than [u]

cheeks energized

Jaw slightly dropped from [u] position

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid pushing from throat with guttural sound.

Avoid drawled, off-glides: put-

pull

Avoid substitution of [u] for [u]—sounds foreign

E X A M P L E S put:

pull:

look:

The vowel [u] is frequently difficult for singers because it is rarely vocalized and

therefore is often distorted or substituted with [u]. As with the [ae] vowel, [u] must be

drilled and vocalized in order to easily produce the beautiful English vowel it can be.

E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice alternating between the [u] and [u] sounds in the words listed below:

[o]pull

stood

could

would

full

should

cook

hood

[u]

pool

stewed

cooed

wooed

fool

shoed

kook

who'd

not [put]

not [pul]

not [luk]

3. Transcribe and intone the following text:

Oh, sweet and lovely lady, be good!

Oh, lady be good to me!

I am so awf'ly misunderstood,

So lady, be good to me.

Oh, please have some pity,

I'm all alone in this big city,

I tell you I'm just a lonesome

babe in the wood,

So lady be good to me!

(Ira Gershwin and George Gershwin, "Oh, Lady Be Good!")*

*OH, Lady Be GOOD! Music and Lyrics by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin. © 1924WBMusic Corp. (Renewed) Gershwin®, George Gershwin® and Ira Gershwin™ are trademarksof Gershwin Enterprises. All Rights Reserved. Used by kind permission.

[o] Production

The sound [o] represents the vowel in an unstressed syllable like in the word "obey."

When it is found in a stressed position, it becomes the diphthong [ou]. This single pure

vowel appears in German, Italian, and French; the diphthong does not.

Action

Tongue tip on contact with lower front teeth

back arched halfway between [u] and [o]

Lips rounded, with larger circle than for [u]

Mouth quite open

jaw released

cheeks lifted and energized

full

put

push

fulfill

wood

book

foot

wool

good

stood

crooked

forsook

look

would

wolf

woman


2. Practice speaking/intoning the following words:


FIGURE 5.3 [o]

More detail will be given on this vowel as it appears within the diphthong [ou] later in

this text. Listed below are words that contain the unstressed [o] vowel as a [9] substitute.

[D] Production

A characteristic, long English vowel, [o] also appears in Italian, German, and French in

shorter versions. For singing, it should be a very long "aw"-shaped vowel, as opposed to

the shorter versions of the European languages. It is found in words such as: saw, caught,

daughter, broad, office, walking, call, and sought.

obey

omit

police

polite

provide

protect

profound

pronounce

melody

desolate

indolent

omnipotent


The English spellings for [o] in American Standard pronunciation are:

In RP, the [o] is actually a more closed, raised vowel than its AS counterpart. To no-

tate the difference in this vowel, it will be written as [c]. See chapter 14 for the produc-

tion of [c].

FIGURE 5.4

* The "t" in "often" is not sounded in AS, RP, or MA. It is, however, sounded in several regional dialects.

al

aw

augh

ough

ong

off/of

OSS

ost

as in

as in

as in

as in

as in

as in

as in

as in

all, call

awe, awful

caught, daughter

bought, thought

song, long

off, often*, soft

cross, loss

lost, cost


Action

Tongue tip in contact with lower front teeth

back arch slightly lower than for [o]

lowest arch of all the lip vowels

sides of tongue in contact with lower molars

Lips protruded forward

lips far apart, narrowed at corners

Jaw dropped as much as for [a]

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not change lip shape during production.

Do not tense back of tongue.

Do not substitute [a] for [o] — a common U.S. regionalism.

Tips for Vocal Ease

The vowel [o] can be closed to [o] in the passaggio and for melismatic settings of this

vowel. It keeps the vowel from spreading in the passaggio. It also conserves breath, which

makes it easier to negotiate the run.

E X A M P L E S

Do not substitute a Brooklyn accent for

E X A M P L E S dog

office

not

not

water

thought

broad not

not

not

E X A M P L E S

Do not substitute the RP vowel—[c] for

water

thought

broad

not

not

not


[o

shall be ex - alt

ed

("Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice intoning/singing the following words with [D] for AS or [c] for RP:

2. Transcribe and practice the following song text in AS:

Sleep falls, with limpid drops of rain,

Upon the steep cliffs of the town.

Sleep falls; men are at peace again

While the small drops fall softly down.

The bright drops ring like bells of glass

Thinned by the wind and lightly blown;

Sleep cannot fall on peaceful grass

So softly as it falls on stone.

Peace falls unheeded on the dead

Asleep; they have had peace to drink;

Upon a live man's bloody head

It falls most tenderly, I think

(Elinor Wylie / John Duke, "Bells in the Rain")

all

exalt

walk

always

Paul

because

applaud

autumn

exhaust

Saul

awe

jaw

awful

awning

caution

daughter

aught

taught

withdraw

water

o - lted]

3. Practice the following text in Historic RP:

Unlearned he in aught

Save that which love has taught. . .

I am the lowliest tar

That sails the water,

And you, proud maiden, are

The captain's daughter.

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From H.M.S. Pinafore)

[D] Production

The vowel [D] is a short open o vowel. This vowel is found in words with an "o" spelling,

as in "honest," "on," "upon," "not," "opera" in RP and is heard regionally throughout North

America. It is the lowest of the tongue vowel sounds that has lip rounding. The vowel sound

is halfway between [a] and [D]. The position is most easily found by saying [a] while

slightly rounding the lips.

This vowel is heard on the Eastern Seaboard and several parts of North America, in-

fluenced historically by British immigration patterns. It is somewhat controversial as to

whether this vowel usage is considered standard for neutral American speech. Since this

vowel is not used in American broadcast speech, it will not be used in this book for Amer-

ican Standard pronunciation. Details about its production and use can be found in chap-

ters 14 and 15.


CHAPTER SIX

The Mixed Vowels

Production

The vowels [A] and [9] are stressed and unstressed counterparts of the same vowel. A

distinctly neutral English vowel sound, [A] and [9] do not appear in German, Italian, or

French. The [A] sound is always heard in stressed syllables of strong word-types, while

[9], the weaker form, is heard in unstressed syllables and weak word-types. The vowel po-

FIGURE6.1

71

* Although the RP variant of [A] is more frontal and in the placement of [a], it should never be discernedas a fully pronounced [a]. See chapter 14.


Tips for Vocal Ease

If the [A] falls back in placement, try modifying it more toward [a]. Again, the listener

must hear a real [A] vowel and not an Italianate version of it. Remember the four substi-

tutions for the unstressed schwa [a] vowel are [i], [o], [u], and [e]. Depending upon the

vocal setting, experiment with these substitute vowels to find the one that sings the best.

Remember, it must sound natural and not artificial.

E X A M P L E S just not or

Avoid regional substitution of [i] or [e] for

Do not tighten muscles under chin.

Do not permit vowel to lodge in throat.

Avoid starting with throaty, hard glottal attack.

Do not open jaw too wide—becomes I you.*

IDo not round lips—becomes you.

Pitfalls to Avoid

Action

Tongue tip touching lower front teeth

central in mouth

tongue slightly arched in same position as [o]

Lips neutral without rounding

no spread of lips as with [a]

Jaw released, vertical drop

same position and drop for [o] and [ae]

sition (stressed or unstressed) determines the IPA symbol, but the only difference in sound

is the amount of intensity given to each vowel. They are considered mixed vowels because

their physiological formation employs elements of both the lip and tongue vowels. The

vowel [A] is found in the stressed syllable of words such as: love, hum, blood, trouble,

covet, judge, among, humble, summer, and sudden. The vowel [9] is found in the un-

stressed syllable of words such as: alone, attempt, among, sofa, heaven, nation, joyous,

sudden, and maiden.

The "Un-" Prefix

When the stressed prefix "un-" is found in words, it denies and reverses the meaning of

the word, for example, undo, unsung, unkind, and so on. Therefore, [A] is used phoneti-

cally to encourage the singer to give this prefix its due stress and hence make it a double-

stressed word.

In unstressed "un-" spellings, as in the words "until" and "unless," use the schwa [9].

The versus The versus The

RU LI The word "the" should be sung [89] before an unvoiced consonant, [6*4

before a voiced consonant, and [6i] before a vowel.

the lake the depths

W D3the interest the awe

raE X A M P L E The vowels of the text should be supported with the air flow.

Exception: When the word "the" is set on an elongated note, do not use [o] but

only [a] before a word beginning with a consonant andfj] before a word begin-

ning with a vowel.

[i]the earth

the men

the thought the sense the form

E X A M P L E S unkind

unhappy

unloved

undone

CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels 73

RULE Use for all stressed "un" prefixes.


EXERCISES

1. Write the following words in IPA and practice singing/intoning them:

just mother love money

much blood come young

won such us punish

cup brother some touch

sun was utterly judgment

2. The following words contain both [A] and [9]; transcribe them into IPA and prac-

tice singing/intoning them, giving each its appropriate intensity:

3. Transcribe the following song text into IPA:

The sun has fallen and it lies in blood.

The moon is weaving bandages of gold.

O black swan, where is my lover gone?

Torn and tattered is my bridal gown,

And my lamp is lost.

With silver needles and with silver thread,

The stars stitch a shroud for the dying sun.

O black swan, where has my lover gone?

(Gian Carlo Menotti, "The Black Swan" from The Medium)

4. Transcribe the following song text into IPA in colloquial American (see glossary,

p. 292):

What's the use of wondrin if he's good or if he's bad,

Or if you like the way he wears his hat?

He's your feller and you love him.

That's all there is to that.

(Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein,"What's the Use of Wond'rin'" from Carousel)

74

husband

hubbub

among

shovel

above

ruffian

judgment

loveliest

onion

abutment

cultivate

trouble

CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels 75

Production

FIGURE 6.2

Many singers are very hesitant to use this vowel in their English repertoire. When pro-

duced correctly, it is a very beautiful vowel sound similar to the [os] in French and the [0]

in German. Since it is part of the American Standard English pronunciation, it is very

much an integral sound of the language and therefore should be used. The vowels

the reduced r-colored variants used in RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects, will be discussed in

chapter 14.

The vowels are distinctly American Standard vowels. They do not appear in French,

vowels, the only

nant,

German, or Italian, or in RP or Mid-Atlantic dialects. Although related to the "r" conso-

are considered r-colored vowels. The vowel is always used in a stressed

syllable or word-type and is found in words such as: girl, verse, surge, journey, learn, and

rehearse. The vowel is used for unstressed syllables and is often found at the ends of

words such as: father, doctor, vulgar, over, and vapor. As with the

audible difference is in the intensity of the vowel.


Action

Tongue like all other vowels, tip remains down in contact with lower front

teeth

if tongue rises, curls backwards, and inverts toward throat, a mangled

sound is produced

middle of tongue arches similar to [e] position

sides in contact with upper molars

Lip rounded but not tense

rounding similar to [o] position

Jaw relaxed, steady

does not move during execution

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not initiate vowel with tongue-tip raised.

Do not permit tongue to curl backward.

Do not trill r's: very foreign-sounding, not American English.

Do not twang r's: commonly heard in Pennsylvania and the Western United States.

Do not reduce r colors: New England/British pronunciation—bird [b3rd]

the sub-standard New York pronunciation—bird [boid]

retroflex r twang—bird: "brrrrrd"

Tips for Vocal Ease

If the [3 ] vowels feel constricted, sing [e] and focus on the [e] tongue arch position

without rounding the lips. It is half of the position that produces these vowels. It also

helps to try singing [ce], which is the slightly more open French equivalent of these

vowels.

E X A M P L E Shall we gather by the river.

CHAPTER SIX The Mixed Vowels

EXERCISES

1. Transcribe the following words into IPA and practice the appropriate

pronunciation:

3. Transcribe the following aria in AS or modern MA:

Things change, Jo: Things change.

You're a babe at the breast,

You're a daughter by the fire,

You have all the love you think you could desire,

Still, Things change, Jo,

And, oh, what happens when they do?

Your heart, Jo, your heart.

It's a bird in the nest with its head beneath its wing,

Half asleep, it cannot know it wants a thing,

Still, Your heart, Jo, I know will dream of something new:

Something that blurred, that broke within me,

A secret word, who was it? spoke within me:

She loves her mother, loves her father,

Her sisters of course, But wants her John.

77

earth

girl

berth

ever

perhaps

heard

mercy

diverse

mother

master

surge

err

third

ledger

actor

work

rehearse

iron

misery

comfortable

2. Transcribe the following bi-syllabic words containing both and

merger

Herbert

murder

server

perverted

murmur

learner

worker

burner

fervor

You're a rosebud in the night,

You're a blossom in the morn,

You're unmade by that light, yet reborn:

Things change, And oh! One day, my Jo,

I wish only that things change the same way for you.

(Mark Adamo, "Things Change" from Little Women)

4. Transcribe and intone/sing the following song text in AS:

At the cry of the first bird

They began to crucify Thee, O swan!

Never shall lament cease because of that,

It was like the parting of day from night.

Ah! sore was the suffering born,

By the body of Mary's Son,

But sorer still to Him was the grief

That for his sake came upon His mother.

(Samuel Barber, "The Crucifixion" from The Hermit Songs')


CHAPTER SEVEN

Diphthongs

A diphthong, pronounced [difGorj], is a sound composed of two consecutive vowels in the

same syllable. It comes from the Greek word di, meaning "two," andphthongos, meaning

"sounds." Since the majority of words in English contain diphthongs, it is very important

that we learn to treat them correctly. The pronunciation of the diphthongs varies a great

deal in the various regional dialects. Therefore, our first task is to standardize the pronun-

ciation of them. Even if singers may pronounce them accurately in speech, they often dis-

tort the vowels or drop the second vowel when singing. In every diphthong, the first vowel

must be sustained, and the second vowel added at the very last moment. Even when the

diphthong is to be sung over several notes, the first vowel is sung on all the notes and the

second vowel is sung at the end of the very last note.

GENERAL RULES FOR DIPHTHONGS

1. There should be no break between the two vowels. After the first vowel is

sustained, it blends Into the second vowel,

2. The change from one vowel to the next should be almost imperceptible.

3. There should be very little movement of the articulators during the produc-

tion of the compound vowel,

4. The first vowel is sustained with the second sung at the very last moment

5. When the diphthong is sung on more than one note, the firstvowel Is sus-

tained on all the notes, with the second vowel added at the very end.

6. There is a tendency to lose pitch during the glide to the second vowel, Work

to achieve level pitch with added support for second vowel,

79

The phonetic spellings of the diphthongs listed above may seem different from the way

they are pronounced in spoken English, particularly spoken regional American English.

There is good reason for this. The initial primary vowels have been purposely opened for

easier articulation when singing.

In speech, the secondary vowels of the first list of diphthongs are also pronounced [i]

and [u]. These have been opened to [i] and [u] in order to facilitate less movement of the

lips and jaw when singing. Similarly, [i] and [u] are used in speech as the initial vowel of

the diphthongs with "r colorings." The initial primary vowels may seem more open than

in colloquial American speech.

E X A M P L E

Singing them as written makes it easier to articulate both adjacent vowel sounds and not

anticipate and twang on the r coloring. They have been opened so that they are more re-

laxed, and also closer physiologically on the vowel chart to the secondary vowel, which

makes them easier to produce with less vocal tension.

Tips for Vocal Ease

For all the diphthongs, check the tips section for each individual vowel for suggestions. It

is very important to be very precise with the shape of the first vowel. The [o] vowel of [ou]

should not spread to [o]. If it does, "no" could sound like "now" and be very confusing

for the listener. It should also never be sung [QU] as in spoken RP, except in Gilbert and

*The r-colored diphthongs in the second column above are unique to American Standard pronunciation.The reduced r-colored diphthongs used in RP and MA pronunciation are listed below:


The diphthongs of American Standard are listed below:

air, care, there*

ear, fear, here*

pour, soar, o'er*

sure, poor, tour*

are, heart, garden*

night, buy

day, break

joy, voice

no, go, slow

now, doubt, about

These are discussed in depth on page 221.

CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs 81

Sullivan or some musicals requiring it. The [e] of [ei] must be closed. All the diphthongs

are easier to sing if you really sing the vowels as precisely as they are written in IPA.

The second vowel has been purposely opened up, [i] and [u]; to make it closer in po-

sition to the first vowel. Be sure to sustain the first vowel and sound the second only as you

are phrasing off the note.

Also note that the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs has been opened up in order

to avoid anticipating and twanging on the r coloring.

[ai] Production

The diphthong [ai] is found in the English words: light, smile, delight, silence, divine, be-

guile, aisle, isle. It is spelled with a bright [a] symbol that is not found in English as a

single stressed vowel sound. As a single vowel, only [a] exists in English. The vowel [a]

is used because of its adjacency to [i], making the "a" vowel brighter and with a higher

tongue arch.

FIGURE 7.1 [ai]


Action

Tongue

Lips

Mouth

sides of tongue against lower molars

tongue moves upward and forward toward the upper molars for [i]

released

minimal movement

mouth contour does not change when going to [i]

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not add [i] instead of [i] for second vowel.

Avoid regionalisms

• Eastern/British: sky [skai] not [skoi] or [skAi] Modern RP

• Southern: substituting [9] or [e] for [i]

E X A M P L E spite [spait]

dropping [i] altogether

not

E X A M P L E S fine [fain] not [fa:n]

blind [blaind] not [bla:nd]

• avoid nasality when diphthong is followed by a nasal consonant

E X A M P L E S mine, time, find, sign, rhyme, and so on

Remember always to sustain the first vowel in a diphthong and put the second vowel on

at the end.

Moderately Slow ( J1 = 76)mp

[a - - - - ai3

a tempo

("Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs, Aaron Copland)

er than snow

or

rit.

BrightWhere the rock threw back the bil-low

CHAPTER SEVEN Diphthongs

DRILL

Practice the following words, taking care not to allow the diphthongs followed by nasal

consonants to become nasal.

my

fie

die

lie

my

fie

die

lie

mine

find

dine

lime

tie

sigh

kite

buy

tie

sigh

kite

buy

time

sign

kind

bind

EXERCISES

1. Transcribe and drill the following words:

sigh

right

twice

rise

guide

mile

pile

I'm

beguile

triumph

finite

subside

diary

certify

bicycle

island

daylight

license

diamond

biography

2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP or MA:

Drink to me only with thine eyes,

And I will pledge with mine;

Or leave a kiss but in the cup

And I'll not look for wine.

The thirst that from the soul doth rise

Doth ask a drink divine;

But might I of Jove's nectar sup,

I would not change for thine.

(Ben jonson, arr. Roger Quilter, "Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" )

3. Transcribe and intone the following text in colloquial American:

Buddy on the nightshift! I hope you slept all day,

Until the moon came out and woke you up and sent you away.

Hello there buddy on the nightshift, I hope you feel fine!

I left a lot of work for you to do on the assembly line.

(Kurt Weill, "Buddy on the Nightshift" from Lunchtime Follies)

83


[ei] Production

The diphthong [ei] is found in the words: fate, day, ancient, afraid, proclaim, and so on.

Often this diphthong is written phonetically as [ei]. It is preferable to use the closed vowel

[e] in singing. When the open [e] is sung, it often causes a spread and diffused vocal tone.

The [e] is especially helpful when singing in the upper register and passaggio.

FIGURE 7.2 [ei]

Action

Tongue

Lips

Mouth

front arched—sides aligned with upper molars

sides of tongue rise and front arches for [i]

unrounded—horizontal throughout entire production

do not change mouth opening or jaw while enunciating vowels

Pitfalls to Avoid

Use care not to spread the first vowel; [e] can easily incorrectly modify to [e] or [ae].

This vowel seems to open more in Modern RP, toward [ei]; keep it [e] in singing.

E X A M P L E save [seiv] not [SEIV]


EXERCISES

1. Drill the following words:

fate rage vain reign

day great maid obey

lace face disdain grateful

betray they radiant proclaim

2. Transcribe and intone the following song text in Historic RP:

The sun whose rays are all ablaze in ever living glory,

Does not deny his majesty but scorns to tell a story.

He won't exclaim "I blush for shame" so kindly be indulgent.

But fierce and bold in fiery gold he glories all effulgent.

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, "The Sun Whose Rays" from The Mikado)

3. Transcribe and intone the following text in AS:

Quaint name—Ann Street.

Width of same—Ten feet.

Barnum's mob—Ann Street,

Far from obsolete.

Narrow, yes. Ann Street

But business, Both feet.

Sun just hits Ann Street,

Then it quits—Some greet!

Rather short, Ann Street. . .

(Maurice Morris/Charles Ives, "Ann Street")

The vowel [e] should be produced with relaxed tongue base.

Do not anticipate an [1] by switching [9] for [ij.

E X A M P L E fail [feil] not [feal]

Don't close [e] so much that it sounds like [i].

E X A M P L E fate [feit] not feet [fit]

say [sei] not see [si]

85


[DI] Production

The diphthong [01] is found in the words: joy, voice, avoid, boisterous.

FIGURE 7.3 [01]

Action

Tongue

Lips

Mouth

back arched toward soft palate

arches gradually toward hard palate or [i]

oval shape

minimal movement

open vertically

jaw remains flexible and steady

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not protrude lips too much for [o] or spread sides of mouth excessively for [i].

Do not separate two vowels—it should be a continuous sound.


Do not let pitch fluctuate during diphthong pattern—keep support firm.

Do not omit second vowel.

E X A M P L E joy[d3Di] notjaw[d3D]

Do not substitute [a] for [o].

E X A M P L E boys [bDiz] not buys [baiz]

Tips for Vocal Ease

In the passaggio and with [01] vowels set melismatically, close the vowel down to [o].

87

greatly,

("Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

EXERCISES


joy

toil

choice

enjoy

voice

noise

join

oyster

rejoice

royal

embroil

sirloin

destroy

employ

poignant

disappoint

2. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP:

When first my old, old love I knew,

My bosom welled with joy;

rejoice.

ois]

[o

88

My riches at her feet I threw—

I was a love-sick boy!

No terms seemed too extravagant

Upon her to employ—

I used to mope, and sigh, and pant,

just like a love-sick boy!

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From Trial by jury)

3. Transcribe and practice the following text in Historic RP or MA:

Rejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion,

Shout, O daughter of Jerusalem:

Behold thy King cometh unto thee:

He is the righteous Saviour,

And He shall speak peace unto the heathen.

(G. F. Handel, "Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah}

4. Transcribe the following text in AS:

On the lake where droop'd the willow,

Long time ago

Where the rock drew back the billow,

Brighter than snow.

Dwelt a maid beloved and cherish'd,

By high and low.

But with autumn leaf she perish'd,

Long time ago.

Rock and tree and flowing water,

Long time ago.

Bird and bee and blossom taught her

Love's spell to know.

While to my fond words she listen'd,

Murmuring low.

Tenderly her blue eyes glisten'd,

Long time ago.

(Aaron Copland, "Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs)



[ou] Production

The [ou] vowel is found in such English words as: no, oh, role, though, shoulder, roam,

and reproach. It is found in all stressed words and syllables pronounced with the "o"

vowel sound and in the unstressed final syllables as in window, piano, sorrow, and so on.

As a schwa substitute in all other unstressed positions, the monophong [o] is used.

FIGURE 7.4 [ou]

RULE Always diphthongize "o" spellings in:

1. Words or exclamations of one syllable.

EXAMPLE Oh! O, no, go, road

2, Words of more than one syllable where the V syllable receives stress.

EXAMPLE devotion, suppose, open, sotdier

90

Action

Tongue back raised in [o] position

minimal movement when gliding to [u]

Lips rounded

outer contour should not change for [u]

Mouth jaw released

no movement during production

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid regional habit of modifying [ou] to [ou] or [su]*

E X A M P L E know: not [riDu] or [nau]* but [nou]

woeful: not [wDuful] or [wauful]* but [wouful]

[90] is used in speech for RP, but for lyric diction this diphthong should be sung as [ou]. See chapter 14.

E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice speaking the following words using care to differentiate between [au],

[ou] and [u]:

[D] -> [OU]

pause pose bowl bull

walk woke showed should

shawl shoal pole pull

chalk choke stowed stood

saw sew code could

2. Transcribe and intone the following text in RP:

Away in the shadows a lone bird is singing,

The wind whispers low in a sighing refrain;

Their music makes memory's voices go winging:

The Ash Grove in beauty I see once again;



How little we knew, as we laughed there so lightly,

And time seemed to us to stretch endless away,

The hopes that then shone like a vision so brightly

Could fade as a dream at the coming of day!

(Excerpt from "The Ash Grove"—Old Welsh Melody)

3. Transcribe and intone the text in Historic RP or MA:

O, be still, be still, unquiet thoughts, and rest on love's adventer.

Go no more astray, my wanton eyes, but keep within your center.

Delight not yourselves for to stand and gaze

On the alluring looks of a beautyous face

For love is like to an endless maze,

More hard to get than to enter.

(Thomas Campion / Peter Warlock, "The Lover's Maze")

[au] Production

FIGURE 7.5 [au]

92

The diphthong [au] is found in words such as: shout, now, doubt, house, and vow. Re-

gionally, this diphthong has two different highly prevalent pronunciations: [aeu] and [au].

The latter is much preferred for singing.

Action

Tongue flat in mouth—as moves toward [u]

back rises higher adjustment should be minimal

Lips unrounded, rounds gently for [u]

Mouth opening for [a] closes smoothly for [u]

released jaw follows with little movement

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not mouth or exaggerate movement between the two vowel positions.

Be careful not to substitute [aeu] for [au].

E X A M P L E S bound [bound] not [baeund]

vow [vau] not [vaeu]

thou

shout

mouth

frown

owl

sound

ground

thousand

foul

scowl

devout

resound

ourselves

mountains

doubtful

boundary

3. Transcribe and intone the following text in Historic RP:

He who doubts from what he sees,

Will ne'er believe, so what you please,

If the Sun and Moon should doubt,

They'd immediately go out.

(William Blake, "Auguries of Innocence" )

EXERCISES

1. Drill correctly and incorrectly the pronunciation of this diphthong:

now [nau] —» [naeu] —> [nau]

count [kaunt] -> [kaeunt] -> [kaunt]

howl [haul] -» [haeul] -> [haul]





Come away, come away, death,

And in sad cypress let me be laid;

Fly away, fly away, breath;

I am slain by a fair cruel maid.

My shroud of white, stuck all with yew,

O, prepare it!

My part of death, no one so true

Did share it.

Not a flower, not a flower, sweet,

On my black coffin let there be strown;

Not a friend, not a friend greet

My poor corpse, where my bones shall be thrown:

A thousand, thousand sighs to save,

Lay me, O. where

Sad true lover never find my grave,

To weep there!

(William Shakespeare, "Come Away, Death")

The R-Colored Diphthongs

Since all the individual vowel sounds that make up the r-colored diphthongs have pre-

viously been discussed earlier in the text, they will not be dealt with individually but all

together as a group. They are listed together as the r-colored vowels of the American Stan-

dard and reduced r-colored vowels of RP and Mid-Atlantic dialects below.

R-Colored R-Reduced

as in air, care, there

as in ear, dear, we're

as in pour, four, o'er

as in sure, tour, poor

as in are, heart, garden

Please note once again, the initial vowel sounds of each of these diphthongs have been

opened to facilitate easier vocal production. In speech, these vowels are usually more closed.

93

Acoustically, the substitution of the more opened counterparts cannot be discerned. The

more opened initial vowels encourage less mouthing and exaggeration of the mouth and

lips and decrease the amount of movement required to produce these diphthongs.

As with all stressed and unstressed r-colored vowels, care should be taken not to pull

back and arch the tongue tip, producing instead the characteristically constricted collo-

quial American "r" vowel. Like all other vowels in English, the r-colored diphthongs must

be produced with the tip of the tongue forward and in contact with the back of the lower

front teeth.

Like the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of the r-colored diphthongs

should be sustained; with the secondary vowel sound, the r coloring, added at the very last

moment.

RULE Lifee the other diphthongs of English, the first vowel of tine r-colored diph-

thongs should be sustained; the secondary vowel sound, th€ r coloring, is added

at the very last moment.

EXERCISES

1. Practice alternating the r-colored and r-reduced diphthongs below:

air

hair

despair

rare

prepare

dear

mere

we're

weir

cheer

o'er

yore

pour

adore

before

sure

poor

moor

tour

*endure

are

heart

charm

depart

garden

e'er revere implore *secure partner

ensnare sincere restore *obscure marvelous

The [uaVuar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllables. All "ure" spellings in

UNstressed positions should be pronounced [&/3r].

*These words contain the [j] glide preceding the [uWsr] diphthongs. Others like this include:pure, cure, lure, demure, allure, and so on.



RULE The [u /uar] diphthongs are found only in stressed syllablei, AH "are"

spellings in UNstressed positions should be pronounced t>] in AS and {»r] In RP

and MA.

The unstressed [uaVar] pronunciations sound affected and dated.

2. Transcribe and sing the correct pronunciation of the following words with "ure"

endings:

measure leisure treasure

pleasure nature stature

verdure rapture capture

3. Transcribe the following text in Historic RP or MA:

Endless pleasure, endless love,

Semele enjoys above,

On her bosom Jove reclining,

Useless now his thunder lies,

To her arms his bolts resigning,

And his lightning to her eyes.

(G. F. Handel, from Semele)

4. Transcribe the following text in AS:

I was standing in a garden,

A garden gone to seed,

Choked with every kind of weed.

There were twisted trees around me,

All black against the sky;

Black and bare and dead and dry,

My father called: "Come out of this place."

I wanted to go, but there was no way:

No sign, no path, to show me the way:

Then another voice was calling:

It barely could be heard.

95

E X A M P L E S pleasure

treasure

not

not


I remember ev'ry word:

"There is a garden:

Come with me, come with me:

A shining garden: Come and see

There love will teach us

Harmony and grace,

Then love will lead us

To a quiet place."

(Leonard Bernstein, "There Is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti)

Triphthongs

A triphthong is the combination of three vowels within the same syllable. Like the diph-

thong, the first vowel is sustained vocally with the remaining two vowels added at the very

end. The General Rules for Diphthongs on page 79 refer also to triphthongs.

RULI When singing a triphthong on two or more notes, sing the first vowel on

all the notes, adding the last two vowels at the very end of the last note.

And the de - sire

of all na - tions shall come.

("Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah, G. F. Handel)

The two principal triphthongs of English are:

as in lyre, fire, choir

as in our, flower, power

[a


RV LE Sing all threfc vowels In triphthongs.

In Modern RP especially, triphthongs seem to be dissolving into diphthongs or even

single vowels. For example, the word "choir" has become [kwa9r] or even [kwa]. Words

become unintelligible when the vowels are dropped. Make sure to sing all three vowel

sounds in triphthongs.

EXERCISES

1. Transcribe and drill the following triphthongs and practice singing them on one

or more notes:

lyre

ire

choir

tire

desire

inspire

conspire

admire

our

hour

dower

flower

power

shower

tower

devour

2. Transcribe the following song texts into phonetics and practice the diphthongs

and triphthongs in their musical settings in Historic RP or MA:

Oh had I Jubal's lyre,

Or Miriam's tuneful voice

To sounds like his I would aspire

To songs like her rejoice!

My humble strains but faintly show

How much to Heaven and thee I owe.

(G. F. Handel, From Joshua)

But who may abide the day of His coming?

and who shall stand when he appeareth?

For He is like a refiner's fire,

(G. F. Handel, From Messiah)

97


3. Transcribe and practice the following text in AS or Modern RP:

Beloved, thou hast brought me many flow'rs

Plucked in the garden, all the summer through

(And winter), and it seemed as if they grew.

In this close room, nor missed the sun and show'rs

So, in the like name of that love of ours,

Take back these thoughts which here are unfolded, too,

And which on warm and cold days I withdrew

From my heart's ground. Indeed, those beds and bowers

Be overgrown with bitter weeds and rue.

And wait thy weeding: Yet here's eglantine,

Here's ivy! Take them, as I used to do

Thy flowers, and keep them where they shall not pine.

Instruct thine eyes to keep their colors true,

And tell thy soul their roots are left in mine.

(Elizabeth Barrett Browning / Libby Larsen, "Beloved,

Thou Hast Brought Me Many Flowers")

98

CHAPTER EIGHT

The Three Semi-Vowel Glides

The three consonants [w], [j], and [J/R] are considered semi-vowel glides in English. They

are also known as semi-consonants or semi-vowels. It is because they are organically re-

lated to the vowel sounds [u], [i], and [a\|, respectively.

(u) -> [w] (i) -> [j] (*) -> [J/R]

Vowels or Consonants?

A semi-vowel glide is a consonant that is produced during the movement from its initial

articulatory position to another position that is formed by the oncoming vowel. In other

words, it is the action of gliding from the related vowel sound to another vowel following

that causes the consonant to be created and sounded.

The initial consonants of the words "wed," "yes," and "red" are produced by gliding

from their respective related vowel sounds to the vowel that follows. As in the case of

"wed," [u] glides to [e] and in the process the [wj is sounded. For "yes" and "red," [i] and

[a-] glide to [e], producing [j] and [j/R/r].

[u (w) e d] = wed

[i (j) e s] = yes

[> (J/R) e d] = red

Feel the difference between intoning these three words with and without their related

vowel sounds. First, consciously initiate each with the related vowel; then, consciously

omit the related vowel and stress the initial consonant/glide only.

99


You most probably noticed that there is far less subvocal tension when the vowel be-

gins these words rather than the consonants. This is an especially helpful tool when artic-

ulating similar words in the passaggio and extreme high range of the voice.

The semi-vowels [w], [j], and [J/R] can either occur as initial consonants, part of ini-

tial consonant clusters, or beginning a new syllable in the middle of a word. When these

glide consonants are found alone or as part of a consonant cluster in the stressed syllables

of stressed word-types, their respective related vowel sounds may be added before [w], [j],

and [J/R] in order to vocally stress the stressed word-types. Hopefully, the examples below

will clarify this concept.

Initial and medial [w], [j], [J/R] as single consonants in stressed positions:

[w]

wonder [(u)WAnda-/9r]**

worthy [(u)w3V3r5i]

beware [bi(u)wea-/9r]

awake [9(u)weik]

U]yearning [(l)J3-/3rmrj]

Yankee [(l)jaenki]

unusual [An(l)ju3U9l]

resume [jiz(l)jum]

M*rhyme [(at)jaim]

really [^jili]

erase [i(a<)jeis]

arrive [9(3l)jaiv]

Initial and medial consonant clusters in stressed positions:

[w]

choir [k(u)wai^/3r]

quest [k(u)west]

inquire [mk(u)waia^/3r]

unquiet [Ank(u)wai9t]

Ulbeauty [b(l)juti]

music [m(l)juzik]

community [k9m(l)jumti]

illusion [il(l)ju39n]

M*

strong [st^jorj]

great [g^lieit]

untruth [Ant(3°ju6]

impress [imp(3t)jes]

RULi Related glide vowels should be added only to the stressed syllable of the

primary or secondary stressed word. To add this extra vowel rhythmically, add a

grace note pick-up before the beat on which the stressed word or syllable falls.

In order to do this, you need to rob time from the note or rest preceding it,

* For clarity, the burred r symbol, used in all three dialects (AS, RP, and MA), is being used exclusivelyin these exercises. For other options in RP and MA, see rules for use of rolled and flipped r's on pp. 232-33.

** |>/3r] and [>/3r] are written to accommodate r-color pronunciations in both AS and RP. In each case,AS pronunciation appears first, followed by the RP reduced r-color.

CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides 101

Musical Application

When adding the grace note pick-up for the related glide vowel, you inherently must al-

ways rob time from the preceding note; this way, the consonant preparation is before the

beat and the vowel will not be late. The related vowel could be sung on the pitch of the

preceding note or on the note of the stressed word that follows it. It usually works best,

however, to sing the related vowel on whichever is the lowest pitch. When the preparation

grace note is on the lower pitch, it functions as a springboard for the stressed vowel and

helps the voice to swell or bloom into the stressed word. Note the grace note placements

in the following example.

We (^row

a - (u)waketo (l)you

(Grace note placements)

However, for the words with initial consonant clusters in which the second consonant

is either [w], [j], or [a] such as "music" [mjuzik], always sing the grace note pick-up on

the actual pitch of the stressed syllable. That way, it will be subtle and not obtrusive.

We g^row

"to quake": to k(u\vakere-f^'Vise

(Grace note placements)

We g row

to k wakere-fûse

Take a look at a few examples from the repertoire:

(Quasi recit. Slowly and freely)

(P)

S(u)weet

("Sweeter Than Roses," Henry Purcell)

er than (3v)ro - ses,

We wrow

a -(u)waketo (l)you


Moving forward (J = 96)

Now the time has g * rown so short; the " world has g rown so wide.

("Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land, Aaron Copland)

For further discussion of musical application, see chapter 13.

Tips for Vocal Ease

Initiate the [w] with its related glide vowel [u] to avoid lip and subvocal or subglottic ten-

sion. To accommodate the glide vowel rhythmically, add a grace note pick-up before the

word beginning with [w]. It is the quick release of the [u] into the primary vowel that

stresses the word and makes it expressive.

As stated above, these three semi-vowel/semi-consonants are produced by the gliding

action of the preceding related vowel sound. However, a little more detail on the position

of the articulators for each of these semi-vowels is necessary.

[w] Production

FIGURE 8.1 [w]

The bilabial voiced [w] is made with a gliding movement of the lips that is similar to the

pursed position of [u]. In English, [w] is found only before a vowel.

Beginning position: Tongue tip down, back up

Lips closely rounded for [u]

Position changes immediately as the lips glide to next vowel.

Pitfalls to Avoid

Lazy lips or thick tongues make for dull, shapeless glides.

Avoid intrusive glides that incorrectly produce two-syllable words.

fill In the passaggio and above, when a word ending in a [u] or [a] Is

followed by a stressed word-type beginning with a vowel, the two words

may be discreetly connected with a [w] to strengthen the legato line. Be-

cause of the high tessitura, this would be far preferable to breaking the line

with a breath tift to stress the subsequent word.

Word of Caution

An inserted [w] glide should be approached with subtlety and should not be apparent to

the listener. Used properly, this technique can provide a springboard to help open the

voice up and swell on the stressed vowel in the passaggio.

[j] Production

This vowel is produced by the lingual palatal gliding movement of the tongue. As with the

[w], [j] is found in English only when it precedes a vowel.

E X A M P L E From Dido and Aeneas by Henry Purcell: Fear no danger to (w)ensure

E X A M P L E flower and power should be triphthongs

and

Action



FIGURE 8.2 [j]

Lips

high in mouth

sides in contact with upper molars

tongue tip down as for the [i] vowel

tongue glides forward for next vowel sound

unrounded

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid intrusive glides: Popeye the Sailor's famous quote "I (j)am what I (j)am"

(This may be used in the passaggio to help the legato, but must be used discreetly

and should not be heard by the listener.)

Tips for Vocal Ease

Use the related [i] vowel before the [j] to avoid subvocal tension. Add a grace note pick-

up before the word beginning with [j] to accommodate this extra vowel rhythmically. It is

the quick release from the [i] into the primary vowel that stresses the word and makes it

expressive.

Action

Tongue


RULE to the passaggto arid above, when a word ending in an [i| [it Of [4] fcfol-

lowed by a stressed woidNtypt beginning with a vowel, the two words may'-toe

discreetly connectedwitha fjl to strengthen the legato line, Because of tht high

tessitura, this would be far more preferable than stopping the line with a bieftth

Itfttostnesstheswbêqywtword,

A Word of Caution

The inserted [j] should not be discernible to the listener. If it can be heard, then it needs

to be softer in its connection. Used properly, this technique can provide a springboard to

help the singer open the voice and swell on the stressed vowel in the passaggio.

[j] Production

FIGURE 8.3 [j]

E X A M P L E From Dido and Aeneas by Henry Purcell: Away, [j]away! Belinda, I [flam

prest.

The symbol for the burred r is [j], which is always used in American Standard and in Mod-

ern British Received speech. In singing, the burred r [j] is always used in North American

repertoire. For repertoire from the United Kingdom, burred r's [j] are interspersed with

flipped and trilled r's. R usage for British repertoire will be discussed in greater length in

chapter 14.

The burred r [j] is lingua-palatal gliding movement of the lips and tongue.

Action

Tongue body of tongue released

tip down behind lower front teeth for [a-]

sides of tongue arched and in contact with upper

molars as with position with [e] vowel

Lips rounded in [o] position

As the gliding occurs, the [j] consonant is formed with the slight elevation of the tongue

tip toward the hard palate. The tongue glides downward when the [j] glides to next vowel.

RULE for R as a Consonant or a Vowel

R is sounded as a consonant when it is followed by a vowel.

E X A M P L E S red remember righteous

R is sounded as an r-colored vowel when it, is followed by a consonant or is final.

EXAMPLES work learn never far

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not allow tongue to tip too much toward hard palate, resulting in the characteris-

tically Midwestern heavy retroflex r (remedy: bring tongue tip further forward).

Avoid intrusive r's—characteristic of New Englander and certain British dialects, in

which an r is added at the end of words or when linking words.

E X A M P L E Barbara (j) is going.


CHAPTER EIGHT The Three Semi-Vowel Glides

Tips for Vocal Ease

Use the related r-colored schwa [a-] before the r to avoid tongue bunching and constric-

tion. Add a grace note pick-up before the word beginning with [j] to accommodate this

extra vowel rhythmically. Remember, it is the quick release of the glide vowel into the pri-

mary vowel that forms the consonant r and makes the word stressed and expressive.

RULE In the passaggio and above, when a word ending in a|9>Af] is foltpwed

by a stressed word-type beginning with a vowel, botfo words can be discreetly

connected with a consonant r. In Neutral American Standard, it would be a

burred r [j]. In historic British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations^ ft WoWd

be connected with a flipped r [r]. This strengthens th6 legato and is far mom

preferable than breaking the tine in the passaggi o with a breath lift*

E X A M P L E RP: Mine with storms of care [r]opprest

Grief shall ne'er [r]approach the fair.

(Henry Purcell, Dido and Aeneas)

AS: To view a murder [j] or [j] a carnival reflected in the window

of my mirror.

(Dominic Argento, "The Mirror Aria" from Postcard from Morocco)

A Word of Caution

Once again, this must be done with subtlety and taste. The listener must not think that a

new word "ropprest" or "rapproach" or "roar" has been formed. When this is applied with

subtlety, this can be a wonderful technique and can provide a springboard to help the

singer open up the voice and swell on the vowel.

General Application for Types of R's

RULi Only burred r's [j] should be used in music by North American composers

with North American texts.

107

Since North American English speech does not contain any trilled r's [R] or flipped r's

[r], they should not be used in song or opera from North America. Only the burred r con-

sonant [j] used in the United States and Canada should be sung in this repertoire.

RULE For oratorio and repertoire originating from the British Isles, British Re-

ceived Pronunciation, or the hybrid dialect, Mid-Atlantic, is appropriate, In these

pronunciations, tried r's [sj and Intervocalic flipped r's [r] could be used. See

chapters 14 and 15 for RULES for their usage,

RULE If a North American $tm§ or opera has a text by an English poet, either

American Standard, British Received, or Mid-Atlantic pronunciation would be

appropriate. One consideration rrrtght be which dialect would be most intel-

ligible for the venue or the sophistication of the audience. In opera, often the

directors or conductors make the decision based on the production style and

values.

For Non-Native English Speakers

For non-native English singers or native English speakers who regularly use trilled and

rolled r's in their speech, here is a drill to gain control over the r choices you use in your

vocal repertoire.

DRILL FOR ALLEVIATING TRILLED R's

In order to alleviate the habit of trilling the r's, practice exaggerating the duration of the

related [a-] vowel before the [j] and concentrate on not allowing the tongue to make

contact with the gum ridge while the r is executed. Remember the lips must be rounded

to produce an exact [j] sound.

Since [j] does not appear in many of the world languages, it is often particularly prob-

lematic for foreign singers. The muscle memory is so strong for trilling r's that there is

often great difficulty refraining from using trilled r's in their singing of American Standard

English. Unfortunately, trilled and flipped r's do not exist in Neutral American English

and are therefore inappropriate.



Tony the Tiger on the Frosted Flakes commercials had the right idea!

G (» ->) reat!!!!!

E X A M P L E S rain right really

EXERCISES

1. Practice saying the following words with both initial burred r's [j] and trilled

r's [R]:

[J]rose

wrong

cry

breath

thread

[R]rose

wrong

cry

breath

thread

[J]rose

wrong

cry

breath

thread

2. Transcribe and drill the following words. Use care to initiate them with their

related vowel sounds:

Semi-vowel [j]

yes

year

yet

Ye

yellow

yore

yacht

York

young

yonder

yams

Europe

yawn

yearn

Yankee

yesterday

Semi-vowel [w]

world walk

wife wash

worm weigh

witty wishes

Semi-vowel [J/R]

ripe proud

really pray

rough print

rhyme pretty

wonder

woman

would

witch

worthy

wisdom

weather

whether

brown

bright

bring

brother

drum

draw

dream

dreary

cream

crowd

craft

crown


3. Transcribe the following text and add related vowel sounds to the stressed semi-

vowel glide consonants. Practice intoning the entire text, and then apply it to the

first eight measures of the music as it appears below:

When green as a river was the barley,

Green as the river the rye.

I waded deep and began to parley

With a youth whom I heard sigh.

"I seek," said he, "a lovely lady,

A nymph as bright as a queen.

Like a tree that drips with pearls her shady

Locks of hair were seen;

And all the rivers became her flocks

Though their wool you cannot shear.

Because of the love of her flowing locks

The kingly sun like a swain

Came strong, unheeding of her scorn.

Wading in deeps where she has lain,

Sleeping upon her river lawn

And chasing her starry satyr train,

She fled, and changed into a tree—

That lovely fair-haired lady . . ."

And now I seek through the sere summer

Where no trees are shady!

(William Walton,* "Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell)

* This poem is by the British poet Edith Sitwell. It should be sung in British Received or Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. But for the purposes of this exercise, it could be done also in AmericanStandard.

Andante ( J = I04c.)

p espress.

When g(>)reen as a (^ri - ver was the bar - ley,

Gr reen as a ri - ver the rye, I (u)wad - ed deep and be-


gan to par-ley With a (l)youth whom I heard sigh.

("Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell, William Walton)

4. Transcribe the following text into colloquial American, adding related glide

vowels and breath lifts on stressed words:

There's a place for us,

Somewhere a place for us.

Peace and quiet and open air,

Wait for us,

Somewhere.

There's a time for us,

Someday a time for us,

Time together with time to spare,

Time to learn, time to care,

Someday,

Somewhere,

We'll find a new way of living,

We'll find a way of forgiving,

Somewhere.

There's a place for us,

A time and place for us.

Hold my hand and we're half way there,

Hold my hand and I'll take you there.

Somehow,

Someday,

Somewhere.

(Leonard Bernstein / Steven Sondheim, "Somewhere" from West Side Story)


CHAPTER NINE

Introduction to Consonants

The study of English lyric diction cannot be complete without an in-depth focus on the

consonant speech sounds of the language. Many singers find that it is the delivery of the

consonant sounds that causes them the most difficulty when singing in English. Unlike

the Romance languages found in the lyric repertoire, the ratio of consonant to vowel in

English is very high. Since the consonants are so much more prevalent in English than

in the other languages, it is therefore important that we learn how to produce them prop-

erly and how to treat them expressively.

There are two main reasons why the consonants of English pose problems for the lyric

singer. The first is the fault of lax and careless colloquial delivery; the second is lack of

concentration on the production of the consonants within the vocal studio.

The study of the lyric treatment of the English consonants in singing is a much-

neglected subject. As students of singing, a great deal of time and attention is spent on

the vocal production of the various vowel sounds and practically no time is spent on the

correct production of the consonants that precede, follow, and surround the vowel sounds.

Taking into account the difficulty of learning to sing well and the number of years required

to learn this skill, it is completely understandable that the thrust of the work in the vocal

studio is on perfecting the vowels with little time left over for the consonants.

For many years in North America, at least, secondary schools have not offered and

encouraged verse recitation of any kind. Elocution courses have been taken out of the cur-

ricula. The oral tradition of recitation has been eclipsed by more technological pursuits.

Worldwide, the computer age has left us with less time than previous generations to inter-

act socially and converse in our daily lives. Communication seems to be done mostly by

email, text messaging, and mobile phone usage. Admitting that there are deficiencies in

this area, let us begin our work!

113

First we need to develop a positive mindset regarding consonants. Consonants are not

the enemy of legato singing. They are the connective tissue that sustains the legato and

propels it forward. When released and handled properly, the consonants help maintain the

forward placement of the vowels and help the voice to achieve its bloom. Except for a few

songs composed as vocalises on a single vowel, the vast majority of vocal repertory has

text. Text means words, and words have consonants. Without the consonants, we have no

words. Without the words, we have no concrete thoughts being transmitted. If we hope to

communicate the thoughts and intentions of a piece of literature as set to music, we will

need to be armed with an arsenal of techniques for dealing successfully with the chal-

lenges of the consonants. It is very important to learn to produce the consonants well and

to savor them. Here are some general rules to consider.

1. The consonants make the word intelligible.

2. There are no ugly consonants, only the inept execution of them that causes

them to be unattractive at times.

3. The dynamic level of the consonants must be brought into balance with that

of the vowels,

4. The consonants must be sustained vocally as part of the vocal line.

5. Doubling or tripling the duration of the initial sustaining consonant of the

stressed syllable of the words receiving stress helps to highlight the key words

for the listener. This is accomplished by robbing time from the vowel of the

word preceding the stressed consonant. This will be dealt with in detail in

chapter 13.

EXAM PLES I Illove you If with all your hhhearts you truly ssseek me

The stop-plosive consonants [d], [t], and [g] are doubled or tripled by stop-

ping down on the consonant before its release. This is treated the same as a

double stop-plosive in Italian.

EXAMPLES Oh! My g;goodnessl drdeath invades me

6. The preparation or anticipation of the consonant must be done without ten-

sion and distortion of the vowel.

7. The objective should be to keep the base of the tongue from hardening. This

is accomplished in part by striving to maintain a flexibility and pliability of the

jaw / lips, and tongue muscles,


GENERAL RULES FOR CONSONANTS

CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants 115

The English Consonants

The English language contains twenty-five consonants. Fifteen of them are voiced conso-

nants and ten are unvoiced consonants. A voiced consonant is a consonant that involves

the vibration of the vocal chords in its production. A voiceless or unvoiced consonant does

not. Note the list of the English consonants with their voiced and unvoiced cognates below.

Not true cognates but related consonants

8; /4fl consonants not begrnnfng stressed words that are followed %-¥»w«js

sttbuttf, tescvmfed with the vowels that follow them,

IX AMPLE wai'-»ting fo -4 rus

ENGLISH CONSONANTS

Voiced Unvoiced

Cognates

Voiced Consonants—No Cognates

m, n, n, I, w, j, j/R/r

b

d

9

v

z

3

5

d3

M <

P

• t

k

- f

s

•\

e

> t j

h*

Cognate pairs are two consonant sounds, one voiced and one unvoiced, that are pro-

duced by the same articulatory adjustments. In the voiced cognate, the vocal chords vi-

brate while the consonant sound is produced, while in the unvoiced cognate, only the re-

lease of air produces the consonant sound. A voiced consonant can be sung on a pitchwhile the unvoiced cannot.

Familiarity with the groupings of the cognate pairs can offer singers opportunities to

use the voicing and unvoicing properties of the consonants to their vocal advantage. Cer-

tain consonants are difficult to produce and project in the upper register and other conso-

nants are difficult to get past the foot lights period. Here are some preliminary suggestions

to consider.

Tips for Vocal Ease

Within the cognate consonant pairs, substitutions can be made for vocal ease or easierprojection.

1. If a word with an initial "g" like "God" is set on a high note, try substituting an

Italian g or k, which places the consonant further forward and prevents it from

being guttural.

2. The final [f] and the unvoiced th [6] can be projected better if you begin with the

[f] or [6], but switch to their voiced cognates of [v] and [5] at the last second. See

pages 144 and 158.

3. The [dsl of the word "rejoice" can be switched to [tj] in "Rejoice greatly" from

Handel's Messiah in order to conserve air in the melismas and make the "j"project better over the orchestra.

4. To project over thick orchestration, [tj] may be substituted for final [t]. With

distance, it sounds the same acoustically.

RULE The substitution of consonants for vocal ease and projection must be

done In such a way that it is not apparent to the audience, Past the orchestra pit

the consonants must sound real and correct. What you are singing on stage may

be different, but acoustically it must sound authentic in the house.

Listed below are all of the various categories of English consonants with their cog-

nates. These will be discussed in-depth in the following chapters.

The Plosives: [b/p], [d/t], [g/k]

The Fricatives: [v/f], [z/s], [3/J], [5/6]


Before digging in, we will spend some time developing our awareness of voiced ver-

sus unvoiced consonants. Habitual colloquial speech habits do not help us much. Many of

us are fairly lazy in articulating final and medial consonants. Often the voiced consonants

are only partially voiced or dropped. For example, in words like "good," "night," "straight,"

and "word," we often do not sound or project the final consonant. In American English, in

words like "letter" and "water," the aspirated the medial [t] and often sound a flapped [r]

instead. This can be used for certain colloquial pieces or characters but it often does not

project well enough through thick accompaniment. In British English, though the medial

t's are aspirated, there seems to be a current fashion for changing all the final d's to t's.

English without final d's sounds like German, not English. Final d's need to remain voiced.

So, let's get to work!

1. Pronounce the following words, making sure to buzz the final voiced consonants;

all final s's in these words should be sounded as [z]:*

word, words stage, stages

leave, leaves require, requires

girl, girls stab, stabs

hum, hums man, mans

hang, hangs bathe, bathes

English is a very unphonetic language. In other words, it is seldom spelled the way

it is sounded. In order to easily identify the voiced consonants, it is helpful to

write out all words in phonetics so that you are not misled by the English spellings.

2. Transcribe the following words and underline the voiced consonants:

celebration

increase

intentionally

precious

pageant

majestic

remember

advocate

procession

choir

surprise

evening

kissed

miraculous

exact

See chapter 11 for the related rule.

CHAPTER NINE Introduction to Consonants 117

The Affricates: [ds/tj]

The Aspirants: [Wh]

The Nasal Consonants: [m], [n], [rj]

The Lateral Consonants: [1]

EXERCISES


3. Transcribe text in AS and underline voiced consonants:

Look down, fair moon, and bathe this scene,

Pour softly down night's nimbus floods

in faces ghastly, swollen purple,

on the dead on their backs with arms toss'd wide,

pour down your unstinted nimbus, sacred moon.

(Walt Whitman/Ned Rorem, "Look Down, Fair Moon")

4. Transcribe text in AS/RP and underline voiced consonants:

Come to me in the silence of the night;

Come in the speaking silence of a dream;

Come with soft rounded cheeks and eyes

as bright as sunlight on a stream;

Come back in tears, o Memory,

hope, love of finished years.

Oh dream how sweet, too sweet, too bitter sweet

whose wakening should be in paradise,

Where souls brimfull of love abide and meet;

Where thirsting longing eyes watch the slow door

that opening, letting in, lets out no more.

Yet come to me in dreams, that I may live

my very life again though cold in death:

Come back to me in dreams, that I may give

Pulse for pulse, breath for breath:

As long ago, my love, how long ago.

(Christina Rossetti / Lee Gannon, "Echo")

118

CHAPTER TEN

The Plosives

A plosive sound is a sound in which breath is stopped by the articulators and is released

in a small puff of air when the articulators are relaxed. Known also as stop-plosives, there

are eight plosive consonants in four cognate pairs: [b/p], [d/t], [g/k], and [d3/tj].

OVERVIEW OF THE PLOSIVE CONSONANTS

1. The plosive consonants should be produced precisely and with no pressure.

2. Tension can be defined as non-motion. The facial muscles, throat, and jaw

should be energized and pliable, never frozen into any position. A reaction

in the jaw from the spring-like action of the plosive consonants must be

allowed for.

3. The voiced plosives should be sung on the pitch of the adjacent vowel and

voiced immediately.

4. There should be neither explosion nor compression of air. Excessive air

wreaks havoc on the vocal line and is unnecessary for the projection of

these consonants.

5. For recordings and performances with mikes, be careful with explosive p's,

b's, t's, and d's. If they are too aspirated, they will pop the microphone.

[b/p] are bilabial. They are produced with the two lips together,

[d/t] are lingua-alveolar. They are produced with tip of the tongue in contact with

the alveolar ridge.

119


[g/k] are lingua-velar. They are produced with back of the tongue in contact with

the velum.

[d3/tj] are lingua-alveolar and lingua-palatal. They are produced by the tongue

against the front and sides of the palate. They are also affricatives.

FIGURE 10.1 [b]/[p]

Action

Tongue

Lips

should be inactive

come together without pressure and spring apart as vocal chords

vibrate for [b] and air is released for [p]

firm but flexible lips

no air compression behind lips

[b]/[p] Production

A bilabial stop-plosive.

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid immobile mouth—the American prototype of tight-mouthed and the British

stiff-upper-lipped, laconic speakers.

Let the muscles go.

Avoid an extra vowel sound formed when connecting two consonants.

Aids for Projection

1. In stressed consonant clusters such as pi, bl, pr, and br, the initial consonants

may be elongated by the insertion of a brief [a] vowel in 1 clusters and [a-] in

r clusters.

E X A M P L E S please [p^liz] blood [bÛd]

proud [p(ai)jciud] bright [b(ai)jait]

2. Before a rest, final p's can be made more audible by producing a [p] but immedi-

ately converting it to [b] with the cutoff. This can make this unvoiced consonant

more easily projected.

E X A M P L E S hope [houp -» b] cup [kAp -> b]

trip [tJip —> b] worship [wy-/3rjip -» b]

3. Initial p's can be projected more easily by substituting the unaspirated Italian [p]

as in the word "pace." It is partially voiced and has different lip pressure.

Drill alternating English p's and Italian p's in words below. Concentrate on no air

flow on Italian p and a lip sensation similar to a [b].

pain pain power power

poor poor pale pale

public public passion passion

Tips for Vocal Ease

Substituting an Italian [p] and even a [b] for a final [p] can be used to strengthen the legato

and be much more vocally soothing. When a word ending with a [p] is followed by a

vowel, try connecting the two words with an Italian [p] when the phrase is accompanied

by piano, or a [b] when accompanied by thick orchestra.

CHAPTER TEN The Plosives 121


And my lamp is lost, and my lamp is lost.

("The Black Swan" from The Medium, Gian Carlo Menotti)

Microphone Alert

Exploded, popped [p]s are the most problematic of all the consonants when singing with

a microphone.

EXERCISES

1. Practice articulating p's and b's in various positions:

Initial

beauty

bounty

beggar

peace

pray

patience

Medial

trouble

slumber

abide

apple

rapture

repair

Final

grab

stub

sob

hope

sleep

clasp

2. Practice singing and intoning the following words.

Use the partially voiced p -> b cutoffs:

weep

hope

slip

up

creep

help

lamp

trip

sleep

drop

grasp

grope

E X A M P L E with piano accompaniment

"and my lam -> [it. p] is lost"

with heavily orchestrated accompaniment

"and my lam -> [b] is lost"


[d]/[t] Production

Lingua-alveolar consonants.

FIGURE 10.2 [d]/[t]

Action

Tongue

Lips

Jaw


tongue tip securely placed on gum ridge behind center of the upper

teeth

tip releases with spring-like action to below

lower front teeth as cords vibrate for [d] or breath releases for [t]

tongue tip very energized

inactive

no action of jaw necessary in release of consonant

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid dental t's and d's as in Italian. They must be aspirated for English (the only

dental consonants that exist in English are [5] and [6]).

Avoid slack d's, caused by thick tongue contacting too broad an area of gum ridge.

Only tongue tip in the center of the gum ridge is needed.

Aids for Projection

Plosives are the consonants most prevalently found in English words. If good projection

technique is acquired for the plosive consonants, much of the intelligibility battle can be

won. Besides being most prevalent, the plosive consonants can be the most problematical

vocally and acoustically with any microphone enhancement. With this is mind, it is im-

portant to know which type of plosive consonants are needed for specific circumstances.

With Thick Instrumental Accompaniments,

Use Wet T's and D's

1. With thick accompaniment or orchestration, use a wet t/d to project. A wet t or d

has a forward-placed vowel released with it. Release final t's with a whispered [i]

vowel following it. A final d is released with an [i] following it.

E X A M P L E night [nait®]

This final wet t sounds similar to the percussion instrument, the high hat.

2. With instrumental accompaniment, initial d's may be replaced by an aspirated

partial [t] for easier projection. The symbol for this kind of "half d-t" sound is

[d]. It almost sounds like a [dz], but with less voicing.


Avoid over-aspirated medial consonants—use softer attack when medial consonants

begin unstressed syllables.

RU11S for W endings*

1. When the "ed" ending;($preceded by a vo/earf consonant, the d b soyndeda$[d].

....EXAMPLE troubled |

crowne

2. When the "ed" ending!; preceded by an unvQlcetf--consonant, the d issounded as [t].

EXAMPLE kissed [kist|

talked


Drill alternating the words "town" and "down" releasing the [d] with the same

frontal position and aspiration as the [t].

E X A M P L E [taun] -> [daun] -> [taun] -»[daun]

3. The tr and dr consonant clusters are often mispronounced colloquially as [tjj]

and [d;y]. This pronunciation, though incorrect, does project better over an or-

chestra and takes less air to produce. Actually, it alleviates subvocal pressure to

substitute [tjj] for tr spellings. Therefore, substitute these whenever the tessitura

is difficult or the orchestration is heavy.

E X A M P L E S dream truth

tree tremble

try trust

4. Double t and d spellings are only sounded as one consonant. Use light aspiration

on the medial t's.

E X A M P L E S better, pretty, matter, wedding, adding, ladder

With Light Accompaniments and Microphones,

Use Dry T's and D's

Use dry t's and d's when singing and speaking with a microphone or light accompani-

ment. A dry d or t is released with a vowel [9], which releases downward. If you hold the

palm of your hand two or three inches in front of your mouth and release a dry d or t, you

should not feel a puff of air against your palm. A dry d or t should not have any forward

release of breath that would "pop" the mike.

PRACTICE DRILL

Say or sing the following words with dry t's and d's. Hold your palm in front of your

mouth and make sure you do not feel any puff of air.

Wept / wed paint / pained bet / bed helped / held

Tell / dale tot / dot Tom / Don tear / dare


EXERCISES

1. Practice t's and d's in the various positions. Alternate between wet and dry t's

and d's:

Initial

touch

tree

twenty

divine

dagger

daughter

Medial

letter

bitter

winter

under

sudden

riddle

Final

night

sweet

blessed

find

beside

confide

2. Practice intoning/singing the following with no intrusive vowels between the

consonant clusters. If the [sts] cluster is difficult, first say the [s] followed by

the [ts]:

[sts]

beasts mists

ghosts lasts

hosts casts

guests

tastes

texts

t plus various consonants

do not go

sweet dream

night prayer

secret sorrow

great joy

sent me

thou art good

lost souls

set forth

let none

bright vision

first song

[g]/[k] Production

The consonants [g] and [k] are lingua-velar stop-plosives. Their articulatory adjustment

involves the back of the tongue and the velum.


FIGURE 10.3 [g]/[k]

Action

Mouth

Tongue

Lips

Jaw

open


middle of tongue in contact with hard palate (they can be produced

with soft palate, but a more forward production is recommended);

tongue springs away as cords vibrate for [g] or air puff for [k]

inactive

no movement necessary in release of consonant; the tongue does all

the work in release

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid guttural, gulpy g's produced in back of throat.

Avoid faulty k's—croaking k's against soft palate; must be further forward.

Avoid pull back production in anticipation of the [1] in [gl] combinations—gleam,

glimpse, glade.

Aids for Projection

1. Take care not to release an explosion of air from behind tongue. Air should be

released no further back than from the hard palate.

2. Potentially throaty consonants—do not let them go back like they do colloquially.

Again, remember to use the plosive consonants appropriately to the musical cir-

cumstance.

With Thick Accompaniment Use Wet K's and G's

As with wet t's and d's, use wet k's and g's to cut through thick accompaniment or orches-

tration. For a wet g or k, to aid the forward release, think of the tongue in the [i] position

for the cutoff of final k's and [i] for the cutoff of final g's.

E X A M P L E S back [bae -^ k®]

look [lu k«]

big [bi -> gW]

plague [plei -> g(l)]


RULfS for [i)+g] or [nj atone;

1. [rj] is sounded alone when the root of the word Is a verb,

EXAMPLE singer

longing

2. [rj+g] is sounded when .the stem of the word does not form a verb,

EXAMPLE • finger

anguish

Exceptions: the comparative acfjective forms

EXAMPLE long young

longer younger

longest youngest

For initial wet k's and g's, anticipate the consonants by preparing tongue for [i] vowel.

E X A M P L E S keep = (i) -> [kip] cast = (i) -> [kaest]

go = (i) -> [gou] guide = (i) -> [gaid]

With Light Accompaniment and Microphones

Use Dry G's and K's

Use dry g's and k's for light accompaniment and with microphones. For a dry g or k,

remember to avoid a forward release of the consonant with a puff of air.

Drill the following consonants using dry g's and k's. Say these word groups, making

sure you release the g's and k's with a final [9] with cutoff.

pig—pick egg—ache brogue—broke lug—luck

gape—cape girl—curl good—could God—cod

For the initial consonant clusters kr, gr, kw, kl, and gl, insert a very quick [&•], [u], or

[3] vowel between the consonants to elongate the beginning of a stressed word or stressed

syllable of a stressed word.

Word of Caution

Never insert a schwa [9] unless in a consonant cluster with an 1. For the semi-glide con-

sonants in clusters, only their related vowel can be inserted. This applies to all consonant

clusters with glide consonants, not just those with k's and g's. In other words:

Insert [u] only when [w] is in an initial cluster

E X A M P L E queen [k<u>win]

choir

glance

cloud

E X A M P L E S cross great


[i] only when [j] is in an initial stressed cluster

E X A M P L E music [m^juzik]

[a^] only when [J/R] is in initial stressed cluster

E X A M P L E green [g<*>jin]

[9] only when [1] is in initial stressed cluster

E X A M P L E blow [b<a)lou]

Tips for Vocal Ease

For difficult settings of words with an initial [g], substitute the Italian [k] as in the word

"caro." This will place the g further forward and keep it from being too guttural. Be care-

ful, however, not to aspirate the [k] or else "God" will sound like "cod"!

Many singers find that using an [i] rather than a [9] as a final shadow vowel keeps the

voice placed higher and more forward. Also, the frontal release of the initial d's and k's

help the vowel placement. See pages 136-37 for further details on shadow vowels.


E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice articulating both wet and dry g's and k's in the various positions:

Initial Medial Final

care become drink

count murky music

king waken invoke

gift begin beg

guess forget vague

guard tiger intrigue

2. Transcribe the following words, inserting the correct extra vowel into the conso-

nant clusters.

[ki/R] [gj/R] [kw] [kl] [gl]

crow grow quick clear glad

cruel grew quaint clasp glide

Christ grab quiet classify glutton

crash green question climb glimpse

IMPLOSION RULE When final the cognate pairs of the stop^ptosives, [b/p],

[d/t], [gjk] are found back to back at a fast or moderate tempo, hold or irrtpfode

the first consonant and sourtd only the second one.

Implosions

An implosion occurs when two plosive cognate consonants are back to back in adjacent

words. Because these consonants are stop-plosives, we link them by holding or stopping

down on the first consonant in our mouth and then sounding only the second consonant.

In other words, the implosion occurs when two plosive consonants appear adjacent to

each other as final and initial consonants. The plosive cognates are as follows.

p & b d & t g & k

Implosions occur only with texts that are set musically at fast or moderate tempi. Im-

plosions are a very useful aid in cleaning up the legato line. Within a phonetic transcrip-tion, an implosion should be notated: [ /_ ]

The sensation of imploding a plosive consonant is very similar to the doubling of the

stop double consonants in Italian. For example, the doubling in the word "tut:to" in Ital-

ian, feels similar to the word phrase "want to" in English. Try the following words andphrases in Italian and English to get used to the sensation:


Italian English

p & b

lab:bro sleej^peacefully

cu^_brings

stee^bankd & t

at:to ligh^_touch

dilet:to ha^_done

hea<^tone

g & k

leg:go do^goes

drink^cold milk

backgammon


Notice how the legato is improved by the use of implosions in the musical examples below:

Tis the gifO° be simple

Quietly flowing (J = 72)i , mp

legato, simply

Tis the gif/v Jo be sim-ple 'tis the gif/ to be free

("Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs, Aaron Copland)

On my black^coffin let there be strown

On my blacV cof - fin let there be strown;

Even in some musical settings when there is a rest between the two plosive conso-

nants, an implosion can be more appropriate than sounding the consonants separately.

Consider this example, also from Dominick Argento's Six Elizabethan Songs:

And mill/ comes fro - zen home in pail;

("Winter" from Six Elizabethan Songs, Dominick Argento)

At this brisk tempo, sounding two [k]'s is almost comical; if "Milk" and "comes" are not

imploded, you might sound like you have a speech impediment (or at least supply your

own rhythm section)!

Exception: The only exception to this rule occurs with verbs with "ed" endings in past

tense followed by a word beginning with a [tj. When the "ed" is imploded, the verb sounds

like it is in present tense. For "ed" endings, make sure not to implode the final consonant

in order to keep the correct verb tense.

("Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs, Dominick Argento)


If imploded:

E X A M P L E S "asked to be" sounds like "ask to be"

"desired to go" sounds like "desire to go"

"judged truthful" sounds like "judge truthful'

[d3]/[tj] Production

The consonants [d?>] and [tj] are cognate pairs that are lingua-alveolar and lingua-palatal

involving the tongue against the front and sides of the palate.

Action

Tongue

Lips

Jaw

FIGURE 10.4 [ds]/[tj]

sides of tongue against upper molars, flattened tip on gum ridge, and

front section of hard palate

sound is produced when air escapes while the tip releases with

spring-like movement forming a groove in the tongue

[d] and [3] blend simultaneously

inactive

no required involvement

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid mushy [ds] caused by escape of air over sides of tongue rather than over

the tip. This problem is called lateralization. To correct lateralization, make sure

sides of tongue are in contact with the molars.

Avoid unintentional exchanging of [tj] for [ds].

Drill the following pairs:

perch—purge batch—badge etch—edge

These affricates are particularly difficult for non-native speakers. Because many

languages do not contain [tj] and [03], many non-native speakers sometimes

substitute [J] and [3] or [ts] and [dz].

Aids for Projection

1. No compression or explosion of air. It destroys the legato.

2. Substitute [tj] for [ds] in vocally difficult settings. The consonant [tj] is easier

to project and the substitution cannot be aurally discerned over an instrumental

accompaniment.

E X A M P L E From The Crucible by Robert Ward: "I do not judge you, John"s'ng [trj -» [tJ01"1] rather than [d3an]

EXERCISES

1. Practice articulating these consonants in various positions:


charm nature witch

cherish butcher match


1UL1 [ds| and [tf] cannot be Imploded, Both must be pronounced in alt

tempi.

EXAMPLE orange jj futce large || gem

each I) child such jj Joy

CHAPTER TEN The Plosives

champion furniture beach

childlike

joy

jelly

George

judah

teacher

major

rejoice

Egyptimagination

sandwich

merge

besiege

marriage

courage

2. Practice separating the following words phrases:

such || generosity

George || jests

purge || jealousy

marriage || choice

sage ||

judge

judgment

|| judiciously

Save Breath for Shadow Vowels

One of the biggest impediments to transmitting a complete thought to the listener is the

unintentional practice of not saving enough breath to fully finish the last word of a phrase.

This is not only a problem that singers have. Start listening to sermons and lectures and

notice how many speakers drop off the final word of their sentences. It is often a very frus-

trating experience for the listener. In English sentence structure, the last word of a sen-

tence is usually a stressed word. If we lose the last word, we have often lost the entire

thought.

Let's analyze the following text:

Weep you no more, sad fountains;

What need you flow so fast?

Look how the snowy mountains

Heaven's sun doth gently waste!

But my sun's heavenly eyes

View not your weeping,

That now lies sleeping

Softly now, softly lies sleeping.

(Anonymous, "Weep You No More,Sad Fountains" from John Dowland'sThird Book of Songs)

Notice what happens when every word at the end of the poetic line is dropped.

135


Weep you no more sad ?

What need you flow so ?

Look how the snowy ?

Heaven's sun doth gently ?

After four or five phrases like that, the listener usually stops listening. Their mind starts

to wander; they might start thinking about what will be offered at the coffee bar during the

interval! The way to prevent this major disconnect is to make sure the entire thought is

transmitted to them. To do that, the final word of the phrase must be well supported and

finished fully.

Other non-communicative things can potentially occur in the next part:

But my sun's heavenly (ice)

View not your weepy

While she lies sleepy

Softly now, softly lies sleepy

This happens because the final consonant of the final word is not projected. It is al-

ways unintentional. No one really plans on changing "sleeping" to "sleepy" or "weeping"

to "weepy." If the support is dropped before the final consonant is projected, then it is lost.

This frequently happens in singing because the pedagogical focus is always on singing

through the vowel sounds and the final consonants are left to their own devices.

To eliminate this problem, sing a shadow vowel: a short vowel with the release of the

final consonant. The preferred vowel to sing would be a short "ih" vowel [i] rather than a

schwa [9], which makes English start to sound very Italianate.

E X A M P L E Thy hand(l) Belinda, darkness shades me,

More I would(l), but death invades me.

(Henry Purcell, "When I am Laid in Earth"

from Dido and Aeneas)

Here are some rules to consider regarding shadow vowels.

RULES FOR SHADOW VOWiiS

In this chapter, the use of shadow vowels after the final voiced plosive conso-

nants [b], [d], and [g] has been discussed. Actually all final voiced consonants


Sure on this shin - ing night Of star - made shad-ows rou - ndw

("Sure on This Shining Night," Samuel Barber)

Observe shadow vowels in the following two musical examples:

Andante 50

that are followed by a rest or punctuation should be projected by use of a

shadow vowel on the cut-off. Below are some parameters for their use.

1. The preferred shadow vowel is an [i] vowel. If a [a] is used, the tfext begins to

sound very Italianate.

2. Shadow vowels are used at the end of a phrase to keep the test word of the

phrase supported and projected.

3. They also can be used to project a final [b], [d], or [g] of a stressed worcf-type

when It is followed by a consonant. If a shadow vowel is inserted in the rWddle

of the line/ it should be sung on the pitch of the word following It

EXAMPLE And are up-gathere ~»d(1) now like sleeping flowers*

4. A shadow vowel should be very short, roughly the length of a 16th notfe

5. A shadow vowel at the end of a phrase should be loud enough to be heard

over the accompaniment but softer than the primary vowel of the word it

finishes. In other words, a shadow vowel is there to serve the projected of

the text but should not draw attention away from the stressed words of thfi

phrase,

6. for microphones: If you are singing with a body mike, you will only need to

put shadow vowels on final [b], [d], or [g]f Just sing through the final nasal

and fricative consonants and they will be sufficiently projected by the mike.

* More detailed applications can be found in chapter 13.


Some-times a dis - tant tel - e - phone.

("Lonely House" from Street Scene, Kurt Weill)

E X E R C I S E S

Transcribe the following texts in IPA, indicate implosions to improve the legato, and

insert shadow vowels to project the final voice consonants:

AS

I want to be where the music comes from.

Where the clock stops, where it's now.

I want to be with the friends around me,

Who have found me, who show me how.

I want to sing to the early morning,

See the sunlight melt the snow;

And oh, I want to grow.

I want to wake to the living spirit

Here inside me, where it lies.

I want to listen til' I can hear it,

Let it guide me, and realize

That I can go with the flow unending,

That is bending, that is real;

And oh, I want to feel.

I want to walk in the earthly garden,

Far from cities, far from fear.

I want to talk to the growing garden,

Some - times I hear a stair - case creak - ing,

.n(I)


To the devas*, to the deer,

And to be one with the river flowing,

Breezes blowing, sky above;

And oh, I want to love.

(Lee Hoiby, "Where the Music Comes From")

AS

Do not despise the rose because its beauty is manifest,

Do not decry the thistle for its elusive grace,

I love what must be searched as well as read'ly offered,

If joy or pain accompany the gift.

Your easy words and kisses neither burned nor stung.

You left me at dawn on a dreamless bed.

(Gian Carlo Menotti, The Idle Gift)

* devas [deivas]: nature spirits.


CHAPTER ELEVEN

The Fricatives

A fricative is a speech sound in which breath passes through the articulators so as to cre-

ate frictional noises. Most fricatives occur as cognate pairs. There are ten fricative conso-

nants in English in four cognate pairs: [v]/[f], [z]/[s], [sMJ], [9]/[6], and [Av]/[h]. The con-

sonants [z], [s], [3], [J] are also called sibilants. A sibilant is a speech sound in which

breath passes through the articulators so as to create a hissing sound.

With the exception of the stop-plosives, all other consonants in English are continu-

ants and can be sustained.

[v]/[f] are labio-dental. They are produced with contact between the lower lip and

upper teeth.

[z]/[s] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue between the upperand lower teeth.

[sMJ] are lingua-palatal. They are produced with the tongue against the sides andfront of teeth.

[5]/[9] are lingua-dental. They are produced with the tongue in contact with theupper front teeth.

[h] is glottal. The sound is articulated in the glottis or throat.

[M] is a bilabial consonant glide.

Merges: The Legato Builder

In the previous chapter, I focused on a technique for improving the legato line with the

plosive consonants: the use of an implosion of the cognate pairs [b]/[p], [d]/[t], [g]/[k]

141


AN OVERVIEW OF THE FRICATIVE CONSONANTS

1. In the production of all the fricatives, always keep the exterior facial muscles

and throat uninvolved.

2. Never blow breath. There should be no sensation of air, only resonance.

3. Except for special circumstances, immediately voice the voiced consonants

with prompt vocal vibration. Do not initiate with the voiceless cognates. It

destroys the legato.

E X A M P L E divine [divain] not [dif>vain]

4. Only adequate duration conveys these consonants to the audience, not air

pressure.

5. Keep time value of the duration of the stressed consonants consistent with the

English stress patterns. As in the word "velvet," the initial [v] would be tripled

while the second [v] that begins the unstressed syllable would be short.

6. Any intentional substitutions of consonant cognates for projection purposes

must not be discernible to the audience.

7. The unvoiced consonants must be heard long enough to be recognized. They

must be held longer than their voiced counterparts.

8. Like the plosive consonants, the fricatives need as much abdominal support as

the vowels require.

Plosive consonants implode when the cognate pairs are back to back; fricative

consonants merge when they are back to back.

when they are adjacent to each other in a vocal line. A similar principle can be applied to

fricative consonants [v]/[f], [z]/[s], b]/[J], [9]/[6], and [MJ/[h] when they are adjacent to

each other in a vocal line. Since the fricatives are sustaining consonants, rather than stop

consonants like the plosives, they can be sustained together without any stop of tone. This

sustained connection of one fricative consonant to another is called a merge.

RULE A Merge is the seamless sustaining of two adjacent consonants |o as to

not allow an intrusive vowel to accidentally occur between them, thereby dis-

turbing the textual line. If the articulators are dropped for even a split second

while adjusting for the position of the next consonant a schwa or lorne other

weakened vowel sound will be heard between the two consonants.

CHAPTER ELEVEN The Fricatives 143

The symbol for a merge is: [_]. Throughout this chapter, there will be discussions

about the merging of the fricative consonants.

All Fricatives Can Merge

Although each of the cognate pairs of the fricative consonants have been discussed sepa-

rately, in actuality, all fricative consonants can merge when they are adjacent to each other

in a vocal line. In other words, any combination of the fricative consonants back to back

can form a merge. In reality, any combination of fricatives can merge with any other sus-

taining consonants. See chapter 13.

E X A M P L E S |TJ[f]

Rushorward

[v][8] [z] [0]

doesthirst

[3] [v]

mirage^vanishes

[v]/[f] Production

The sounds [v] / [f] are labio-dental fricatives involving the lower lip and upper teeth.

These sounds are made by bringing up the inner edges of the lower lip against the upper

teeth. The sounds are produced when the breath [f] or the voice [v] escapes through a nar-

row opening between the upper teeth and lower lip.

FIGURE 11.1 [v]/[f]

oOhis


Action

Tongue relaxed, low in mouth

Teeth slightly apart

cutting edge of upper teeth rests lightly inside lower lip

Lips relaxed and apart

Very little air required

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not UNintentionally exchange [f] for [v].

E X A M P L E S of: [av] not [af]

I have to go: [haev tu] not [haef tu]

Do not overblow—easy air flow, no breath pressure.

Do not omit the [f] before the [6] in words like fifth or twelfth.

Aids for Projection and Legato

1. To avoid an intrusive schwa [a] after [v] as in the word "love," wait for the vibra-

tion of [v] to cease and then move the articulators.

2. With instrumental accompaniment, use a shadow vowel [i] after final v and a

whispered [i] after final [f] followed by a rest or pause in order to better project.

E X A M P L E S dove[dAV«] grief [gjif(l)]

3. With thick orchestral accompaniment, final f's that end a phrase may be projected

easier if [f] is switched to [v] on the release.

E X A M P L E S life [laif -> v«] belief [bilif -> v«]

RULE Merge final [v/f] followed by an initial [v/f} with one continuous

sound.

E X A M P L E S live^vitally live^forever

life^varies griePfalls


EXERCISES

1. Practice articulating v's and f's in the various positions:

Initial

fame

photo

friend

fortune

fury

voice

Venus

virtue

valley

villain

Medial

infamous

coffee

suffer

coffin

offer

evil

avoid

divine

Savior

invade

Final

grief

laugh

leaf

strife

nymph

love

eve

shelve

groove

move

2. Transcribe the following text and intone it. Where applicable, use glide vowels

and breath lifts to treat the stressed words, and add shadow vowels to project

the final voiced consonant before punctuation or a breath and merges for legato.

Music when soft voices die,

Vibrates in the memory;

Odours when sweet violets sicken,

Live within the sense they quicken.

Rose leaves when the rose is dead,

Are heaped for the beloved's bed;

And so thy thoughts, when thou art gone,

Love itself, shall slumber on

(Percy Bysshe Shelley / Ernest Gold, "Music When Soft Voices Die")

3. Transcribe the following aria into IPA. Where applicable, use glide vowels and

breath lifts to treat the stressed words. Add shadow vowels to project the final

voiced consonants before punctuation or a breath.

Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird,

How is it you sing?

How can you jubilate, sitting in cages,

Never taking wing?


Outside the sky waits, beckoning,

Just beyond the bars.

How can you remain, staring at the rain,

maddened by the stars?

How is it you sing anything?

How is it you sing?

Whence comes this melody constantly flowing?

Is it rejoicing or merely hallowing?

Are you discussing or fussing or simply dreaming?

Are you crowing? Are you screaming?

Ringdove and robinet, is it for wages,

Singing to be sold?

Have you decided it's safer in cages,

Singing when you're told?

My cage has many rooms, damask and dark.

Nothing there sings, not even my lark.

Larks never will, you know, when they're captive.

Teach me to be more adaptive. Ah,

Green finch and linnet bird, nightingale, blackbird,

Teach me how you sing.

If I cannot fly let me sing.

(Stephen Sondheim, "Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from Sweeney Todd)

[z]/[s] Production

The consonants [z]/[s] are lingua-alveolar fricatives involving the blade of the tongue con-

tacting the alveolar ridge.

Action

Teeth slightly apart

Tongue sides of tongue press against upper back teeth, sealing off breath point

tip of tongue toward exact center of upper front teeth

Lips keep lips symmetrical

Vibration occurs between tip of tongue and the gum ridge


FIGURE 11.2 [z]/ [s]

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid dull sound, which occurs if tongue tip is down; there is more resonance with

tongue tip up by gum ridge.

Avoid lisping s's.

LISPING S

1. Frontal lisp: substituting [0] for [s] and [9] for [z] caused by tongue touching

gum ridge.

2. Lateral lisp: aspirated [I] position substituted for [s] or [z] caused by sides of

tongue not in contact with upper teeth.

3. Effeminate s caused by top and bottom teeth together and tongue groove

too narrow.

4. Whistling s caused by tongue tip too far back or by tongue tip against lower

gum or teeth.


DRILLS FOR OVERCOMING LISPING S AND Z

For S's

Practice ts/s alternation:

E X A M P L E S tsee/see, tsay/say, tsaw/saw, tsew/sew, tsoon/soon

Practice ns/s alternation:

E X A M P L E S nsun/sun, nso/so, nsaid/said, nsign/sign, nseal/seal

For Z's

Practice dz/z alternation:

E X A M P L E S dzone/zone, dzoo/zoo, dzip/zip, dzeal/zeal

Practice nz/z alternation:

E X A M P L E S nzone/zone, nzoo/zoo, nzip/zip, nzeal/zeal


1. There should be no shadow vowel needed on final [z] when the piano accompa-

niment is very light.

Drill the following words, saying them with an exaggerated shadow vowel; then

say them ending only with the buzz of the fricative consonant:

comes [kAinz(i)] tells [telz(l)] please [pliz(l)]

[kAm —> z] [tel —> z] [pli -> z]

lives [livz(i)] loves [Lwz(i)] leaves [livz(l)]

[liv -» z] [Lvv -» z] [liv —> z]

2. With instrumental accompaniment, add a whispered [i] for final [s] followed by a

rest or pause, and a shadow vowel [i] after a final [z] followed by a rest or pause.

weeks [wiks(I)] laughs [laefs(1)] sets [sets(I)]

pause [poz(l)] eyes [aiz(l)] rose [J/ROUZ(I)]

3. For final [s] / [z] followed by initial [s] / [z], merge the consonants into one

continuous sound without any intervening vowels.

E X A M P L E S less^sweet yes,~sir for Mistake

life's^zest his~zeal says^Zeus


Expressive Doublings of the Fricatives

RULE To bring out the expressive qualities of the text, double and triple the

initial consonants of the stressed words and syllables of important words. This is

called an expressive doubling. This can be accommodated rhythmically by insert-

ing a voiced or unvoiced grace note before the beat.

Because the fricative consonants are sustaining consonants, they can be doubled and

tripled to bring out and heighten the stressed words in a vocal line. Let's look at an excerpt

from the Finzi setting of the Shakespeare song "Fear No More the Heat of the Sun." Try

reading the text first without the music and experiment with doubling the initial conso-

nants of the words you want to stress. The consonant doublings can transform a text read-

ing from bland to captivating when we begin to use fricative consonants in this way.

Fear no more the heat o' the sun,

Nor the furious winter's rages

Thou thy worldly task is done

Home art gone, and ta'en thy wages;

(William Shakespeare / Gerald Finzi,"Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun"from Let Us Garlands Bring)

Now try it in the musical setting. To notate a consonant doubling in a text, merely

write two consonants and insert a colon between them, that is [f:f], [h:h], [s:s] and so on.

Fifear no more the h:heat o' the s:sun

("Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun," Gerald Finzi)

EXAMPLE Voiced grace note: v:voice Unvoiced grace note: s:sun

This will be discussed in depth in chapter 13.

Grave c. 42


Now let's try out this technique on some Wordsworth. Recite the following text using

glides, breath lifts, shadow vowels, merges, and expressive doublings:

The world is too much with us; late and soon,

Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers;

Little we see in Nature that is ours;

We have given our hearts a way, a sordid boon!

The sea that bares her bosom to the moon;

The winds that will be howling at all hours,

And are up-gathered now like sleeping flowers;

For this, for everything, we are out of tune;

It moves us not. —

(William Wordsworth, excerpt from"The World Is Too Much with Us")

The stressed words that begin with consonant clusters may be stressed by adding the re-

lated vowel sounds the consonant clusters si, str, skr, skw, and spr in order to highlight

them in a musical phrase:

RULES FOR FINAL S PRONUNCIATION

1 » Pronounce [s] if s is preceded by an w/tvo/ced consonant.

EXAMPLE mists [mists] lasts [Jaests]

2. Pronounce [i] if s Is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel.

EXAMPLE sounds [sawdz] voices

3. For plurals, the same principle applies: [s] is preceded by a voiceless conso-

nant; [z] is preceded by a voiced consonant or vowel

EXAMPLE ships [fipsj tracks [fciaeks]

musicians [mjuzijanz] memories

E X A M P L E S sleep

scream

spring

strong

squeeze


E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice articulating [s] and [z] in the various positions.

Initial

sound

sweet

circle

suddenly

Sunday

zoo

zeal

zither

zephyr

Zion

Medial

answer

useful

mystery

excellent

hospital

lazy

razor

buzzing

Thursday

desire

Final

nice

voice

rejoice

morose

release

trees

stars

prize

surprise

breathes

2. Transcribe and intone the following text. Treat the stressed words with glides,

breath lifts, merges, and doubled consonants (expressive doublings). Use shadow

vowels to project the final voiced consonants:

Sleep, child, lie quiet, let be:

Now like a still wind, a great tree,

Night upon this city moves,

Like leaves, our hungers and our loves.

Sleep, rest easy, while you may.

Soon it is day.

And elsewhere likewise love is stirred;

Elsewhere the speechless song is heard:

Wherever children sleep, or wake,

Souls are lifted, hearts break,

Sleep, be careless while you can.

• 4. Th£ same ai$0''»pH s for possessive prooOyns.

EXAMPLE' Settfs Tom's theirs

5. All *«?. <ndfr)9jiwe fSfooeuhced'as or

EXA-Mfif ' ".f>|yste: kisses [kis£/iz]


Soon you are man.

And ev'rywhere good men contrive

Good reasons not to be alive.

And even should they build their best

No man could bear tell you the rest.

Sleep, child, for your parent's sake.

Soon you must wake.

(James Agee / Thomas Pasatieri, "A Lullaby")

3. Transcribe and intone the following text. Indicate the expressive doubling of the

stressed words and treat as in 2.

Oh sleep! Oh sleep why dost thou leave me?

Why thy visionary joys remove?

Oh sleep, again deceive me,

To my arms restore my wand'ring love.

(G. F. Handel, from Semele)

4. Transcribe and intone the following text. Indicate the expressive doubling of the

stressed words and treat as in 2.

Scenes from my childhood are with me,

I'm in the lot behind our house upon the hill,

a spring day's sun is setting,

Mother with Tom in her arms

is coming towards the garden;

the lettuce rows are showing green.

Thinner grows the smoke o'er the town,

stronger comes the breeze from the ridge,

Tis after six, the whistles have blown,

The milk train's gone down the valley.

Daddy is coming up the hill from the mill,

We run down the lane to meet him.

But today! In freedom's cause

Tom sailed away for over there!

Scenes from my childhood are floating

before my eyes.

(Charles Ives, "Tom Sails Away")


5. Practice the opening to "Tom Sails Away," sounding or preparing all consonants of

stressed words (voiced or unvoiced, sustaining or unsustaining) in the time of a

grace note before the beat. First speak in rhythm, then intone it, and finally sing

it on the actual pitches.

slowly and quietly

Scenes from my child

in the lot be - hind our1:1

house uph:h

on the hill,h:h

("Tom Sails Away," Charles Ives)

Note: You have the artistic license to voice consonants longer or sooner than

the grace note value indicated, but you should form the habit early of reserving

lengthy consonant production for occasional emphasis; most consonants should

be sounded or prepared in the rhythm of a grace note.

Tips for Vocal Ease

Merging one sustaining consonant to another greatly improves the legato line and guards

against the accidental insertion of an intrusive [9] when connecting two consonants back

to back, for example, "Sure on [9] this shining [a] night." When these extra vowels are

added, it destroys the legato and draws attention away from the stressed word-types that

need to be targeted for the listener.

In this chapter, only the fricative cognates [v/f],

merging together. Remember that any combination of the sustaining consonants should be

merged together when they are back to back. A detailed discussion of this can be found in

chapter 13.

hood are with me, I'm

[s/z], and [J/j] are shown


[3]/[f] Production

Lingua-palatal fricative consonants involve the tongue and the hard palate.

FIGURE 11.3 [3]/[J]

Action

Tongue

Lips

entire tongue further back than for [z/s]

tongue surface flat, middle arched

sides of tongue against upper molars

blade of tongue almost touches palate just behind gum ridge

lips slightly rounded, pursed forward

When breath or voice is forced through tongue groove and narrow

aperture between upper and lower teeth this frictional sound results

Pitfalls to Avoid

Many of the same problems arise as with [s] / [z] and [tj] / [ds], including lateraliza-

tion, whistling, and lower lip action.


If there is difficulty forming [3] but not [J], drill back and forth between the cognates:

E X A M P L E (fl-» [3]-» [fl-> [3]

Avoid lisped [J] caused by flaccid tongue. The air must be sealed off with the tongue

against upper molars. Use both tip and blade of tongue pointed toward hard

palate. Drill:

E X A M P L E whispered

This keeps tongue high enough.


1. Lip rounding is essential and helps project consonant.

2. For [JJ, feel unpressured, voiceless breath over tongue; easy, almost resonant air.

3. Only adequate duration conveys these consonants to audience, not pressure.

4. No intrusive vowels should be added between initial or final [3] or [J] when they

are preceded or followed by a word beginning or ending with another fricative

consonant. Merge the final and initial consonants together in one continuous

sound.

E X A M P L E S rushPforth mirage~vanished hushTceased

beige^fountain this^shining

R U L E Merge initial + final [3] and [f] into one continuous sound with no inter-vening vowel.

EXAMPLES freshCshowers blush^shyly wasr£shirt

E X E R C I S E S

1. Practice articulating [3] and [f] in the various positions:

Initial

sure

ship

shame

Chicago

shackles

Medial

fishing

precious

ocean

patient

motion

Final

flush

dish

mash

leash

crash


(No English

words begin

with [3].)

treasure

vision

casual

confusion

azure

beige

corsage

mirage

camouflage

garage*

2. Transcribe the following texts into RP or MA. Indicate any merges, implosions,

and expressive doublings of stressed words.

The people that walked in darkness

have seen a great light:

they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death,

upon them hath the light shined.

He shall feed his flock like a shepherd:

he shall gather the lambs with his arm,

and gently lead those that are with young.

(G. F. Handel, From Messiah)

3. Transcribe into colloquial American** and treat the stressed words as indicated in

the exercise above:

Ev'ry ranch hand I ever knew

has had a dream of settlin' down.

We've all had dreams of buyin' a home.

but none of us had ever made it come true.

I don't know why it doesn't come true.

I just know it never does.

Maybe we're just born to wander;

maybe we're just born to live alone.

Maybe we'd be unhappy any other way.

Who knows? Who can say?

I don't know why we're the way we are

but this much I know:

Ranch-hands die in a bare, cold bunkhouse:

Ranch-hands die with empty hands;

* Garage has two acceptable pronunciations with final [3] or final [d3].

** See the glossary p. 293 for the discussion on coloquial American pronunciation.


Ranch-hands die alone:

strangers to the world.

(Carlisle Floyd, "Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men)

[d]/[6] Production

The consonants [5]/[0] are lingua-dental consonants involving the tongue and the upper

and lower teeth. These cognate pairs are produced with the tip of the tongue lightly placed

between the teeth.

Action

Tongue

Lips

FIGURE 11.4

tongue tip makes light, firm contact with lower and upper teeth

tingling sensation on tongue tip

lips relaxed and apart

very little breath used

breath or voice escapes through the space between tongue and teeth,

which causes frictional noise


Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid substitution of d or t for [5] or [0]; street talk "Ya bedda go wid me!"

Avoid omitting [5] and [0] completely as in words like "widths," "baths," "sixths,"

and "clothes."

These sounds are problematic for non-native speakers. [9] and [0] do not exist in

German, French, Italian, Chinese, and Spanish. Native speakers of these lan-

guages usually substitute [t/d] or [s/z]. Be careful also not to substitute [f] for [0]

when in a final position.

With versus With

R U L E Pronounce "with" with a voiced th [8] if it is followed by a word begin-ning with a vowel or voiced consonant Pronounce "wMi" with an anvpteed *fh*[9] if it is followed by a word beginning with an unvoiced consonant

E X A M P L E with this withasonf within without

but

with fire with thirst


E X A M P L E If with all your hearts ye truly seek me

1. In passages with thick orchestral accompaniment, final unvoiced th [0] may be

released with sung shadow vowel or a quick switch to its voiced cognate [5] with

the cut off.

E X A M P L E S earth-

health-

death-

2. Final initial should be MERGED into one continuous sound

with no intervening vowel.

E X A M P L E witrTthis withTthirst


EXERCISES

1. Practice articulating each of the English vowel sounds with [5] and [6] preceding

them. Work the cheeks and jaw and try to leave tongue tip relaxed over front

teeth.

Initial

theme

think

thought

thanks

thistle

them

those

that

though

there

Medial

youthful

nothing

mythical

lengthen

paths

father

either

leather

gather

brother

Final

wrath

mouth

oath

hearth

breath

with

lithe

breathe

soothe

tithe

3. Drill the following words whose voiceless singular endings become voiced when

plural.

Unvoiced Voiced*

bath baths

cloth cloths

mouth mouths

path paths

oath oaths

*For the words youth, truth, sheath (noun), and wreath (noun) both the unvoiced and voicedendings in the plural are correct. Use whichever ending you prefer.

Legato

2. Practice articulating and in the various positions.


4. Drill the following words, making sure to articulate all the consonants in the final

consonant clusters.

Unvoiced Voiced

myth, myths breathe, breathes

earth, earths writhe, writhes

depth, depths lathe, lathes

width, widths clothe, clothes

length, lengths teethe, teethes

5. Transcribe the following text into AS and treat the stressed words as indicated in

the previous exercises:

Do you know the land where the lemon trees bloom?

And oranges like gold amid the leafy gloom?

A gentle wind from bluest heaven blows.

The myrtle green, and high the laurel grows?

Do you know that land?

'Tis there, Ah! 'tis there!

O my beloved,

Ah, 'tis there I dream we would go.

(Mark Adamo, "Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women)

[h]/[/v\] Production

The consonant [h] is a glottal fricative that takes on the articulatory characteristics of the

sound that follows.

Action

Tongue no specific tongue action for [h]

Lips no specific lip action for [h]

Before [h] is heard, articulators take on the position of the vowel that follows.

The glottis (space between vocal cords) is open as breath of [h] passes through.

The cords close with phonation of oncoming vowel.


FIGURE 11.5 [h]

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not produce [h] too far back. In everyday speech [h] is guttural and back.

Remedy: prepare the vowel that follows and release [h] in the forward resonance of

the vowel.

The consonant [M] is a bilabial fricative consonant involving the two lips. It is made

up of the two sounds [h] and [w], articulated simultaneously. The consonant [M]

is sounded in words that begin with a "wh" spelling, as in the words "what,"

"where," "when," "why," "whether," "whistle," and "whither."

Action

Tongue

Lips

tongue tip behind lower front teeth

back of tongue raised

rounded for [u]

Articulate [h] simultaneously with [w] glide

Pitfalls to Avoid

Do not substitute [w] for [A\] in words that begin with a "wh" spelling. In colloquial

speech, [w] is regularly substituted for [A\]. For good speech and for singing, [h]

should be sounded. There should be a difference between the following words:

[M] [w] [M] [w] [M] [w]

"which" and "witch" "whether" and "weather" "whine" and "wine"


FIGURE 11.6 [M]


1. The consonant [h] is very difficult to project over instrumental accompaniment.

Whenever possible substitute the German phoneme [cj in its place. The phoneme

[9] exists already in English in the words human, humanity, and the name, Hubert.

It can be easily substituted in words where [h] is followed by [i], [i], or [ei].

E X A M P L E S

2. For [h] with all the open vowel sounds, you must just simply use a regular elon-

gated [h]. Any kind of substitution for an h followed by an open vowel in English

turns the [h] into an [x] as in the Scottish word "loch." An initial [x] in at the

front of an English word would make it sound Slavic, which would only confuse

the listener. The best solution is to merely elongate the initial [h] of a stressed

word as air and support permits. Admittedly, this coordination is difficult to

heal

Hear

hill

hate

him


master. The ideal is that it still sound like an English [h] but with a very frontal

placement. The substitution of [5] for [h] on the words with [i], [i], or [ei] is very

easy to accomplish without much practice.

Hear ye, Is - ra - el! Hear what the Lord speak - eth:

("Hear Ye, Israel!" from Elijah, Felix Mendelssohn)

Note

This substitution should only be used with instrumental accompaniment or for tex-

tual settings in the passaggio and high range. Be very careful that the [9] not begin

to sound like [J] or a lisping lateral s.

3. The consonant [M] can be easily and expressively projected by inserting a [u] be-

tween the [h] and [w]. It is notated phonetically (U)[A\].

What[h(u)wAt]

a mov - ie! What a ter - ri - ble, aw - ful mov - ie!

("What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti, Leonard Bernstein)

Adagio. 80

E X A M P L E S what

why

where

when

other words, nouns, active verbs, and modifiers. Whin the tpterr^Wvepronouns "what/' "where/ "when," and "wh^begfej $ tpeistlojt ffe^ 3*6stressed. In otiier positions, they atfe imilHy'not strtsltdv

Allegro molto 144

RULE The related glide vowel should be added on stressed words only —in


EXERCISES

1. Transcribe the following text into RP and MA. Treat the text and make appropri-

ate substitutions for [h]:

Closely let me hold thy hand,

Storms are sweeping sea and land;

Love alone will stand.

Closely cling, for waves beat fast,

Foam flakes cloud the hurrying blast.

Love alone will last,

Kiss my lips, and softly say,

"Joy sea-swept, may fade today.

Love alone will stay."

(Edward Elgar, "In Haven" from Sea Pictures')

2. Transcribe the following text into RP and MA. Treat the text and make appropri-

ate substitutions for [h]:

Queen and Huntress,

Chaste and fair,

Now the sun is laid to sleep,

Seated in thy silver chair

State in wonted manner keep:

Hesperus entreats thy light,

Goddess excellently bright.

Earth, let not thy envious shade

Dare itself to interpose;

Cynthia's shining orb was made

Heaven to clear when day did close:

Bless us then, with wished sight,

Goddess excellently bright.

Lay thy bow of pearl apart,

And thy crystal shining quiver;

Give unto the flying hart,

Space to breathe, how short so ever:

Thou that mak'st a day of night,

Goddess, excellently bright!

(Ben Jonson / Dominick Argento, "Hymn" from Six Elizabethan Songs)


3. Drill the following word groups alternating the [w] and [M] sounds.

witch / which

woe / whoa

wine / whine

we'll / wheel

world / whirled

wile / while

were / whir

way / whey

wear / where

word / whirred

wet / whet

wail / whale

wit / whit

weather / whether

wither / whither

4. Transcribe the following text into IPA, using the [c] where applicable.

Hear ye, Israel! Hear what the Lord speaketh:

"Oh hadst thou heeded my commandments?"

Who hath believed our report?

To whom is the arm of the Lord revealed?

Thus saith* the Lord, the Redeemer of Israel

and his Holy One, to Him oppressed by Tyrants;

Thus saith the Lord:

"I am He that comforteth;

Be not afraid, for I am thy God;

I will strengthen thee!

Say who art thou?

that thou art afraid of a man that shall die;

and forgettest the Lord thy Maker,

who hath stretched forth the heavens,

and laid the earth's foundations.

Say who art thou?

I am He that comforteth;

Be not afraid, for I thy God

will strengthen thee."

(Felix Mendelssohn, From Elijah)

* "Saith" is the old form of "said" and should be pronounced with the same [t] vowel. Forexample, [st6], [std].

RUil The unstressed poetic -ec( and -eth endings as in "speafecth* and

"believed" are pronounced as an additional syllable and should be sung as

with a Slight coloration.


E X A M P L E S [spik

RULE In the words "comfort" and comforteth/' the second syllable should

never be sung with an [o9*/»f] diphthong It sounds very old-fashioned and af-

fected. It should be sung as it is spoken with either the r-colored schwa, j>]

for AS or reduced r coloration [arj for Rl* and MA, For British pronunciation,

see chapter 14.

Although not applicable to this text, another archaic holdover oratorio performance

practice is the pronunciation of the word "evil." It sounds very affected to pronounce it

[ivil]. Preferred would be [a] or [u] for the second syllable. Also "angel" sounds affected

when the second syllable is pronounced with [t]: [eind3£l]. Again, preferred would be

[B] or [u]: [eindâl] or [eind3ul].

As a memory aid, remember there is no "ill" in evil, no "fort" in "comfort" and no "gel"

in "angel."

5. Transcribe the following text into AS and substitute [c] for [h] where possible:

Must the winter come so soon?

Night after night I hear the hungry deer

wander weeping in the woods,

And from his house of brittle bark

hoots the frozen owl.


Here in this forest neither dawn nor sunset

marks the passing of the days.

It is a long winter here.


(Gian Carlo Menotti / Samuel Barber,

"Must the Winter Come So Soon?" from Vanessa)

[biliv

E X A M P L E S AS comfort

RP, MA comfort comforteth

comforteth

CHAPTER TWELVE

The Nasal ConsonantsPlus the Lyrical L

A nasal consonant is a speech sound that is produced by the vibration of breath that es-

capes through the nose when the velum (soft palate) is relaxed. The three nasal sounds are

[m], [n], and [rj]. The consonant [m] is a bilabial consonant; [n] is a lingua-alveolar con-

sonant; [rj] is lingua-velar (the back of the tongue against the velum).

The velar-valve reflex is an action common to all the nasal consonants. The relaxed

velum (soft palate) drops like a valve, enabling these sounds along with the breath to enter

the nasal passages.

[m] Production

The consonant [m] is a bilabial voiced nasal consonant made by closing the lips.

Action

Tongue flatin [a] position

Lips together

lips open with the formation of the next vowel or consonant

Teeth space between teeth

Jaw released

The consonant [m] is produced by closing the lips and relaxing the velum. When the velum

or soft palate is actively lowered, it allows the vibrating breath to escape through the nasal

cavity and out the nose.

167


FIGURE 12.1 [m]

DRILL

See note on page 1 71.

1. Intone or sing the vowel chart below, elongating the [m:] preceding each vowel:*

CHAPTER TWELVE The Nasal Consonants Plus the Lyrical L 169

2. Intone or sing the words below, elongating the [m]'s:

Initial

moon

many

month

march

middle

myth

murder

Medial

demean

umbrella

comedic

similar

demolish

diminish

humanity

Final

groom

autumn

form

game

climb

phlegm

column

3. Recite the following text, taking care with the [m]s:

It was many and many a year ago,

In a kingdom by the sea,

That a maiden there lived whom you may know

By the name of Annabel Lee;

And this maiden she lived with no other thought

Than to love and be loved by me.

I was a child and she was a child,

In this kingdom by the sea.

But we loved with a love that was more than love—

I and my Annabel Lee—

With a love that the winged seraphs of heaven

Coveted her and me.

(Edgar Allan Poe, "Annabel Lee")

[n] Production

The consonant [n] is a voiced nasal sound made by the closure created by the tongue tip

touching the alveolar ridge. The relaxed velum allows the breath to escape through the nose.

Action

Tongue tip against gum ridge

Jaw released

The consonant [n] is completed when tongue tip descends for the next consonant/vowel link.


FIGURE 12.2 [n]

DRILL

1. Go through all vowels on the vowel chart with an exaggerated [n:] preceding

them:


2. Intone and sing the elongated n's in the words below:*

* This is an exercise to feel the sensation of singing through the nasal final or medial conso-nants. Though they should be resonated, they should not be doubled in a song text. Thedoubled consonants should be reserved for the beginnings of stressed word-types only.

[q] Production

The consonant [q] is a voiced nasal sound made with strong contact between the middle

of the tongue and the hard palate. The velum is relaxed, allowing the sound to resonate

through the nose.** It appears frequently in German, infrequently in Italian, and not at all

in French. In English, [rj] is found in words such as sing, king, strong, yearning, among,

linger, and languish.

Action

Tongue middle of tongue raised toward hard palate

tongue tip down


Jaw released

Lips in position of following vowel

The action is finished when tongue shifts to accommodate the next vowel or consonant.

** Although colloquially [rj] is usually produced further back with the mid tongue raising toward the softpalate, greater resonance can be produced when this consonant is produced further forward using thehard palate. The more frontal production can also aid in relieving any sub-vocal tension that might occurfrom this inherently "throaty" consonant.

seen

burn

grin

sun

fan

tender

gentle

handsome

frantic


FIGURE 12.3 [rj]

DRILL

1. Intone and sing the following words, elongating the [nj:

strong

anger

length

English

languish

monkey

bingo

sank

thank

strength

tongue

meringue

penguin

young

anchor

linger

larynx

elongate

distinguish

ankle

sing

VERSUS

Sometimes in English, the "ng" spellings are pronounced [rj] as in the words

"sing" and "strong" and other times they are pronounced as [rj] + [g] as in the

words "linger" and "languish." Hopefully the rules below will help clarify when

the "g" should be sounded in words with "ng" spellings:


[rj] only when the root of the word forms a verb; the [g] is not sounded

Pitfalls to Avoid for Nasal Consonants

Avoid hypernasality—a vocal quality that can occur when too much of the vowel sound

following the nasal consonants is resonated in the nose.

Hypernasality Check

1. Place a tissue on a piece of cardboard and hold it under your nose, above your

upper lip.

2. Say out loud several times: [t], [d], [s], and [z]. The tissue should not move be-

cause the air is escaping through the mouth.

3. Now say [m], [n] and [rj]. The tissue ought to move because the air should escape

through the nose. If the tissue does not move, the air is trapped in the nasal pas-

sages and there is too much nasal resonance.

E X A M P L E sing singer

long longing

hang hanger

when the first syllable or root does not form a verb; sound both consonants

E X A M P L E finger

languor

extinguish

E X C E P T I O N The comparative adjective forms use [q+g] pronunciation

E X A M P L E long longer longest

young younger youngest

strong stronger strongest


Avoid denasality—insufficient nasal resonance. The vibrations escape through the

mouth rather than the nose. The "cold in the head" quality that most people have with

nasal congestion is a similar sensation to when there is a lack of air. Because of the lack

of air escaping through the nose on these consonants, [m], [n], and [rj] become different

sounds:

[m] becomes [b]

[n] becomes [d]

[n] becomes [g]

Exception: Although denasality is generally to be avoided, it does help with negotiating

words with nasal consonants set in the extreme ranges of the voice. See Aids for Projec-

tion and Vocal Ease below.

DRILL

1. While holding your nose to minimize nasal resonance, read the following poem.

You have produced denasality!

O mistress mine, where are you roaming?

O stay and hear your true love's coming,

That can sing both high and low.

Trip no further pretty sweeting,

journey's end in lover's meeting,

Ev'ry wise man's son doth know.

(William Shakespeare, "O Mistress Mine, Where Are You Roaming?")

Aids for Projection and Vocal Ease

As noted above, denasalizing the nasal consonants can help free up the voice in the ex-

treme upper register.

Use denasality for high notes and dramatic effect. Denasality can be very useful in

projecting notes that are set in the passaggio or extreme high range where singing true

nasal consonants can close up the voice. It can also be helpful in cutting through thick


accompaniment or orchestration, and can help intensify dramatic outbursts like "No!'

"Never!" "Mother!"

To use denasality effectively, begin with the correct consonant and then denasalize it

just before releasing into the vowel. Remember:

a denasalized [m] turns into a [b].

a denasalized [n] turns into a [d].

a denasalized [rj] turns into a [g].

How to Access Denasalized Consonants

First, start with one of the mainstays of the vocal warm-up.

THE FIVE NOTE ASCENDING AND DESCENDING SCALES

1. Sing a five note ascending and descending scale on meeee [mi:]:

• Start in the mid-range and repeat up by half steps until you are in the passaggio.

• When it becomes less comfortable to sing a fully nasalized [m], change it

slightly to more of a [b]. By switching it to a slight [b], you can keep the throat

open as you go into the high range.

• Now try the same scale releasing the [m]'s into more open vowels: [mo], [ma],

and so on, followed by switching the [m]'s to [b]'s.

2. Now repeat the five-note scale in the same range on nee [mi] and ngee [rji:]:

• As you approach the passaggio, start to switch to a partial [d] after the [n] and

a partial [g] after the ng [nj.

• Now try the scale with the open vowel: [no], [na], and so on, followed by

switching to [d]'s and [g]'s.

• Remember to only use partial b's, d's, and g's! It should feel more like a percus-

sive release into the vowel with the full plosives rather then the nasals.

3. Now try some sustained tones on [m], [n], and [rj]:

• In mid-range, sing: "me."

• Hum [m] and then release into [bi:] mmmmmmmmmmmmbi:. It should feel

like a a more percussive release into the vowel than when you release only into

an [m].

• Now hum on [n] and release into [di] nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnndi:

• Now hum on [rj] and release into [g]:

Cot it???

A Word of Caution

Make sure that "No!" does not sound as if you are singing "doe." Use a dentalized [d]

rather than an aspirated [d] after the [n]. For "mother" use a soft [b] sound rather than a

strong plosive [b] after the [m]. This will take some practice to get the right amount of [d]

and [b], but once mastered, this can greatly free up singing the nasal consonants and make

them very dramatic and expressive.

Here is a phrase from Carlisle Floyd's Susannah where I have found the denasaliza-

tion has helped a lot of sopranos.

("Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah, Carlisle Floyd)

On the release of "when I've seen," change the [n] to a soft [d]. In the following

phrase, "what's beyond them mountains," start with an [m] to finish "them" and release it

as a soft, partial [b] as you sing the high B-flat on "mountains." Also, to keep the voice

from closing down on the final [ns] of "mountains," leave off the [n]'s completely. In other

words, sing "mou-tets" but with a soft [b] at the beginning. There is a full brass section to

cut through and denazalizing the nasal consonants helps to keep the throat open and max-

imize the singer's volume.

As you are vocally climbing up the mountain at the end of "Climb Every Mountain"

from The Sound of Music, try:


4. Try these examples:

For "No!" sing

For "mother" sing

Final nasal releases at the ends of phrases are hard to negotiate. They can really clamp

down on the voice. Try changing them to the related plosive:

E X A M P L E "thing" can be released

When I've seen what's be - yond them mount-ains.


(breath!)

your

find

you

Til

It works!!

Another difficult passage that has tied up quite a few mezzos is the final section of

Dido's Lament.

re - member me, but ah![ji mbe mbar mbi]

for - get my— fate.

("Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas, Henry Purcell)

Put the first [m] of "remember" on the D, but release to a loose-lipped [b] for both

[m]'s on the high G's. It sings something like: [urn bem bsr mbi]. Just finesse the [b] so

that it does not sound too much like an actual [b].

Again, a word of caution -.finesse and subtlety are the name of the game! None of these

consonant substitutions should ever be discernible to the audience. It is part of the oper-

atic illusion that needs to seem "real" out in the house. Your colleagues on the stage may

be able to tell you have switched a consonant, but then again, if you do it with enough fi-

nesse and bravura . . . maybe not!

EXERCISES

1. Practice denasalizing the following words:

Initial Initial

[n:d-] [m:b-]

none night neighbor

nasal nimble natural

man more majesty

mob money mashed

final

fan

fine

ran

dine

can

sign

final

loom tomb

lamb gram

womb

ham


2. Transcribe the following text in RP, treat all the stressed words, and employ

denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants:

When I am laid in earth,

May my wrongs create

No trouble in thy breast.

Remember me,

But ah! forget my fate.

(Henry Purcell, from Dido and Aeneas)

3. Transcribe the following text in AS, treat the stressed words, and employ

denasalization on the stressed nasal consonants:

What was he thinking of

that he plays so distractedly?

Surely not of his wife,

the long discarded Queen;

Surely not of me

whose foot he no longer seeks

under the card table.

Who is there to love me?

Who is there for me to love?

Not he, the foolish knave of hearts,

not my father's faded photograph,

not my stock market husband,

nor my football son.

Only my mother could have loved me

had I but let her!

But there she lies in her pain,

cocooned in her illness,

an indiff rent stranger.

hatching for herself

the black wings of death.

Do not die, Mother,

do not die, yet.

Let me see your pleading eyes once more.

Now that at last,

I am learning to love you.

(Samuel Barber, "Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of Bridge)


Sing through and Resonate theNasal Consonants

As singers we all know that a good voice must contain an appropriate amount of resonance

in the nasal cavities. To maintain the resonance throughout a vocal phrase, make sure to

sing and vibrate through the nasal consonants and let them help you.

The medial nasal consonants, as in "gentle" or "sometime" are frequently ignored and

abandoned by English speakers. The native speakers of the Romance languages always

take much more care with their nasal consonants than we as English speakers do.

Singing through the medial nasal consonants can greatly aid the legato line. Remember

that when we syllabify words for singing we shift the final consonant of the first syllable

to begin the following syllable.

Musically, this means that if these words are set on two different pitches, sing the me-

dial nasal consonant on the lower of the pitches. If set on the same note, sing it with the

second syllable as noted below.

ge si -mple

Now see if you can maintain the same legato feel on a musical excerpt with a larger leap.

It falls most te nder-ly, I think.

("Bells in the Rain," John Duke)

Tips for Vocal Ease

By shifting the nasal consonants to the lower of two pitches, the nasal consonant is easier to

resonate and the vowel of the stressed syllable is elongated.

[I] Production

The consonant [1] is a voiced lateral consonant.

title te nder


FIGURE 12.4 [1]

Action

Tongue

Jaw

Lips

tip lightly touches the upper gum ridge

not tense or pressed hard against ridge

middle of tongue drops so that there is space between tongue and

upper molars

feel vibration on tip

the sound escapes over sides of tongue

after sounded, tongue relaxes back to floor of mouth

released and open

relaxed and open

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid the back or dark [1]. Colloquially, there are two types of [l]'s used in speech: the

light and clear [1] and the dark and back [1]. The light and clear [1] is used at the beginnin

of a word. The dark and back [1] is formed farther back and is made by raising the middl

of the tongue toward the roof of the mouth with the tongue tip not in contact with the gum

ridge. The dark and back [1] is never used in standard stage speech and should not be use

in singing.


RULI Use only the front andkcbar [if in tinging.

Do not let the tongue pull back and bunch when singing or saying medial and final [1].

It is a speech characteristic that is very common among North Americans.

RULE Never anticipate medial and final {1] souftcfe.

Remain on the preceding vowel sound as long as is notated musically and put on the

[1] as late as possible. If the tongue pulls back in anticipation of the [1], the preceding

vowel becomes contaminated with the tongue tension and becomes dark and muffled.

DRILL

Practice the following words, using only clear and light [l]'s.


light alone feel

late alas all

learn believe cruel

love below Hell

Tips for Vocal Ease

If it is difficult to avoid pulling the tongue back, try inserting a brief [u] vowel before sound-

ing the [1]. This will help keep the tongue forward. Be careful not to insert a [e], however,

which will constrict the tongue. For example:

while

smile

kneel

fill

yield

melt


For more detailed application of this rule, see chapter 13.

EXERCISES

1. Practice speaking the following text in RP, concentrating on producing light and

clear [l]'s:

Lo, in the orient when the gracious light

Lifts up his burning head, each under eye

Doth homage to his new-appearing sight,

Serving with looks his sacred majesty;

And having climbed the steep-up heav'nly hill,

Resembling strong youth in his middle age,

Yet mortal looks adore his beauty still,

Attending on his golden pilgrimage.

But when from high most pitch, with weary car,

Like feeble age he reeleth from the day,

The eyes ('fore duteous) now converted are

From his low tract and look another way.

So thou, thyself outgoing in thy noon,

Unlocked on diest unless thou get a son.

(Shakespeare, Sonnet 7)

2. Transcribe in AS, treat the text, and intone the following:

Loveliest of trees, the cherry now

Is hung with bloom along the bough,

And stands along the woodland ride

Wearing white for Eastertide.

182

fKIJJ InilW flf$ t at;l p|liip| l t ;siress l w«<fe mayMtr ledforgmiNr t ii |yftiifer

EXAMPLE llov«you:

'a-little;fl0 |

Now of my threescore years and ten,

Twenty will not come again,

And take from seventy springs a score,

It only leaves me fifty more.

And since to look at things in bloom

Fifty springs are little room.

About the woodland I shall go

To see the cherry hung with snow.

(A. E. Housman / John Duke, "Loveliest of Trees")



CHAPTER THIRTEEN

The Owner's Manual:Connecting the Dots

We have now dealt with all the speech sounds in English—it is time integrate them all to-

gether. We have touched on stress and inflection of the English language, the production

of all the vowels and consonants, and some of the techniques for negotiating vocally

around all of those consonants. We still have further work to do on creating an English-

singing legato and to focus on the "how to" aspect of bringing the text and the music off

the printed page and into the hearts and souls of the audience.

The Legato Connection: Connect It Up!

Because the English language is a Germanic stop language, it does not by definition have

a legato flow to it. Its words do not naturally flow and connect one to another. Instead, most

of the individual words are slightly separated from each other during normal conversa-

tional speech delivery. Because of these brief separations and the high ratio of consonant

to vowel, the final consonants of one word do not easily connect to the initial consonant of

the word that follows.

From our discussion of syllabification in chapter 2, recall that medial consonants are

shifted over wherever possible to begin the next syllable so as to aid the legato line. For

example, in the word "assembled," the syllabification for singing would be: [9 —> se —>

mbgld]. In other words, the [s] should begin the second syllable and would be sung with

the [e] vowel. Likewise, the [mb] should shift over to the third syllable and be sung on the

pitch of [9ld]. This allows more time for singing on the vowel sounds of each syllable, and

alleviates the choppy "stop quality" that is inherent in the English language. This same

185

principle also applies to the connection of consonants from word to word within a phrase

or sentence.

And as I grew I came to know

* Final t's and d's are dropped and glottalized because this is colloquial American. The symbol for aglottalized consonant is [?].

**Note that between [a-] plus a vowel and [u] plus a vowel the related glide semi-consonants [a] and [w]have been added. This also aids in the legato connection.


Hopefully, the treatment of "Laurie's Aria" from The Tender Land by Aaron Copland

will clarify these concepts. In the excerpt below, observe how this rule is applied.

Once I thought I'd ne - ver grow

Tall as this fence.

Time dragged heavy and slow.

But April came and August went

be fore I knew just what they meant,

And little by little I grew.

how fast the time could go.

RULE All final consonants of words within a single phrase or sentence musst beshifted in order to begin the word that follows them.

As we intone the text with the consonant shifts, the vowels become longer and more

singable. Along with these shifts come new consonant clusters or groupings that we are

not accustomed to articulating. Observe the three unusual groupings from the last line of

the text.

E X A M P L E S [st9a] [mku] [dgigou]

These new consonant groupings feel foreign to our tongues as though we were work-

ing with a foreign language rather than English! However, they are very necessary in the

creation of a legato English line and must be mastered. Repetitive practice is required in

order to maneuver easily through these new consonant groupings until they seem more

natural.

Two other techniques need to be employed in order to further facilitate the legato con-

nection of English. They have been previously discussed in chapters 10 and 11. They are

the merges and implosions.

Implosions and Merges

Implosions

To review: An implosion occurs when two plosive cognate consonants are back to back in

adjacent words. Because these consonants are stop-plosives, we link them by holding or

stopping down on the first consonant in our mouth and sounding only the second consonant.

HERE ARE THE PLOSIVE COGNATES WITH EXAMPLES OF IMPLOSIONS

p and b d and t g and k

soa$_bubble har^ljjmes big^crash

distur$_privacy stun](jdouble blac^Corvette

dee^prayer ba^diction fak^Gucci

gra^bag hijHune dig^gold

Implosions occur only with texts that are set musically at fast or moderate tempi. Im-

plosions are a very useful aid to cut down on the "consonant spatter stream" and clean up

the legato line. Within a phonetic transcription, an implosion should be notated: [/J. See

page 131 for an overview of the implosions.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots 187

Merges

All sustaining consonants can merge.

To review: the merging of consonants involves any combination of adjacent final and

initial fricative and nasal consonants plus the lateral 1. Unlike the implosions, which occur

only at fast or moderate tempi, merges occur in all musical settings whether at a fast or

slow tempo.

Let's see how merging can increase the legato. If the connection between the adjacent

sustaining consonants is not seamless, then the first two lines of Samuel Barber's "Sure

on this shining night" might sound like this:

Sure on (9) this (9) shining (9) night,

Of (9) star made (9) shadows (9) round,

We have a case of impending "intrusive schwa contamination"!!

It sounds more like a Neapolitan song than an American art song! Not only does it

sound very foreign to us, but the extra vowels are distracting and interfere with the trans-

mission of the text. Few singers would purposely choose to allow extra vowels to contami-

nate their vocal line, but it happens frequently whenever the position of the connective

consonant is dropped too early.

The intrusive schwa [9] occurs most frequently when going from a final voiced sus-

taining consonant to another consonant. In the case of an unvoiced final consonant, the

intrusive schwa is not heard, but instead the consonant intensity is compromised if the

connective consonant is not adequately sustained and supported. In order to avoid both of

these, great care must be taken to seamlessly meld or merge consonants together so that

the articulatory position of the first consonant is maintained until the next consonant begins.

Let's look at the Barber text again and see how and where this merging technique can

be applied. Merges are notated in the text by this symbol: [_].

Sure onj;his_shining^night

Of^star-made shadows round,

Kindnessjnust watch for me

This^side the ground.

The late year lies down^the north.

All isjiealed,

All isjiealth.

High summer holdsjhe earth.



Hearts alMvhole.

Sure onj:his_shining_night

I weep for wonder

wand'ringjfar alone

Of^shadows on^the stars.

(James Agee / Samuel Barber,"Sure on This Shining Night")

When sustaining consonants are merged together seamlessly, the integrity of the legato

line is maintained. The connected consonants propel the breath and support forward from

vowel to vowel. It all goes hand in hand with healthy singing technique. Remember, all

the sustaining consonants can be merged.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE MERGING CONSONANTS

The fricative consonants can be merged:

[v/f], [z/s], [3/J], [9/0], [h/M]

The nasal consonants can be merged:

[ml [n], [Q]

The lateral consonant [I] may also be merged.

Any combination of any of these consonants may be merged.

In other words, you may merge:

a fricative + a fricative

a fricative + a nasal

a fricative + an [1]

a nasal + a nasal

a nasal + a fricative

a nasal + an [1]

an [1] + a fricative

an [1] + a nasal

an [1] + an [1]


It is often easier to look at which conditions do not create a merge.

DO NOT MERGE1. Through punctuation or a rest

2. With a plosive consonant: [b/p], [d/t], [g/k], [ds/tf]

3. With a semi-vowel glide consonant: [w], [j], [J/R]

4. With a vowel

Here are some texts on which to practice the merges.

EXERCISES

Transcribe the texts below and merge the appropriate consonants for legato connections:

As one who hangs down-bending from the side

Of a slow-moving boat, upon the breast

Of a still water, solacing himself

With such discov'ries as his eye can make

Beneath him in the bottom of the deep,

Sees many beauteous sights—weeds, fishes, flowers,

Grots, pebbles, roots of trees, and fancies more,

Yet often is perplexed and cannot part

The shadow from the substance, rocks and sky,

Mountains and clouds, reflected in the depth

Of a clear flood, from things which there abide

In their true dwelling; now is crossed by gleam

Of his own image, by a sunbeam now,

And wav'ring motions sent he knows not whence,

Impediments that make his tack more sweet;

Such pleasant office have I long pursued

Incumbent o'er the surface of past time.

(William Wordsworth / Dominick Argento, "Prologue:

Shadow and Substance" from To Be Sung upon the Water)

O glide, fair stream! for ever so,

Thy quiet soul on all bestowing,

Till all our minds for ever flow

As thy deep waters now are flowing.

Vain thought!—Yet be as now thou art,

That in thy waters may be seen

The image of a poet's heart,

How bright, how solemn, how serene!

Now let us, as we float along,

For him suspend the dashing oar;

And pray that never child of song

May know that Poet's sorrows more.

How calm! how still! the only sound,

The dripping of the oar suspended!

(William Wordsworth / Dominick Argento, "In Remembrance

of Schubert" from To Be Sung upon the Water)

Nobody knows this little rose,

It might a pilgrim be.

Did I not take it from the ways

And lift it up to thee.

Only a bee will miss it,

Only a butterfly,

Hastening from far journey

On its breast to lie.

Only a bird will wonder,

Only a breeze will sigh,

Ah, little rose, how easy

For such as thee to die!

(Emily Dickinson / William Roy, "This Little Rose")

The stars are out,

The night is fine,

We sit within the traffic line.

The light is changed,

The signals set,

Now off we go,

No! No! not yet.

The brakes are on,

We move an inch,


We stop again,

The cop will pinch

The next offender who would dare

to speed upon this thoroughfare.

I look at you,

You look ahead,

A thousand things you might have said

to make this drive a pure delight,

But you must watch the traffic light.

Chugging motors purr and whine,

Waiting in the traffic line.

Grinding gears, escaping gas,

Must we let that fellow pass

Open roads and country air,

Breezes blowing through your hair,

Hot dog stands and painted bills

Cluttering up the fields and hills.

A mile or two,

Then home again,

The traffic jam,

the crowd, the strain.

The wistful heart, unsatisfied.

Goodnight, my dear,

A lovely ride!

(Louise Richardson Dodd / Paul Sargent, "Manhattan joy Ride")

Expressive Doublings:Get It Off the Printed Page!

Singing expressively in English is often a difficult and elusive task for even the singer whose

native language is English. Even though the text may be understood and felt in depth, pro-

jecting that depth of feeling and understanding takes more than desire; it takes technique and

knowledge of how to do it. We have all experienced performances by English-speaking

singers who sound as if they are detached from the words and even uninvolved. Inside the

singer feels very involved and emotionally committed, but that commitment is not being

projected. Let's look at why this happens.


When we express ourselves verbally, we do it by word stress and the pitched rise and

fall of words within a phrase. Often the word that we want to stress the most is given the

highest pitch in the phrase or sentence. In everyday speech, we rely greatly on the rise and

fall of the words within the phrase to convey meaning and intensity of feeling. This ques-

tion might be spoken:

do

How

could you that to him?

or

you

do that to him?

How could

or even

How him?

could you do that to

The emphasis in this last reading focuses on the action upon the person, whereas the

first reading of the line stresses how one is capable of doing such a thing to this person.

When we speak, we pitch various words of a phrase spontaneously in order to correspond

with our meaning and emotional intention. Most of us are fairly comfortable with chang-

ing the inflection to accommodate our intention. The problem arises when the question is

set to music.

However, if it were music, it might sound like this:

Hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiim!!!

Hooooow

Couuuld yooooou dooooooooooooooo that to

(Yes, I know, keep my day job.)

The natural speech rhythm and inflection pattern has been taken away. All of a sud-

den, the composer has asked us deliver that text in slow motion and on pitches that are

in the stratosphere and very far away from our own speech range. We can no longer func-

tion in "real time"; our new reality is the Land of the M-u-s-i-c-a-l S-t-r-e-t-c-h, where

time slows down, the sequence of events may come to a halt, and thoughts are transmitted

v-e-r-y s-1-o-w-l-y. In this land, the vowels are now perhaps four beats long and the com-

plete thought is stretched out over three musical phrases. Our job is as re-creative artists


is to take what the composer has given us, apply as much of the natural speech inflection

on to it, and deliver the thought. Our job is also to hold the audience's attention span and

make them travel with us in our journey.

The Thought Transmission Race

Have you ever noticed how tempting it is to interrupt someone or complete their sentences

for them? Why are we tempted? Because the mind can think and finish a thought ten times

faster than a person can express the thought in words. This disparity not only causes rude

behavior socially; it poses one of the biggest problems for interpreters of vocal literature.

Just think how much this disparity between mental and verbal thought transmission is

magnified when we are working with a text setting in the "Land of the Musical Stretch "!!

By the time a singer actually gets to the end of the phrase, the listener has had time to think

five other thoughts. It can potentially be the makings of an audience attention deficit

disorder!

Attention, Please!

One of the greatest accolades a musical or stage performance can receive is when it is de-

scribed as "riveting," "spell-binding,"or keeping an audience "glued to their seats." It im-

plies that the production or concert held the audience's attention. One of the best ways to

do this is through . . . expressive doublings!

Let's recall that an expressive doubling is elongation of the initial consonant of the

stressed syllable of a stressed word. When we speak, we almost unconsciously double

or triple the stressed consonants regularly. The same practice must be transferred to the

vocal line in order for the language to sound expressive, but we need more knowledge of

technique.

Doubling Technique

Let's look at the phrase below:

"The race was delayed because of the rain."

The stressed words are: "race," "delayed," and "rain." Remember that we do not stress

"was," a form of the verb "to be," but instead we stress "delayed," which is the predicate

adjective. If we add expressive doublings to this sentence, it would look like this:


The (a^)race was del:layed because of the (a^)rain.

Arrows (< — >) are used to notate the Expressive Doublings. An arrow to the left means

that the consonant should be sounded before the beat so that it may be elongated without

dragging behind the beat. An arrow to the right means that the consonant should be re-

leased on the beat but with emphasis. This will be further expanded later in this chapter.

The related vowels have been added to the glide r consonants. Remember that the

three semi-consonant glides [w], [j], and [j] are stressed by anticipating and elongating

their related vowels.

To review: with an expressive doubling, the stressed consonant is doubled or tripled

by coming in early and elongating it. In order to find the time to elongate the stressed con-

sonant, time must be robbed from the note value of the word that precedes it.

Any consonant that can be sustained can be doubled regardless of whether it is voiced

or unvoiced.

So far we have had general discussions on doubling the stressed consonants and no-

tating them by putting two consonants with a colon between them. For example, [nin],

[sis], and so on. This, however, is not musically specific enough for our purposes. Just be-

cause we double our consonants in everyday heightened speech does not mean that there

is an immediate and easy transfer of this technique to our singing. First of all, some prepa-

ration exercises are needed to ensure your success.

Preparation for Consonant Doublings

Feeling and Transmitting the Beat

One of the most difficult things for singers, and I am one of them, is communicating the

sense of beat to the other musicians with whom we are collaborating. Singing is a solo art

form, yes, but it is 99 percent of the time done in collaboration with other musicians. Be-

cause of the collaborative aspect of the vocal performance art, singers find themselves in the

position artistically of having never had the experience of being 100 percent musically re-

sponsible for their own music making. They are not responsible for when the music starts,

they are not fully responsible for the ebbs and flows of the line, and they seldom are re-

sponsible for when it ends. Singers spend their musical lives "being accompanied" by an-

other musician or perhaps one hundred of them at a time. From the first experience in the

vocal studio with a pianist until the end of their professional career, a singer is never in

the position of the musical "authority figure."

This is as it should be; the role of a singer is to collaborate musically and dramatically

with other musicians and artists. It is merely that there is often a "hole" in the experiential


training of a singer that needs filling. Unless you sing an unaccompanied song, it is always

in collaboration with another musician.

Perceptually, there always seems to be a "great divide" between "singers" and "musi-

cians." It is true that at the music school level, singers often get a late start and are play-

ing catch up with musicianship skills. However, on a professional level, it is the singer's

sense of line and musicality that instrumentalists seek to imitate. So, for the nuts and bolts

of it, instrumentalists are initially ahead of the game; for the artistry and musicality of it,

instrumentalists often draw their source of inspiration from a beautifully sung vocal line.

Ultimately, musical collaboration is one of the great joys of a singing career. It is very

important for the singer to take the time to fill in the "gap" in their musical experience so

that they can become an equally responsible party in the musical collaboration.

How do you take on musical responsibility?

Conduct!

It is time to be a musical grown-up. The first time you put a song or aria together with a

pianist, conduct it. It does not have to be the most artful three- or four-beat pattern you have

ever seen, but you need to feel the beats in your body. One of the best ways for doing this

is to conduct the entire song from the upbeat of the first note to the cut off of the last chord.

Spend some time going through very simple songs with a pianist. Conducting every single

measure helps you "feel" internally where the beats fall and where the notes you are

singing fall in relation to the musical beat.

If the singer does not give an upbeat for the pianist's initial downbeat, the pianist

should not come in. If the singer gets distracted vocally and starts conducting erratically,

the pianist should stop playing. If there is rubato or stretching of a measure, the singer

needs to be able to conduct it. It is amazing how after just a few sessions of this, singers

are transported musically to be on a level playing field with the other musicians. Finally,

when they can internalize the sense of the beat, they are ready to try inserting these ex-

pressive doublings into their vocal lines.

A Great By-Product

Once you have internalized the beat, it is time to learn how to project it to the other mu-

sicians you are collaborating with. This is where the double consonants come in.

RULI After you have doubled a consonant or opened a consonant cluster; the

firm release into the vyfal provides an ayral signal that you have arrived on the

beat The doubling of tfife-'consonant not only brings the text to life, it helps

the conductor or pianist $o be in sync with you when you arrive at the beat.



("Quietly, Night" from The Rake's Progress, Igor Stravinsky)

Inserting and anticipating the [u] glide vowel in "quietly" will help coordinate the es-

tablishment of the tempo of this aria. The doubling of the [n] on "night" followed by a

firm release of the [ai] on the downbeat will continue to stabilize the tempo.

So, now hopefully you are convinced that all this is worth the effort. Let's look more

closely at the direction the consonants can be doubled:

[v,f,z,s,3,j,a,e,h,/w] [b,p,g,k,d,t]

[ds,tj]

DIAGRAM 13.1

In English all consonants except the plosives [b/p], [d/t], and [g/k] and the affricatives

[ds] and [tj] can be sustained. Therefore the consonants that can be doubled to the left are:

the fricatives [v/f], [z/s], [j/J], [9/6], and [h/M]; the nasals [m], [n], and [rj]; the semi-vowel

glides [w], [j], and [r]; and the lateral [1].

An arrow going (<—) means that the consonants will be sounded early and the vowel

will be released on the beat.

In other words, all consonants but the plosives, [b/p], [d/t], and [g/k]; and [dj] and [tj]

have the potential of going early. The plosives must be doubled to the right because they

cannot be sustained and therefore their release cannot come early.

An arrow going (—») means that the consonants will not be sounded early but on the

beat. Since they cannot be elongated, they will be stressed by volume or intensity of the

consonant. The only part that still comes early is the preparation for the unsustaining con-

sonant. For example, while you cannot sustain a [t] or [d] early, you may stop on the

consonant just before the beat, [t:t]/[d:d]. Similarly, with the sounds [tj] and [ds], you may

stop early on the unsustaining consonant [t:tf]/[d:d3]. But again, the arrow goes to the

right because the consonant is released on, not before, the beat.

[w,j,r]

[m,n,n,ji,l]

112 - 108

Qui et ly night[k(u)wa: art]


How to Double: Single Consonants

If the stressed consonant begins the phrase and is preceded by a rest or musical accompa-

niment only, it must be elongated on the pitch on which it is set.

Note doublings below:

Lit-tie Lamb, who made thee?

Dostthou know who made thee?

("The Lamb," Ralph Vaughan Williams, from Ten Blake Songs)

Notice that the "1" of "little" begins on the actual pitch whereas the "1" for "lamb" and

the "m" for "made" are placed on the lower pitch before.

("Sleep, Why Dost Thou Leave Me?" from Semele, G. F. Handel)

Plosive Clusters with Glides

If the plosive consonants are in a consonant cluster with one of the glides or lateral 1, they

may be treated two ways: they can be sounded on the beat (—») or they may come early

(<—) by adding the related vowel sound between the plosive and the semi-vowel glide

consonant. With a plosive in a cluster with [1], a [9] vowel may be added in order for the

consonant to come early.

EXAMPLES queen either [kwin] or [k(u)win]—> <—

drink either [djirjk] or [d(^)jirjk]

why thy vis - io - na - ry joys re - move?

Largo

CHAPTER THIRTEEN The Owner's Manual: Connecting the Dots

beautiful either [bjutiful] or [b(i)jutrful]

glade either [gleid] or [g(9)leid]

This does not mean to imply that every stressed word with a consonant that has dura-

tion must be doubled. Expressive doubling is a wonderful interpretive tool that needs to

be used in moderation and with taste. It is the singer's decision where these doublings are

used. To be most effective, there should be no more than one or two doubled stressed con-

sonants per phrase. Expressive doubling is merely one of the interpretive choices avail-

able to a singer.

However, for the purpose of acquainting ourselves better with this technique, let's

study the following text in which all stressed consonants that can be sustained have been

doubled.

199

(huw)What is this c(*)rying

that I hear in the (u)wind?

Is it the 'old sorrow

and the 'old g(^rief?

Or is it a n(l)ew thing coming,

a (huw) whirling leaf-

About the gray hair of me

who am (u)weary and blind?

I know not what it is,

but a moor on the shore—

There is a stone which

the purple nets of heather bind,

And thereon is (3t)writ:

"She will return no more."

O b(a)lown, (huw>whirling leaf,

And the 'old g(3t)rief,


And the (u)wind curving to me

(Fiona MacLeod / Charles T. Griffes,"The Lament of Ian the Proud")

Remember that when there is a word containing a plosive plus a glide consonant

within one consonant cluster, the singer may choose to follow either the (<-) rule or the

(—») rule of consonant stress. That is, the singer may treat the cluster as a plosive and cre-

ate the stress with the volume or intensity of the consonant on the beat (—>), or the singer

may insert the related vowel of that semi-glide consonant and create stress with the antic-

ipation and elongation of the consonant cluster before the beat (<—).

Let's look again at the rule from chapter 8.

RULE Related glide voweb should be added only to the stressed syllable of the

primary or secondary stressed word. T<J add this extra yowei rh^mteally, add a

grace note pick-up before the beat on which the streiMd word or syllable falls. In

order to do this; you need to rob timfe from the note or rest preceding it.

Remember: when adding the grace note pick-up for the related glide vowel, you inher-

ently must always rob time from the preceding note; this way, the consonant preparation

is before the beat and the vowel will not be late. The related vowel could be sung on the

pitch of the preceding note or on the note of the stressed word that follows it. It usually

works best, however, to sing the related vowel on whichever is the lowest pitch; when the

preparation grace note is on the lower pitch, it functions as a springboard for the stressed

vowel and helps the voice to swell or bloom into the stressed word.

No crooning please!

Note the grace note placements below:

Version 1: it's easy to "Croon" on "so brief " when the cluster is sung over two notes.

(From The Rape ofLucretia, Benjamin Britten)

who am 'old and b(9)lind!


Version 2: it is more subtle and stylistically correct when "brief is sung on one pitch.

("Nocturne," Frederic Prokosch/Samuel Barber)

The placement of the "1" of "love" on the 6th below provides a nice springboard for

swelling into the vowel of "love" at a fairly fast clip. With a wide interval leap like this

one, be careful to put only the consonant on low note, not the vowel.

A Word of Caution

No yodeling please!

When singers first try to put consonants on the lower pitch before, they often mistak-

enly start the following vowel down there as well. This creates a "yodeling" effect that is

not at all what is wanted.

Instead: Sing the doubled consonant on low pitch and then quickly sing the vowel on

the next pitch.

Now that you have a better grasp on the techniques of expressive doublings, we have

one more technique to incorporate, the final piece of the puzzle.


Now let's look at a phrase from Barber's Nocturne:

Pulsing the Phrase

Pulsing the phrase, to my mind, is one of the universal truths of singing. Regardless of the

technical approach, of which there are as many as there are days in the year; this concept

is one of the most simple but profound concepts of singing. If singing is defined as a "cul-

tivated yawn or scream," then it is the ability to access the yawn or scream sensation that

truly makes singing exciting and emotional cathartic for the listener. I am convinced

that it is the "singing from the gut" sensation that an audience hears from trained singers

that causes them to leave their comfortable homes on a cold winter night and come to the

opera. I am also convinced that it is the one common trait I hear in many professional

singers and the one common trait that I find missing in a lot of aspiring singers. With it,

the aural experience of listening to a singer is transporting; without it, it is a cheat.

This concept has been touched on briefly in chapter 2 and in the discussion on "Puls-

ing the Phrase." It is the ability to direct energy and spin the vocal tone by swelling and

opening down into the body. It in not applied to every note, for if it were, the energy would

be negated.

Play the Pipe

If you think of the voice as a wind instrument, it is helpful to use the image of the other

woodwind instruments in order to access this sensation. Visualize the windpipe and no-

tice it is the same shape as a flute, a clarinet, or bassoon. Open up the pipe inside and play

it when you sing. It is this "playing of the pipe" sensation that I am describing.

Pulsing the phrase is how the "playing of the pipe" sensation is applied musically. Just

as every word is not equally stressed when we speak, every note is not pulsed when we

sing. A pianist or a violinist does not play each note in a phrase exactly the same. That

would be monotonous and colorless. He or she leans into or pushes down on the keys or

string on certain notes in order to give the phrase line and direction. Singers do not have

keys or strings to push down; they have a pipe to open.

Because singers are always dealing with text, it is helpful to integrate the text and the

music and apply the vocal "opening" to the key words in the phrase. On the stressed word-

types, open the voice up with a full tone that connects to the center of the body. Interest-

ingly, many vocal problems seem to be improved or disappear when the phrase is pulsed

vocally. By anchoring and opening the tone in the center of the body on key places, the

tone remains buoyant and the support is reinforced with every pulse.

In chapter 2, arrows were used to notate the downward connection of the pulse on the

stressed words of the phrase. Now apply them to The Lament of Ian the Proud. It should

look somewhat like this:



What is this crying But a moor on the shore -

There is a stone which

The purple nets of heather bind,

and the old grief? And thereon is writ:

Notice that not all the stress word-types are pulsed. Artistic choices were made. Each

artist should make his or her own personal choices. Remember, the primary stress

words—the nouns and verbs—must be pulsed. The secondary stressed—the adjectives,

adverbs, negatives and interrogative pronouns—may be pulsed according to the individ-

ual artist's taste.

By doubling the consonants and pulsing the vowels of the stressed word-types, the text

will come to life and become "three-dimensional"—the goal of all art.

Here are some texts to apply the pulsing technique.

EXERCISES

Transcribe the following texts, putting consonant doublings and pulses on all the

stressed word-types and related vowel sounds as needed. Notate any merges, implo-

sions, and breath lifts when appropriate.

that I hear in the wind?

Is it the old sorrow

I know not what it is, Who am old and blind!

And the wind crying to mewho am weary and blind?

And the old grief,

O blown, whirling leaf,a whirling leaf -

About the grey hair of me

"She will return no more,"Or is it a new thing coming,


An omnibus across the bridge

Crawls like a yellow butterfly,

And, here and there, a passerby

Shows like a restless little midge.

Big barges full of yellow hay,

Are moved against the shadowy wharf,

And like a yellow silken scarf,

The thick fog hangs along the quay.

The yellow leaves begin to fade,

And flutter from the temple elms,

And at my feet the pale green Thames

Lies like a rod of ripples jade.

(Oscar Wilde / Charles T. Griffes, "Symphony in Yellow")

Why do they shut me out of Heaven

Did I sing too loud?

But I can sing a little minor,

Timid as a bird.

Wouldn't the angels

try me just once more

Just see if I troubled them

But don't shut the door,

don't shut the door.

Oh if I were the gentlemen in the white robes

and they were the little hand that knocked,

Could I forbid, could I forbid, could I forbid?

Why do they shut me out of Heaven

Did I sing too loud?

(Emily Dickinson / Aaron Copland, "Why Do They ShutMe Out of Heaven?" from Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson)

Time does not bring relief: you all have lied

who told me time would ease me of my pain!

I miss him in the weeping of the rain;

I want him at the shrinking of the tide;

The old snows melt from ev'ry mountainside,

And last year's leaves are smoke in every lane;

But last year's bitter loving must remain

Heaped on my heart and my old thoughts abide.

204

There are a hundred places where I fear

To go, so with his memory they brim.

And entering with relief some quiet place

where never fell his foot or shone his face.

I say "There is no mem'ry of him here,"

And so stand stricken, so remembering him.

(Edna St. Vincent Millay / Judith Zaimont, "Soliloquy")

Here's a first-rate opportunity

To get married with impunity,

And indulge in the felicity

Of unbounded domesticity.

You shall quickly be parsonified,

Conjugally matrimonified,

By a doctor of divinity,

Who resides in this vicinity.

(W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, From Pirates ofPenzance)



CHAPTER FOURTEEN

Singing in the British Dialect:"The Rain in Spain"

Thus far we have discussed the correct production of all of the consonants and vowels of

English, exclusive of the characteristic British sounds, as well as worked with the legato

treatment of the English language and its expressive doublings. All of the techniques with

which we have worked apply to singing English in all dialects. In addition to American

Standard, the two most commonly used dialects for singing in English are British Re-

ceived Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic pronunciation. Mid-Atlantic will be discussed in

the next chapter.

British Received Pronunciation, known as RP, is standard upper-class English. It is a

pronunciation that historically was used by graduates of Oxford and Cambridge, the aris-

tocracy, and the upper class. Received originates from the phrase "received in the best so-

ciety." RP is an accent that is learned and used in the English Public Schools. The term

"Public School" does not have the same meaning it has in North America. Public Schools

in the United Kingdom are elite, boarding, preparatory feeder schools for universities

such as Oxford and Cambridge.

British Received Pronunciation was named and codified by the British phonetician

Daniel Jones in his English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1926. Daniel Jones, a founding mem-

ber of the International Phonetic Association, was instrumental in the development of the

International Phonetic Alphabet. Daniel Jones's research and linguistic activities provided

George Bernard Shaw with the basis for his fictional character in Pygmalion. So, he was

the real-life Henry Higgins! In his English Pronouncing Dictionary, Daniel Jones defines

RP as "the everyday speech of families of Southern English persons whose menfolk were

educated in the great public boarding schools." It was standard practice until the 1950s for

university students to adjust their regional accents to be closer to RP. RP was traditionally

used on stage, for public speaking, and by the well educated. In the 1950s, RP was used by

207

the BBC as a broadcast standard and was referred to as BBC English. Since the 1970s, the

BBC English label has been dropped and RP has slowly been more inclusive of regional

influences throughout the United Kingdom. By the turn of the twenty-first century RP was

spoken by only 3 percent of the population. Today BBC broadcasters do not use Received

Pronunciation, which actually today now sounds out of place; they use a neutralized ver-

sion of their own regional accents that is intelligible to all listeners.

For the purposes of singing and stage performance, Received Pronunciation is very

appropriate for much of the classical vocal literature and theatre of the British Isles. There

is a vast pool of repertoire and literature that was written before 1970 when the tastes for

using RP as the spoken standard shifted. So, in this chapter we will study two types of Re-

ceived Pronunciation. Historic RP that is appropriate for repertoire written before the mid-

1970s and Modern RP, a modern pronunciation that works very well for the repertoire of

the last quarter of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

Although there are many distinct dialects found throughout the British Isles, the

British Received Pronunciation is the performance standard for most classical vocal liter-

ature. Some of the other regional dialects will be discussed in the appendices.

An excellent reference source for Historic RP is Daniel Jones's original publication,

Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary. The fourteenth edition of it was published

in 1986 by J M Dent & Sons LTD, London. It is unfortunately out of print, but worth the

effort to search for a copy of it. Daniel Jones's original work has been edited and updated

in The English Pronouncing Dictionary, 17th edition, edited by Peter Roach and James

Hartman, published by Cambridge University Press. This new edition covers both British

Received and American pronunciations. Also available is the Longman English Pronun-

ciation Dictionary. Written for teaching English as a Foreign Language, this dictionary is

very thorough and has wonderful informational sections throughout. An excellent source

for Modern RP is the Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English, edited by

Clive Upton, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Rafal Konopka.

So, let's get started. Below is the alphabet for British Received Pronunciation.

International Phonetic Alphabet forBritish Received Pronunciation

Consonants

The following symbols are identical to the letters of the English (Roman) alphabet:

[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]


CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain" 209

The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist

in the Roman alphabet:

Key Words

sing, think

thin, thirst

thine, this, thou

whisper, when, why

y_ou, y_es, yonder

she,sure

choose, church, Charles

vision, azure*

George, joy, judge

remember, rehearse, already

Prince, great, throne

very, forever, far away

(ng)(th)

(th)

(wh)

(sh)

(ch)

(burred)

(rolled)

(flipped)

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

Key Words

father, dance, Ask List words

wed, many, bury, bend

hit, busy, give, bliss, been (wf)

me, chief, receive, been (sf)

cat, marry, charity, Hand List words

too, wound, blue, slewbeauty, tune, enthuse

book, bosom, good, full

obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables only)on, not, honest, God, honourall, daughter, lost, often

learn, burn, journey (stressed syllables only)

father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (unstressed syllables only)

hum, blood, trouble, must (stressed syllables only)

sofa, evil, heaven, joyous (unstressed syllables only)

* In historical or archaic ['vizi3n]/[vizJ9n]/[9'zju9r], Modern RP

wf = weak form

sf = strong form

Symbol

Vowels

Symbol

(ah)

(eh)

(in)

(ee)

(00)

(oh)

(short o)

(er)

(er)

(uh)

(uh)

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in


Diphthongs

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

Key Words

night, buy

day, break, reign

boy, voice, toil

no, slow, reproach

now, about, doubt

air, care, there

ear, dear, here, tier

pour, four, soar, o'er

sure, tour, poor*

are, heart, garden

Triphthongs

Symbol Key Words

fire, choir, admire, desire

our, power, flower, flow'r

Commonly Used Words

all

been

want

of

what

from

an

again

was

schedule

dream

nature

duet

* Modern RP is [ogr].

** See "r" rules on pages 233-34.

issue

very

truth

bright

sure

cannot

in

in

doth

love

dance

know

because

vision

celestial

Symbol


IPA DRILL

1. Change the following words in IPA symbols into English spellings:

In Historic RP, a stressed r can be rolled [R] or burred [j].

An r between vowels is flipped [r] in Historic and burred [j] in Modern.

sf = strong form

Mod. = modern

sp = spoken

wf = weak form

Hist. = historic

s = sung

Now try working in the IPA.


2. Change the following English words into corresponding IPA symbols:

charm

pensive

flood

bought

winter

hatch

absurd

passion

usage

younger

beautiful

worthy

zephyr

earth

anoint

vision

once

giant

year

enough

difficult

languish

pronounce

technical

3. Write your name in IPA symbols

4. Find a short paragraph from a newspaper or magazine and transcribe it into

phonetics.

5. Change the following texts in IPA symbols into English spellings:

213CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"

214

British Received versus

American Standard

Let's examine the differences between British Received and American Standard pronun-

ciation. There are twelve primary differences.

1. The vowels and consonants are produced further forward in the mouth with the

lips in a more rounded position. The lips vowels, consequently, shift to the next

darkest vowel on the vowel chart.

2. The use of short O [D] for most stressed "o" spellings as in "hot," "not," "got," see

page 217. The more closed and more forward open o vowel [o], see page 218.

3. Use of [9u] for spoken O diphthongs as in "No, don't go!" see page 219.

4. Lessening of "r" colourations in diphthongs, triphthongs, and single vowels.

5. The use of [a] for ask list spellings, see pages 223-24.

E X A M P L E S dance[dans] glass [glas]

6. The consistent use of liquid u [ju] pronunciations, see page 228.

7. Unstressed syllables: differing vowel preferences for suffixes, prefixes, and the

additional schwa substitute for unstressed syllables, see page 229.

8. The -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry, and -mony word endings are pronuced [9rJ/ri]

in RP. In AS they are pronounced [asii] when the preceding syllable is stressed

and are pronounced with a full vowel when the preceding syllable is unstressed.

RP AS

'secretary ['sekiit9rri] or [sekiitii] Historic 'secretary ['sekis.teji]

[sekjit9rji] or ['sekiiUi] Modern

9. The "ile" word endings in unstressed syllables and the suffix "ine" are pro-

nounced [ai] in RP and [i] or [9] or [i] in AS.

RP AS

agile [aedsail] [asdsil] [asdjgl]

philistine [filistam] [fibstin]

10. The use of trilled and flipped r's in Historic RP.


Now that you have familiarized yourself with the IPA, you may continue on with

British Received pronunciation and learn the applications of it for lyric singing or proceed

to chapter 2 to study the stress and inflection patterns of the English language as a whole.

11. The t's are aspirated and elided in Historic RP. Final t's are sometimes glott-

lalized [?] in Modern RP speech.

12. Syllabic stress

a. For loanwords from French, the first syllable is stressed in RP vs. the second

syllable in AS.

RP AS RP AS RP AS

'ballet ballet 'cafe cafe 'matinee mati'nee

b. Compound words—in RP, stress is placed on either the noun or both words

equally. In AS, stress is usually on the adjective or both words equally.

RP AS

polar 'bear 'polar bear

week 'end 'week 'end

Rules for British Received Pronunciation

DIAGRAM 14.1

In general, RP is produced further forward in the mouth than AS and has lip rounding.

The lip vowels are [a], [o], [o], [o], [u] and [u]. The pronunciation differences between

AS and RP pronunciations involve primarily the first three of the lip vowels. In RP, the

words with stressed syllables that would ordinarily be pronounced [a] in AS are now pro-

nounced [D]. The words with "o" spellings that in AS are [a] or [o] are in RP [o]. For ex-

ample, the word "hot," which is sounded [hat] in AS, is sounded [hot] in RP. The same

holds true for [o] in AS. The RP counterpart is [o]; a more closed version of the open o

vowel of AS. For example, "call" [kol] in AS is pronounced [kol] in RP.

AS RP AS RP


RULE From American Standard, the stressed lip vowels shift to the next darkest

adjacent vowel on the vowel chart for RP.


Since AS does not use [D] as a standard vowel pronunciation, there is not a direct shift

from [D] to [D].

Note the vowel shifts in the texts below:

AS RP

[D]

Let me wander not unseen,

RP

2. Recite the following text, paying attention to the vowel shifts:

45

not

hot

God

honest

RP AS

AS RP AS RP

walk

daughter

call

all

To sit in solemn silence in a dull, dark, dock,

In a pestilential prison, with a life-long lock,

Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock,

From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big, black block.

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From The Mikado)

EXERCISES

1. Drill the following vowel shifts:

By hedgerow elms on hillocks green.

Let me wander not unseen,

By hedgerow elms on hillocks green.

(G. F. Handel, L'Allegro)


[D] Production

The vowel [D] is the lowest of the tongue vowels that has lip rounding. It is called the short

o vowel. It is halfway between [a] and [o] in RP and, though not considered standard in

AS, is halfway between [a] and [o]. It can be found by saying an [a] while slightly round-

ing your lips. It is found in words that have "o" spellings, such as "hot," "on," and "sorry."

It is also the vowel for several words with "a" spellings such as "what," "want," "was."

FIGURE 14.1 [D]

Action

Tongue

Lips

Jaw

slight arch, almost flat in mouth

rounded in shape of a large circle

wide open, as low as for [a]

RULE Stressed "o" spellings in RP, as in the words hot, not, got, are pronounced

with "short o"

218

Pitfalls to Avoid

Avoid tense tongue, lips, mouth.

Avoid glottal attacks on initial vowels.

Common Words That Use [D]

from

bomb

box

long

mock

upon

God

story*

horror

oracle

John

coffee

modern

song

of

somber

want

wash

what

wander

wasp

was

water*

want

*In Historic RP, many of the "o" spelling and "a" spellings are pronounced [g]. Always refer to theEnglish Pronouncing Dictionary to check for Historic RP. In Modern RP, all the words above arepronounced short o [D].

EXERCISES

Transcribe the following texts into RP, concentrating on the short and open o's:

What passion cannot Music raise and quell?

When Jubal struck the chorded shell,

His list'ning brethren stood around,

And, wond'ring, on the faces fell,

To worship celestial sound:

Less than a god they thought there could not dwell

Within the hollow of that shell,

That spoke so sweetly and so well,

What passion cannot music quell?


RULE The RP variant is further forward and more closed than the " opne o"

couterpart is AS See production, pp, 66–68

CHAPTER FOURTEEN Singing in the British Dialect: "The Rain in Spain"

The soft complaining flute

In dying notes discovers

The woes of hopeless lovers

Whose dirge is whisper'd,

Whisper'd by the warbling lute.

(C. F. Handel, "Ode on St. Cecilia's Day")

What if I never speed?

Shall I straight yield to despair,

And still on sorrow feed

That can no loss repair?

Or shall I change my love?

For I find pow'r to depart,

And in my reason prove,

I can command my heart.

But if she will pity my desire and my love requite,

Then ever shall she live my dear delight!

Come, while I have a heart to desire thee,

Come, for either I will love or admire thee.

(John Dowland / poet anonymous, "What If I Never Speed")

[oo] versus [au]

In spoken RP English, the stressed o diphthong in "no" is pronounced [90]. The first vowel

is a schwa [9] followed by a [u] vowel.* This [su] diphthong is very characteristic of spo-

ken RP but is a difficult sound to produce vocally and easily "spreads." Therefore it is

standard performance practice to sing a pure "o" [ou] in classical vocal music. The [su]

diphthong could be used in singing the Gilbert and Sullivan operettas in fast-moving

recitative passages. It should never be sung on any melismatic or sustained passage.

* See chapter 6 for the description of the [a] vowel.

219

RULE Use the diphthong only in musical theatre, operetta, and spoken

dialogue, For classical singing, always use

220

EXERCISES

1. Drill the following words alternating between both [ou] and [au]

no

code

alone

gold

low

open

moan

whole

soul

flow

woe

Apollo

2. Transcribe the following texts using [au] and recite them:

In vain to us you plead—

Don't go!

Your prayers we do not heed—

Don't go!

It's true we sigh,

But don't suppose

A tearful eye

Forgiveness shows.

Oh, no!

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From lolanthe)

Old King Cole

Was a merry old soul,

And a merry old soul was he,

He called for his pipe,

And he called for his bowl,

And he called for his fiddlers three.

(Anonymous)

Sweet and low, sweet and low,

Wind of the western sea,

Low, low, breathe and blow,

Wind of the western sea!


NOTE OF CAUTION

Be careful that the [au] diphthong is not pronounced as [eu]. This sounds affected and ex-

aggerated. Practice slowly to make sure that the first vowel in this diphthong is [9].

Over the rolling waters go,

Come from the dying moon, and blow,

Blow him again to me.

(Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Sweet and Low")

Jupiter, Mars and Apollo,

Have quitted the dwellings of men;

The other gods quickly will follow,

And what will become of us then.

Oh, pardon us, Jove and Apollo,

Pardon us, Jupiter and Mars;

Oh, see us in misery wallow,

Cursing our terrible stars.

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, From Thespis)


Reduced R Colourings

hear

fair

sure

for

are

fire

flower

AS RP

In British Received Pronunciation (RP), the r colouring is reduced in the r-coloured schwa

at the end of the diphthongs and triphthongs. Note the changes in phonetic spelling below:

RULE "R" colourings are reduced in diphthongs, triphthings, adn singlestressed r-coloured vowels


EXERCISE

1. Transcribe and drill diphthongs and triphthongs in RP:

fear

forth

hair

mourn

your

flower

desire

ensnare

heart

acquire

afar

power

sure*

iron

pure

dear

*ln Modern RP this diphthong is pronounced

RULE R-cGlpured vowels, both stressed and unstressed, have less lip rounding

and are more open.

Words that have r-coloured vowels in a stressed syllable (learn, bird, virtue), as well

as unstressed syllables (father, wonder, honour), are all more open variations of the AS

r-coloured vowels. The RP r colours still have r colouring in them, but with less lip round-

ing. The tongue still remains arched in an [e] position, while the lips are less rounded and

protruded. The reduced r coloured vowels are sounds are similar to [oe] in French. Pho-

netically, they are written [3r] for a stressed syllable and [9r] for an unstressed syllable.

Practice drilling all of the r-coloured vowels:

AS FR RP FR AS

E X E R C I S E S

1. Transcribe and drill the following words containing lessened RP r colourings:

yearn

journey

mercy

burn

virtue

rehearse

search

her

perfect

thirst

verdict

earth

E X A M P L E S fur fleur fur fleur fur

sister brother number colour

savor ever after valour

perhaps pursue comfort survive

2. Write in IPA the following texts and recite:

The flowers appear on the earth;

the time of the singing of birds is come,

and the voice of the turtle in our land.

(From Ecclesiastes)

For anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing,

whose end, both at the first and now,

was and is to hold as 'twere the mirror up to Nature.

(William Shakespeare, Hamlet)

O'er the season vernal,

Time may cast a shade;

Sunshine, if eternal,

Makes the roses fade!

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, Trial by Jury)

Shall We D-ah-nce?

One of the most idiomatic pronunciation practices of RP is the use of the [a] vowel in

many of the words that in AS would be pronounced [ae]. In the phrase "We danced on the

grass until the night passed!" all of the stressed "a" vowels are pronounced with [a]. In

order to be proficient in the RP dialect, it is imperative to know when to pronounce an [ae]

or an [a] vowel. It is often the true test of a well-versed traveler as to whether they have

their [ae] and [a] vowels straight. For British readers, this will seem unnecessary.

Ask Words versus Hand Words

In her book Speak with Distinction, Edith Skinner used the terms "Ask-List Words" and

"Hand-List Words" to distinguish the lists of words that have vowel variants from [ae] in AS

to [a] in RP and those that do not. Although she coined these terms, they have become part



of the language canon of the theater world. The words in which the vowels are changed

from [ae] to [a] will be categorized as the "Ask-List Words" and the words in which the

[ae] vowel remains the same from AS to RP will be classified as "Hand-List Words."

There are no spelling or phonetic rules for determining which ones change; however,

the stressed "a" vowel in the ask words are all followed by certain consonant sounds.

Since this is a living language and changes over time, always check the dictionary for

Modern RP usage of these spellings. Below is a partial listing of most common ask words,

grouped according to the consonant sounds that follow them.

ASK WORDS

[a]

Letter "a"

followed by:

[f] laugh, draught, calf, half, after, draft,

shaft, craft, staff, chaff, quaff

[ns] dance, chance, glance, prance, trance,

advance, answer, trans*- (prefix), France,

chancellor, Frances

[ntj] branch, blanch, avalanche

[s] brass, class, grass, pass,

castle, fasten, Passover

[st] aghast, blast, cast, disaster, fast, ghastly,

master, vast, pastor, past, passed, repast

[sk] ask, bask, cask, flask, mask, task, rascal

[sp] clasp, gasp, grasp, rasp

bathroom, path, wrath

rather, lath, paths, baths

[mpl] example, sample, sampler

Exceptions

[ae]

baffle, daffodil, graphic,

traffic, riff-raff

fancy, romance, cancel,

circumstance, finance,

stance, expanse, transit,

rancid

franchise

classic, lass, gas, morass,

passive, passenger,

crass, mass**

drastic, chastise, plastic,

sarcastic, castigate,

bombast, hast, fantastic,

pasta

aspect

hath, maths

gather, fathom

Note: Can't [kant] is pronounced with ah [a], while can [kasn] and cannot [kaenot] are pro-

nounced with [ae]. All forms to the verb "to have" are pronounced [ae].

* There seems to be a lot of variability in the pronunciation of "trans"—-always check dictionary.

** "Mass" meaning a religious service is pronounced both [maes] and [mas] "Mass" as in "mass media"is [maes].


HAND WORDS

Letter a

followed by:

[b]

c[k]ck[k]

[d]

[g/j [dsl[g][1]

[m]

[n][nd]

ng [rjg]

nk [rjk]

[nt]

[p]

[r/i]

sh[J]

ss[J]

[t]

tch [tj]

[v]

x[ks]

[z]

Exceptions

[a]

stab, rabble, cabin

accent, act

back, attack, lack, taco

glad, sad, shadow, mad, had

magic, majesty

dagger, wagon

valley, shall, shallow

am, lamb, gram, lamp

man, can, cannot, vanish

hand, grand, land, stand

languish, sang, language

thank, drank, sank

ant, rant

happy, capture, rapture

marry, charity, carry

clash, dash, fashion, flash

passion, compassion

cat, matter, that

catch, latch, match

have, ravage, lavish

wax, relax, axe

dazzle, hazard

command, demand, slander

reprimand, countermand

can't, shan't, chant, grant, plant,

slant, advantage, aunt, enchant

salve*, calve, halve (silent

"1" spellings)

raspberry

Words that may be pronounced either [ae] or [a]:

ant

asp

aspen

blaspheme

elastic

enhance

exasperate

masquerade

plantation

ranch

* salve: ointment = [a] salve: soothe, anoint = [ae]


Memory Aids

Memorizing the Ask and Hand Lists can be overwhelming. Here are some memory aids

my students have supplied over the years.

ASK LIST

I can't laugh and dance with a mask made of branches.

The master of the castle asked me to take a bath.

For example, rather, I clasped his raspberry calves.

The cast went fast which enhanced the chance to end it at last with a draught.

HAND LIST

I'm glad that scallywag stabbed me in the back with a dagger.

The man's magic hands happily lavished languishing lamentations over the land.

The cad, full of passion, married his match in the valley.

I have to wax my dazzling legs in a flash!

EXERCISES

1. [ae] / [a] Transcribe and drill the correct vowel sounds:

galaxy

salad

lamb

answer

lather

stagger

half

mango

band

rash

sham

rapt

lamp

plaster

dance

hand

after

rather

stand

diagram

telegram

clash

mask

bandit

trance

manic

glass

man

bombast

passion

2. Transcribe the correct vowel sounds:

nasty taskmasters

pastoral duty

last chance

avaricious scavenger

sweet charity

bad habit

murderous dagger

rather bland

vast expanses

screeching bagpipe

waxen beauty

past rapture


3. Recite with the correct vowels:

Ghastly, ghastly!

When man, sorrowful,

Firstly, lastly,

Of tomorrow full,

After tarrying,

Yields to harrying—

Goes a-marrying—

Ghastly, ghastly!

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, The Yeomen of the Guard)

There was an old man of Madras,

Who rode on a cream-coloured ass;

But the length of his ears,

So prompted his fears,

That it killed the Old Man of Madras.

(Edward Lear, The Complete Nonsense)

Now try a Sonnet:

When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,

I all alone beweep my outcast state,

And trouble deaf heav'n with my bootless cries,

And look upon myself and curse my fate,

Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,

Featured like him, like him with friends possessed,

Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope,

With what I most enjoy contented least;

Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising,

Haply I think on thee, and then my state,

(Like to the lark at break of day arising)

From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven's gate;

For thy sweet love rememb'red such wealth brings,

That then I scorn to change my state with kings.


227


Usage of the "Liquid U" inHistoric versus Modern RP

The use of "Liquid U" [ju] after:

[n] Always use fj].

E X A M P L E S new [nju], nuclear [njuklisr]

[d] and [t] In Historic RP, always use [j].

E X A M P L E S due [dju], duty [djuti]

[dj] and [tj] In Modern RP, many of the Liquid U's [ju] change to [ds] and [tj].

Historic Modern

duke [djuk] [dsuk]

tune [tjun] [tjun]

Tuesday [tjuzdei] [tjuzdei]

[6] [1] In Historic RP, always use [j].

E X A M P L E S allude [aljud], enthused [mGjuzd]

Note: The word "absolutely" is pronounced with or without the [j],

E X A M P L E [eebsoljutli] or [aebsolutli]

In Modern RP, drop the [j].

E X A M P L E S allude [alud], enthused [m8uzd], absolutely [sebsalutli]

[s] [z] In Historic RP, use or drop [j].

E X A M P L E S assume: [as(j)um], superb: [s(j)up3rb], suicide: [s(j)uisaid]

In Modern RP, the []] is usually dropped, but instead an on-glide pre-vowel(i) is

pronounced before the [u]. It does not sound like the American counterpart,

which is pronounced with a pure [u].

RULESagj exceptions on p&ges eO~6T

spellings pre-and

ceded by

Use the " LiquidU" "ew"in all "u," "ue," "eu,"

229

2. Use [i] in the unstressed prefixes "im-" and "in-", as well as in "-ing" endings.

3. Schwa substitutes:

• In RP, there is a new schwa substitute: [D] is a schwa substitute for unstressed

"o" spellings. For example, confess [kon'fess].

• While there is no general preferred schwa substitute in AS (it depends often

on the singer, the range, or the specific word), [i] is preferred overall much

more often as a schwa substitute in RP. For example, "heaven" in AS could

easily use [9], [e], [i], or [u]. In spoken RP, more often than not one would

lean toward [i].

4. Final unstressed "y" was pronounced [i] in late nineteenth-century RP, instead of

[i] in Modern RP and AS.

E X A M P L E Historic RP very [vm]

Modern RP very [VEJ+]

Stress Patterns

1. For two-syllable loanwords from French, the first syllable is stressed in RP versus

the second syllable in AS.

Drill: RP

'ballet

'cafe

'matinee

'debut

'garage

AS

ballet

cafe

matinee

de'but

garage

RP

'chauffeur

Monet

'baton

'cliche

'gourmet

AS

chauffeur

Mo'net

ba'ton

cli'che

gourmet


E X A M P L E S Modern RP

AS

sue

sue

suit

suit

Note: However, always refer to the dictionary for [s]/[z] spellings in Modern RP.

Unstressed Words and Syllables

1. In RP, there is more use of the schwa vowel [9] in unstressed words than in AS.

E X A M P L E Y o u ^ n l Who can know?

230

RP

a'ddress(n.)

limo'sine

advertisement

AS

,address(n.)

limo'sine

advertisement

RP

ciga'rette

Re'naissance

es'cargot

AS

, cigarette

'Renaissance

^scar'got

5. In RP, the unstressed -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, and -berry endings are pronounced in

Historic RP [grn/i]** and Modern RP [9rii].** Unstressed -mony endings are

pronounced [msni]. Also, while in AS the first syllable is a full vowel sound,

often the first syllable in RP is elided and pronounced [ai] or [ji], respectively.

* Sounded with French nasal vowel [a].

Note: Final unstressed y in late nineteenth-century RP was pronounced [i]. See point 4 under "UnstressedWords and Syllables" above.

** Alternate spelling.

Note: For rules on flipped [r] versus burred [a] r's, see page 232.

4. Compound word stress—in RP, stress is placed on either the noun or both words

equally. In AS, stress is usually on the adjective or both words equally.

RP orange juice

ice 'cream

open 'wound

New 'Year

weekend

AS 'orange juice

'ice cream

'open 'wound

'New 'Year

'weekend


2. For three-syllable loanwords from French, the second syllable in stressed in RP

versus the third syllable in AS.

RP

attache

Fiance*

AS

atta'che

fiance

RP

De'bussy

denouement*

AS

Debussy

denoue'ment

3. Other French loanwords with different stress:

i(JII The -ary, ~ery, -ojy, *b^ *êrr^ -mooy in unstressed word endings are•'pfOJiowritced in Historic jîW in; Modtern 8P: -mow becomes


'primary

'repertory

'Canterbury

'raspberry

'alimony

secretary

5. The word endings "ile" and "ine"—typically an unstressed monothong in AS—

are pronounced with the full [ai] diphthong in RP.

[ail]

E X A M P L E S docile, fertile, futile, missile, sterile, virile, volatile, tactile

[am]

E X A M P L E S carbine, adamantine, labyrinthine, serpentine

E X C E P T I O N S sometimes [in] or [i]

E X A M P L E S medicine ['medsin], morphine

6. In verbs and adjectives with the endings "-ate" and "-atory," the ending is

stressed in RP.

-ate

E X A M P L E S do'nate, frustrate, na'rrate, ro'tate, spec'tate, translate, va'cate,

vi'brate

-atory

E X A M P L E regulatory

E X C E P T I O N laboratory

Trilled and Flipped R's

In current day Modern RP, rolled and flipped r's are never used. That was not the case

when British Received Pronunciation was codified in the 1920s. In the usage of the upper

class of the 1920s, the r's were frequently trilled and flipped. British English is a living

language with adaptive usage that changes and modifies with the passage of time. There-

fore, it is important that our application of the pronunciation of RP reflects the appropriate

diction usage of the time in which the music was written.

RP AS

'pri,mary

'repertory

'Canterbury

raspberry

'alimony

'secretary

232

RULE Use rolled mitral r'$ [R] tor stressed word-types and intervocalic flipped r%

[r] in music of the Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and early twentteth-centoty pe-

riods. But use predominantly burred•rt [j j for stressed word-types jind inter-

vocalic r's in middle and late Mentieth*century literature Rolled r usafe should

be used only for special emphasis and treated as if it were an ornament.

The use of stressed rolled r's and intervocalic flipped r's when singing in RP should

be used exclusively in Baroque (Dowland, Campion, Rosseter, Purcell, Handel), Classi-

cal (Haydn, Arne), and Romantic music (Butterworth, Elgar, Hoist, Ireland, Finzi). In the

late twentieth-century literature, intervocalic flipped r's should not be used, because their

usage sounds too dated and affected. Rolled r's are best used for colour or dramatic effect,but should be used sparingly.

Here are some general parameters for use of consonant r's.

EXAMPLES righteousness realm Rise up!

2. Flip all intervocalic r's within a single word or in an adj tntog phrase in

Baroque, Classical, and Romantic;repertoire. Burr all fttteivdcaltc r^wttMn a

single word or in an adjoining phrase in late twentfeth-centyfy and'early

twenty-first-century repertoire,

RULES FOR R'S

1. Use burred or rolled initial r's in stressed syllables that begin grammatically

stressed words.

EXAMPLES spirit arise faraway yoyareaH


Since we are applying RP to British vocal repertoire that spans three centuries, the

application of the consonant r usage needs to be adapted to the usage of the time period.

The IPA symbols for the three types of r's are:

[R] rolled [r] flipped [j] burred


One of the unique qualities of British English is the consistent usage of aspirated t's

and d's. In a consonant cluster tr, if the r is rolled, it is very difficult to aspirate the t. It can

become a dentalized t when accommodating the position needed for the rolled r. The same

happens in dr clusters. The d can become dentalized when a rolled r follows it. Dentalized

d's and t's sound very foreign in English and should be avoided. That is why burred r's are

preferable for tr and dr combinations.

A Compromise

If a singer, conductor, or coach really feels strongly that the r must be trilled in a particu-

lar tr or dr cluster, here is a compromise:

[t3R-] or [daR-]

Insert a schwa vowel [9] between the 't' and 'r' or 'd' and 'r.' By inserting the schwa,

there is time for the t or d to be aspirated and not dentalized.

Technique for Rolling R's

Native English speakers frequently are not good at rolling r's. Unlike speakers who come

from a Romance language base, English speakers do not grow up using rolled r's and con-

sequently, their tongues often produce flaccid and flappy rolls.

1. Practice starting rolls with an [oe] vowel. This helps to place it further forward.

(OB) —» RRRRRRRRRRRRRRR

2. Listen to the speed of the roll. It should be clean and fast.

RRRRRRRRRRRRRRR

3. Do not roll r's in unstressed prefixes or unstressed words.

4. Use caution when roiling r's for dr or tr combinations so as tdnolso^ttd Slavic,

EXAMPLES refrain remember reprehensible

EX-AMP LES true dream dread trust


Musical Application for R's

1. The rolled r should be initiated before the beat so that the vowel can be on the

beat. It should be approached like a grace note to the primary pitch. When the roll

begins on the beat, the vowel is compromised and obscured.

E X A M P L E S great [gRRRRRRRert] praise [PRRRRRRCIZ]

2. With this same approach, if the word before the rolled r is on a lower pitch, initiate

the rolled r on the pitch before.

E X A M P L E And the dead shall be[RR] raised inco[RR] uptible

3. Since r's add a foreign element to the British Received English, use short rolls.

E X A M P L E B[RRR]ight is the [RRR]ing of words

not

B[RRR]ight is the [RRRJing of words

4. Additionally, if there are several stressed words in a single phrase that begin with

an r (or a cluster containing an r), pick and choose which r's you want to roll; if

there are too many in a row, it can take away from the text and, again, sound

more foreign. Note the musical example below.


Rolling all three words—"Rome," "ruled," and "Etruscan"—is too much. In this

case, rolling two out of three would be a better choice.

EXERCISE

1. Transcribe the following texts into RP, concentrating on the treatment of the r's.

Bright is the ring of words

When the right man rings them,

Fair the fall of songs

When the singer sings them,

[RRR]Rome is now [RRR]ruled by the E - t[RRR]rus - can up - start:

Allegro con ruoco


Still they are carolled and said—

On wings they are carried—

After the singer is dead

And the maker buried.

Low as the singer lies

In the field of heather,

Songs of his fashion bring

The swains together.

And when the west is red

With the sunset embers,

The lover lingers and sings

And the maid remembers.

(Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams,

"Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs of Travel)

I will make you brooches and toys for your delight

Of bird-song at morning and star-shine at night,

I will make a palace fit for you and me

Of green days in forests, and blue days at sea.

I will make my kitchen, and you shall keep your room,

Where white flows the river and bright blows the broom;

And you shall wash your linen and keep your body white

In rainfall at morning and dewfall at night.

And this shall be for music when no one else is near,

The fine song for singing, the rare song to hear!

That only I remember, that only you admire,

Of the broad road that stretches and the roadside fire.

(Robert Louis Stevenson / Ralph Vaughan Williams,

"The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel)

Ah! Belinda, I am press'd

With torment not to be confess'd;

Peace and I are strangers grown:

I languish till my grief is known,

Yet would not have it guess'd.

(Henry Purcell, "Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas)

In AS and several British regional dialects, the articulation of t's is more relaxed and col-

loquially often lazy. Medial t's are often flapped [r]* or imploded and final t's are often

dropped or globalized [?].

E X A M P L E : "Goodnight!" is colloquially pronounced [gu?nart].

When singing AS well, initial and final t's should be articulated and aspirated, while

medial t's should have no aspiration. For example, in the words "twilight," both t's would

be well aspirated to match the volume level of the vowels. But in the word "letter," the

medial t's should be sounded as t's (not d's) but with no aspiration. In RP, all t's are well-

articulated and aspirated in initial, final, and medial positions.

There is one crucial exception: Do not aspirate a final t if it is followed by a word be-

ginning with an unstressed vowel.

E X A M P L E : "that I" with an aspirated t mistakenly creates the word "tie"

Such phrases would best be connected with a very soft unaspirated t or the legato con-nection broken with a breath lift.

There are two idiomatic phrases in British dialect in which the t's are always con-

nected strongly: "It is" is sounded as [i -> tiz] and "Not at all" is sounded [no -> ts -> tol].

Practice saying "not at all" and "it is" several times.

[th]

The aspiration of a consonant should be notated phonetically by using [th]. Since for pro-

jection, all t's need to be aspirated in AS, RP, and MA, the symbol [t] alone will imply

aspiration. Only in colloquial American will the characteristic American flapped t be used.

It is notated [r].

See glossary page 294 for discussion of flapped t's [r].


Articulating the Letter T in RP

RIRf All t's must be adulated0s^ i ardless of their position wMi a word;


EXERCISES

1. Transcribe the following words in British dialect and drill them:

touch little polite

tree better quiet

tongue lately clapped

tell central kissed

teeth pretty delight

2. Practice reciting the following texts concentrating on aspirated T's:

I am the very model of a modern Major-General,

I've information vegetable, animal and mineral.

I know the kings of England, and I quote the fights historical,

From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical;

I'm very well acquainted too with matters mathematical.

I understand equations, both simple and quadratical,

About binomial theorem I'm teeming with a lot o' news—

With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse.

I'm very good at integral and differential calculus,

I know the scientific names of being animalculus;

In short, in matters vegetable, animal and mineral,

I am the very model of a modern Major-General.

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from Pirates of Penzance)

There is beauty in the bellow of the blast,

There is grandeur in the growling of the gale,

There is eloquent out-pouring

When the lion is a-roaring,

And the tiger is a-lashing of his tail!

Yes, I like to see a tiger

From the Congo or the Niger,

And especially the lashing of his tail!

(W. S. Gilbert / Arthur Sullivan, from The Mikado)

3. Transcribe the following texts:

Your hands lie open in the long fresh grass,—

The finger-points look through like rosy blooms:

Your eyes smile peace.

The pasture gleams and glooms


'Neath billowing skies that scatter and amass.

All round our nest, far as the eye can pass,

Are golden kingcup fields with silver edge

Where the cow-parsley skirts the hawthorn hedge.

Tis visible silence, still as the hour glass.

Deep in the sun-searched growths the dragon-fly

Hangs like a blue thread loosened from the sky:—

So this winged hour is dropt to us from above.

Oh! clasp we to our hearts, for deathless dower,

This close-companioned inarticulate hour

When twofold silence was the song of love.

(Ralph Vaughan Williams, "Silent Noon" from The House of Life)

Come, sleep, and with thy sweet deceiving

Lock me in delight awhile;

Let some pleasing dreams beguile

All my fancies, that from hence

There may steal an influence,

All my powers of care bereaving.

Tho' but a shadow, but a sliding,

Let me know some little joy.

We, that suffer long annoy,

Are contented with a thought

Thro' an idle fancy wrought:

O let my joys have some abiding.

(John Fletcher/ Peter Warlock, Sleep)

The fountains mingle with the River

And the Rivers with the Ocean,

The winds of Heaven mix for ever

With a sweet emotion;

Nothing in the world is single;

All things by a law divine

In one another's being mingle.

Why not I with thine?

See the mountains kiss high Heaven

And the waves clasp one another;

No sister-flower would be forgiven

If it disdained its brother;


And the sunlight clasps the earth

And the moonbeams kiss the sea:

What are all these kissings worth

If thou kiss not me?

(Percy Bysshe Shelley / Roger Quilter, "Love's Philosophy")

Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant king;

Then blooms each thing, then maids dance in a ring,

Cold doth not sting, the pretty birds do sing,

Cuckoo, jug-jug, pu-we, to-witta-woo!

The palm and may make country houses gay,

Lambs frisk and play, the shepherds pipe all day,

And we hear aye birds tune this merry lay,


The fields breathe sweet, the daisies kiss our feet,

Young lovers meet, old wives a-sunning sit,

In every street these tunes our ears do greet,


Spring! The sweet Spring!

(Thomas Nashe / Ivor Gurney, "Spring," from Summer's Last Will and Testament)

When fishes flew and forests walked

and figs grew upon thorn,

Some moment when the moon was blood

Then surely I was born.

With montrous head and sickening cry

And ears like errant wings,

The devil's walking parody

on all four-footed things.

The tattered outlaw of the earth

of ancient crooked will;

Starve, scourge, deride me:

I am dumb, I keep my secret still.

Fools! For I also had my hour;

One far fierce hour and sweet:

There was a shout about my ears,

And palms before my feet.

("The Donkey," G. K. Chesterton / Rebecca Clarke)

In summertime on Bredon

The bells they sound so clear;

Round both the shires they ring them

In steeples far and near,

A happy noise to hear.

Here of a Sunday morning

My love and I would lie,

And see the coloured counties,

And hear the larks so high

About us in the sky.

The bells would ring to call her

In valleys miles away;

"Come all to church, good people;

Good people come and pray."

But here my love would stay.

And I would turn and answer

Among the springing thyme,

"Oh, peal upon our wedding,

And we will hear the chime,

And come to church in time."

But when the snows at Christmas

On Bredon top were strown,

My love rose up so early

And stole out unbeknown

And went to church alone.

They tolled the one bell only,

Groom there was none to see,

The mourners followed after,

And so to church went she,

And would not wait for me.

The bells they sound on Bredon,

And still the steeples hum,

"Come all to church, good people."

0 noisy bells, be dumb;

1 hear you, I will come.

(A. E. Housman / Sir Arthur Somervell, "In Summertome on Bredon,"

from A Shropshire Lad)

Many other British texts can be found in chapters 2-13.


CHAPTER FIFTEEN

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect

The Default Dialect

The Mid-Atlantic English is a version of the English language that tries to be neither pre-

dominantly American nor British. Mid-Atlantic English, also known as Transatlantic pro-

nunciation, is a type of accent formerly cultivated by American and Canadian actors for

use in theater and by North American news announcers for war correspondence. Its aim

was mutual intelligibility across the Atlantic. Generally based on the educated Bostonian

speech of the 1920s, it was essentially North American speech with some adopted features

of British pronunciation. In theater, it was used in stage productions of Shakespeare and

other works from the British Isles and frequently in film until the post-World War II era.

This form of "stage British" is not used today as much as it once was. In current North

American theater, the practice is to use a more American sounding Theater Standard. It is

what in this book is referred to as AS. Sadly, today, even Shakespeare is rarely performed

in the United States with any sort of British dialect.

The codification of Mid-Atlantic pronunciation in written form is credited to Edith

Warman Skinner in the 1930s. Sir Tyrone Guthrie had established an acting troupe that

was made up of British, American, and Canadian actors. He became frustrated with the

distraction of the "ping-pong" fluctuation of all the pronunciation variants he heard in the

dialogue of his actors, and enlisted the help of Edith Skinner to regulate a hybrid pronun-

ciation for English that would blend the vowel variants and the language usage. The pro-

nunciation that Edith Skinner codified led to the writing of her book Speak with Distinc-

tion, which has become one of the principal texts for stage speech used by acting schools

throughout the English-speaking world.

241

Good examples of exemplary Mid-Atlantic can be found in the films of the American-

born but British-trained Vincent Price, the ex-pat Gary Grant, the Canadian Christopher

Plummer, and the American actor James Earl Jones. One good way to become attuned to

this pronunciation is to spend some time watching the black and white Hollywood movies

of the 1930s and 1940s. All the starlets of the American Motion Picture studio system

were trained to speak in Mid-Atlantic. Listen to the old movies of Betty Davis, Katherine

Hepburn, and Humphrey Bogart. The list of stars is long. Even in the 1960s, Mid-Atlantic

was used in The Sound of Music to blend the North American accents of the actors playing

the nuns and the von Trapp family with British pronunciation of Maria played by Dame

Julie Andrews.

Although Mid-Atlantic is not used as much today, it still can be heard in a more mod-

ern form in the speech of such American television characters as Frasier and Niles on Fra-

sier, and the parents on Will and Grace and Gilmore Girls. Mid-Atlantic dialect is often

used to define a character who is highly educated or upper class. It can be used to help

establish the relationships between the characters of a work. Even Princess Leia, Queen

Amidala, and of course Darth Vader of the Star Wars film series speak in a modern Mid-

Atlantic to establish their relationships to the authority figures of the Force and the Dark

Side. In 2007, The Illusionist, a film set in Vienna, used dialogue in Mid-Atlantic

For singers today, knowledge and fluency in the Mid-Atlantic dialect is a very useful

skill. In North America, it is often the requested pronunciation by many conductors and

directors for vocal works that are not specifically of North American origin. Oratorio and

European opera in English translation are frequently presented in Mid-Atlantic rather than

RP or AS. In the rest of the English-speaking world, it would potentially be an excellent

guide for an international English that could be used for any European or English Com-

monwealth works not specific to the British Isles. In North America, there is sometimes a

concern that the use of RP with its darkened vowels will lower the text intelligibility for

North American audiences. Often RP is not used in a stage production of a British work

unless supertitles are employed as a safety net. If this is a concern, or supertitles are not

being used, then Mid-Atlantic pronunciation is an excellent solution.

In Mid-Atlantic, the vowels are generally pronounced the same as in American Stan-

dard. The biggest distinctions between Mid-Atlantic and AS are found with the lessened

"r" colorations in [sr] and [sr] and in the diphthongs and triphthongs, as well as the op-

tional use of rolled and flipped "r's" in historic MA.

[a]

The chief difference between British Received and Mid-Atlantic, besides the lack of vowel

shifts, is the use of the intermediate [a] instead of [a] for the "Ask List" words. By lessen-


ing the "r" colorations and using the more open [a] vowel for the "Ask List" words, Mid-

Atlantic takes on a "Continental" flare to the language and does not register as a North

American pronunciation. It is the dialect that is used in the Madeleine Marshall book, To

Sing in English.

Let's have a look at more specifics of this pronunciation.

The Mid-Atlantic Dialect Overview

A little of this . . . A little of that. . .

1. Mid-Atlantic dialect is generally made up of AS vowels with British "r"

treatments.

2. The use of [M] always in words with "wh" spellings such as "what," "where-

fore," "why," and "whether."

3. Like AS and RP, the Prefix Rule applies, see page 48.

4. The "Ask List" words now are pronounced with [a], see list on page 224.

5. For unstressed "o" spellings, the [o] schwa substitute is preferred.

6. Like RP, the [D], as in "honest," is used for words with "o" spellings.

7. The parameters for rolled and flipped r's and r-colored vowels are the same as

RP, see chapter 14, p. 234.

8. Use [9r] in the second to last syllables of polysyllabic words with the endings

"ory," "-ery," "-ary," and "-berry," see page 230.

9. T's are aspirated as in RP. See page 236.

10. Use burred r's [j] only for r's in Modern MA. In Historic MA, use burred or

rolled [J]/[R] r's for initial r's or r's in initial consonant clusters, and flipped r's

[r] between vowels.

E X A M P L E S

CHAPTER FIFTEEN The Mid-Atlantic Dialect 243

Historic MA Modern MA

arise

truth

forever

royal


Repertoire Suggestions forMid-Atlantic Pronunciation

In North America

Oratorio of European origin

Handel's Messiah

Mendelssohn's Elijah

Bach Cantatas

Opera

Any U.K. Opera where

intelligibility is a concern

Opera in English translation

The Magic Flute

Die Fledermaus

The Merry Widow

European Operetta

Offenbach, Romberg

British Art Songs (if intelligibility is

Quilter, Finzi, Purcell, and so on

In Europe / British Commonwealth

Oratorio of European Origin

Mendelssohn's Elijah

Bach Cantatas

Opera in English translation

The Magic Flute

Die Fledermaus

The Merry Widow

European Operetta

Offenbach, Romberg

concern)

The Intelligibility Factor

The type of venue and the sophistication of the audience should be considered when deter-

mining which dialect will be intelligible and communicative. For a professional concert

in a major city such as London or New York, the audience should be able to understand

RP or AS without the default compromise of using MA. You, the artist, must make the

final decision about what is best.

Note: I prefer that all British repertoire be performed in Historic or Modern RP or an appropriate regionalU.K. accent where required, and all North American repertoire be performed in AS or an appropriate col-loquial/regional accent where required. Mid-Atlantic is the default pronunciation to be used if the reper-toire is not specifically American or British, is European repertoire done in English translation, or there isconcern about intelligibility.


Rules for Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation

This is no different from RP. For British and Mid-Atlantic dialects, the [h] should be

much more exaggerated than in Neutral North American. Be sure to insert the related [u]

vowel between h and w to stress and highlight these interrogative pronouns.

E X A M P L E S Why? [h(u)wai] Where? [h(u)w£ar] When? [h(u)wm]

Remember that a few words spelled with "wh" are sounded with [h] only:

E X A M P L E S who, whom, whose, whole, wholly, whore,

When these spellings occur in a stressed position in a stressed word, as in "tune" or

"pursue," add the [i] related glide vowel to help stress and exaggerate this pronunciation.

E X A M P L E S tune [t^jun] pursue

When they occur in positions of only secondary stress, as in "interlude" or "gratitude,"

do not add the related [i] vowel.

E X A M P L E S interlude ['intarljud] gratitude ['gR

For a more complete list of examples of these words, see page 61.

RULf Always use [M] for atl stressed words beginnings with "wh" sellings:

that is, whether, when, where, which, and so on, ' ..; T '•

Ry Li Always use the liquid u [ju] in words that are spelled V or'-ew" and

begin with the consonants d, n, s, I, t, and tit, See page 61 /

EXERCISES

Drill the following sentences, using [ju] appropriately:

The stupid pupil was confused about latitudes and platitudes.

Nuclear fusion renews confusion.

The youth endured puberty with humor.

Students must studiously study their etudes.

Eunice was amused by their new attitude.

Please try to duplicate the numerous nuances of beautiful elocution!

Allusion and illusion are infused with collusion.

The Muse was imbued with dubious acumen.

The vowel [a] as in "Ask" is often referred to as the intermediate "A" because it is a vowel

sound between [ae] as in "cat" and [a] as in "father."


RULI UseJa]for"AslcUst*spellings.


[a] Production

FIGURE 15.1 [a]

Action

Jaw

Lips

Tongue

wide

relaxed

spread lightly in smile


arch slightly lower than for [ae]

The vowel [a] is the first vowel in the diphthong [ai] as in the word "my." One way to find

the correct Intermediate "A" vowel is to sustain the first vowel of "my"—[maaaaaa] and

kinesthetically feel and hear this vowel sound.

Here is an overview of the three vowel variants for the Ask List spellings.


ASK LIST VARIANTS

after

bath

class

demand

enchant

fast

glance

[half

implant

laugh

master

nasty

outlast

paragraph

reprimand

sample

task

unsurpassed

vantage

wrath

RP

[a]

[aft9r]

[ba6]

[klas]

[dimand]

[intrant]

[fast]

[glans]

[haf]

[implant]

[laf]

[mast9r]

[nasti/i]

[outlast]

[paej/ragj/Raf]*

[jepjmand]

[sampsl]

[task]

[Ans9rpast]

[vantids]

[J/R06]

MA

[a]

[aftsr]

[baG]

[klas]

[dimand]

[mtjant]

[fast]

[glans]

[haf]

[inplant]

[laf]

[mast9r]

[nasti]

[outlast]

[paej/rsgj/Raf]*

[jepjimand]

[sampgl]

[task]

[Ans9rpast]

[vantidj]

[j/Ra0]

AS

[a][asft<H

[baeG]

[klaes]

[dimaend]

[intjaent]

[f33St]

[glasns]

[haef]

[implaent]

[laef]

[massif]

[naesti]

[outlaest]

[paejggjasf]

[jepjimasnd]

[saempsl]

[t33Sk]

[Ansa-paest]

[vaentadj]

[iae0]

* Reminder: Rolled or burred r's are used for stressed syllables in Historic RP and flipped r's are usedbetween vowels. In Modern MA only burred r's are used.

EXERCISE DRILLS

1. Alternately sing and say the following words:

[ma:i] ->

[ma:i] ->

[a:i] ->

[a:i] -»

[maaaaaa] ->

[maaaaaa] -»

[aaaaaaaa] -->

[bjaaaaa] ->

[maaaaast] ->

[maaaask] ->

[aaaaask] -»

[braaaaas] ->

[mast]

[mask]

[ask]

[brass]


2. Drill the following words. Be careful not to nasalize the [a] vowels in words con-

taining nasal consonants.

ask

answer

glass

laugh

master

blast

pass

after

nasty

example

clasp

fast

bath

basket

plant

dance

trance

demand

can't

advantage

RU Li In Historic MA, always use [oj as the j» substitute vowel ift unstressed;

syllables spelledwith "o." This sounds a bit dated, but is af rofuriate for Historic

MA. For Modtrn MA, use schwa {«],

Drill the following words using the [o] vowel:

solution

Olivia

police

opinion

offense

oppress

proceed

obsolete

obey

produce

official

overtly

revolution

profound

domestic

occasion

RULE; :y ;%e:n€!ubpat' [9rJ vowfHritbe iinstMed- itc^4-to«lail-$yllabte'' f /,

p ys labl<: endtngst âry/' "-ery," "-ory," "-bury/' find^berry^ or-iisti thfe:filAS

strep pstt«mrwteh would give it a full vowel soy nd;

ftyili Consenant r'$ may be rolled, flipped, or lsurred> ajid followtheisafee ruteof ijspDeafidn- as British Eri isH. (See- aps 221-211n chipter 14.);, '


In RP and Mid-Atlantic speech, this syllable is frequently dropped completely:

'blueberry

'military

Historic MA

['blub9rri]/[blubjij

[rmlit3rri]/[miliUi]

[tit] and [bj+]

Modern MA

['blub9rji]/[blubji] or [blubeji]

[milit9rri]/[militii] or ['militeji]

orUse the AS stress pattern:

Historic MA

'blueberry ['bluberi]

'military ['militeni]

Modern MA

['blubeai]

['militeii]

RULE The raised open O vowel from ftp

The Open O is pronounced with the AS vowel.

all

walk

daughter

law

E X E R C I S E S

1. Write out the following words and practice drilling the [ar] in the penultimate

syllables but also with the AS stress pattern. For example, 'repertory.

repertory

January

legendary

tributary

ordinary

visionary

secretary

dictionary

honorary

raspberry

cranberry

February

RP MA AS

Is now pronounced as the AS


2. Transcribe and drill the following texts:

No longer mourn for me when I am dead

Then you shall hear the surly sullen bell

Give warning to the world that I am fled

From this vile world, with vilest worms to dwell.

Nay, if you read this line, remember not

The hand that writ it; for I love you so

That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot

If thinking on me then should make you woe.

Oh if, I say, you look upon this verse

When I perhaps compounded am with clay,

Do not so much as my poor name rehearse,

But let your love even with my life decay,

Lest the wise world should look into your moan

And mock you with me after I am gone.


No word from Tom.

Has love no voice,

Can love not keep

A Maytime vow in cities?

Fades it as the rose

Cut for a rich display?

Forgot! But no, to weep is not enough.

He needs my help.

Love hears, Love knows,

Love answers him across the silent miles,

and goes.

Quietly night,

O find him and caress,

And may thou quiet find His heart,

although it be unkind,

Nor may its beat confess.

Although I weep, it knows of loneliness.

Guide me, O moon, chastely when I depart,


And warmly be the same He watches without grief

or shame;

It cannot be thou art

A colder moon upon a colder heart.

(W. H. Auden / Igor Stravinsky, "Ann Truelove's Aria"

from The Rake's Progress)*

Love, too frequently betrayed,

For some plausible desire,

Or the world's enchanted fire,

Still thy traitor in his sleep.

Renews the vow he did not keep,

Weeping, Weeping,

He kneels before thy wounded shade.

Love, my sorrow and my shame,

Though thou daily be forgot,

Goddess, O forget me not.

Lest I perish, O be nigh

In my darkest hour that I,

Dying, dying,

May call upon thy sacred name.

(W. H. Auden / Igor Stravinsky, "Love, Too

Frequently Betrayed" from The Rake's Progress)**

It is enough,

0 Lord, now take away my life,

for I am not better than my fathers!

1 desire to live no longer;

now let me die,

for my days are but vanity!

I have been very jealous for the Lord,

*THE RAKE'S PROGRESS © Copyright 1951 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed.Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.

**THE RAKE'S PROGRESS © Copyright 1951 by Hawkes & Son (London) Ltd. Copyright Renewed.Reprinted by permission of Boosey & Hawkes, Inc.


for the Lord God of Hosts,

and I, even I only am left;

and they seek my life, to take it away.

It is enough!


Woe unto them who forsake Him!

Destruction shall fall upon them:

For they have transgressed against Him.

Though they are by Him redeemed,

Yet they have spoken falsely against Him.

Even from Him have they fled.


O Isis and Osiris, hear me

and grant your grace to this new pair!

You who protect each wand'ring stranger,

shield them in danger and despair!

May we with joy as victors name them;

but if they fail, and death should claim them,

then for their virtue, truth and love,

lead them to dwell with you above!

(W. A. Mozart / Andrew Porter [translation],

"Sarastro's Aria" from The Magic Flute)

Behold, I tell you a mystery:

We shall not all sleep,

But we shall all be chang'd,

In a moment, in the twinkling of an eye,

At the last trumpet.

The trumpet shall sound,

And the dead shall be raised incorruptible,

And we shall be changed.

For this corruptible must put on incorruption.

And this mortal must put on immortality.

(G. F. Handel, "The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah)


Orpheus with his lute made trees,

And the mountain tops that freeze,

Bow themselves when he did sing.

To his music plants and flow'rs,

Ever sprung, as sun and show'rs,

There had made a lasting spring.

Ev'ry thing that heard him play,

Even the billows of the sea,

Hung their heads and then lay by.

In sweet music is such art,

Killing care and grief of heart.

Fall asleep, or hearing, die.

(William Shakespeare / William Schuman, "Orpheus with His Lute," from Henry VIII)

Note: Many of the British texts throughout the book have been transcribed in MA in the exer-cise key on the companion website.

Afterword: The Finesse Factor

A Final Cautionary Note

All the techniques in this book are just that. They are techniques. They are tools that may

hopefully help to free you up vocally and to empower you to breathe life into the text. The

standard mantra I hear repeated by musical theater directors is "Sing the character!" "Tell

me the story!" "Don't show me your technique!" The same holds true in classical singing.

I want you to use the techniques found in this book to get the text across, to get the in-

tention of the text across, but I do not want you to "show anyone your technique." The

techniques are not an end unto themselves. They are there to serve the musical setting of

the text. The general rule of thumb is, if the audience is aware of them, then you have over-

done them. None of these techniques should be apparent to the audience. They are there

to serve the word, the text, the clear transmission of thought. They should not draw atten-

tion to themselves and consequently rob focus away from the musical text setting. If the

audience is aware that you have added glide vowels, for example, to consonant clusters or

they hear exaggerated shadow vowels at the ends of your phrases, then you have overdone

it and distracted them from the text. You have sabatoged the very thing you were trying to

accomplish.

As with any kind of technique, if you do overdo or apply it slightly incorrectly, it is

wrong. As most singers have discovered in their quests for vocal excellence and freedom,

good technique applied incorrectly turns into bad technique. So it is with diction technique.

Many singers are very intuitive. Some of these approaches may be too technical for

them. If so, consider all of these ideas and then process them in your own way. The rules

are just parameters that I have found to work for the majority of works and styles. But they

are rules and the nature of rules is that they provide structure in a learning environment.

255


Rules are not meant to be observed 100 percent of the time. They are meant to be consid-

ered and bent or even broken if the artistic situation and taste warrants it. They are strong

guidelines.

Coaches and voice teachers are wonderful resources. It is important to consider the

ideas and suggestions being offered, try them on for size, and take away what works for

you. So it is with this book. Use what you can, keep some of the ideas on the back burner

for future application when the time is right, and discard whatever does not work for you.

Not all techniques and ideas work equally well for all singers. That has always been the

challenge for me: to discover an approach that will work with each singer's creative pro-

cess and vocal approach.

Throughout your career, you may find that the consonants do not serve you anymore.

I have found that many professional singers need a consonant "tune up" in their mid-

career. The voice deepens, darkens, increases in size, and the fledgling consonants are left

floundering behind. Remember that the consonants must match your vowels in volume

and intensity. If your voice changes and evolves, make sure that you take time to rework

the consonants so that they are current with your developed vocal state.

The bottom line is that you must sing beautifully, be musical, transmit the text, and do

it all with finesse and artistry.

A Word about Interdependence

Although the techniques in this book can arm singers, coaches, and conductors with a

knowledge of technique to make the text expressive and communicative, the reality is that

many more elements need to be in place for the diction and intelligibility to be a success. In

a stage work, the blocking must be considered. If the set is open with no side walls to bounce

the voice off of, or the singer is in profile too much, the connection with the audience is com-

promised. If orchestral balance is too heavy in certain passages and the text is enveloped

in orchestral texture, the connection with the audience is compromised. The timing of the

supertitles must accommodate the length of the audience's collective attention span. In

other words, the success of text intelligibility is interdependent on all the elements.

Strive for the Third Dimension

From Terrance McNally's quote in the preface: "I know I am not William Shakespeare,

but a good actor, an honest actor, an artist, can make me sound like very good McNally.

And I'm very grateful."

Afterword: The Finesse Factor 257

I hope the techniques found in this book have inspired and empowered you to bring

your English songs and arias to life—to make them three-dimensional. The composer and

librettist have given us a score with pitches, time values, and text. It is up to you, the artist,

to breathe life into them, to make musical phrases out of them, and to transmit complete

thoughts behind the words. That is the way the music is served, the text is served, and art

is created.

And . . . the world will be very grateful!


APPENDIX 1

The International PhoneticAlphabet for English

An Overview of All the Sounds Found in American Standard (AS),

British Received (RP), and Mid-Atlantic (MA) Pronunciations

Consonants

The following symbols are identical to the letters of our English (Roman) alphabet:

[b], [d], [f], [g], [h], [k], [1], [m], [n], [p], [s], [t], [v], [w], [z]

The symbols below are new symbols added because no corresponding symbols exist in

the Roman alphabet:

*Rolled and flipped R's are used in the British RP and Mid-Atlantic dialect. They should not be used inAmerican Standard dialect.

259

Symbol Key Words

(ng)(th)

(th)

(hw)

(sh)

(ch)

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

sing, think

thin, thirst

thine, this

whisper, when

you, v_es

she, sure

choose, church

vision, azure

George, joy

red, remember, every (the burred r)

righteousness,

very, far away,

great, realm (rolled r* )

forever (flipped r used between vowels*)


Vowels

Diphthongs

Symbol

[ai]

[ei]

Key Words

in night, buy, sky

in day, break, reign

*"Ask" has different vowel variants for RP and MA pronunciation. See chapters 14 and 15.

** [D] is an intermediate short open o that is used in British English and in some parts of North America inwords with stressed "o" spellings. The preferred pronunciation for American Standard is [a]. See chap-ters 14 and 15 for use of the [D] in British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations.f[3^] and [a*-] are the r colored vowels characteristic of American Standard pronunciation.

* [3r] and [sr] are the reduced r colored vowels found in British Received and Mid-Atlantic pronunciations.

Symbol Key Words

(ah)

(eh)

(ih)

(ee)

(ee)

(oo)

(oh)

(short o)

(aw)

(er)

(er)

(er)

(er)

(uh)

(uh)

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

father, hot ("o" spellings in AS only)

wed, many, bury

hit, been, busy

me, chief, feat, receive

pretty_, lovely

cat, marry, ask,* charity

ask, dance, class ( MA only)

too, wound, blue, juice

view, beautiful, usual, tune

book, bosom, cushion, full

obey, desolate, melody (unstressed syllables c

on, not, honest, God (RP and MA only)**

awful, call, daughter, sought

learn, burn, rehearse, journey (AS only)*

learn, burn, rehearse, journey (RP and MA)*

father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (AS only)

father, doctor, vulgar, elixir (RP and MA)*

hum, blood, trouble, judge

(stressed syllables)

sofa, heaven, nation, joyous

(unstressed syllables)

APPENDIX 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet for English 261

Triphthongs

Symbol Key Words

in fire, choir, admire

in our, flower, tower

The IPA is a wonderful tool for singers to use and master. When texts are transcribed

into phonetics, it greatly clarifies the vowels to be sung mentally for the singer, as well as

facilitates the shift back and forth between repertoire in various languages. It is shorthand

for mental concepts of the speech sounds as well as an easy memory aid for the vowels to

be produced.

Listed below are some frequently used words that are transcribed into the International

Phonetic Alphabet. Both American Standard and British Received Pronunciation variants

are listed as AS/RP.

* [su] in spoken RP only.

** [eu] in spoken modern RP.

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

in

boy, voice, toil

no, slow, reproach

now, about, doubt

air, care, there

ear, dear, here, tier

pour, four, soar, o'er

sure, tour, poor

are, heart, garden

sing

word

walk

jaw

church

this

bear

dawn

new nuisance

double

beard

thou

choose

judge

war

would

song singer

wonder

whisper

joyous

children

thine

burden

darkness

numerous


APPENDIX 2

Three-Dialect Overview

Here is a chart to help clarify the differences in the pronunciation and treatment of com-

monly used words in American Standard, Received Pronunciation, and Mid-Atlantic. (Ab-

breviations: col = colloquial sp = spoken s = sung h = historic m = modern wf = weak form)

* In RP and MA, the r's in"tr" and "dr" combinations should not be rolled. See detailed rules in chapter 14.

263

Word AS RP MA

ask

care

dance

dream

earth

fatherfire

for

from

further

God

grant

growths

hand

hono(u)r

love


* In RP and MA, the r's in"tr" and "dr" combinations should not be rolled. See detailed rules in chapter 14.

man

must

nature

not

of

on

owe

rapture

shall

sure

true

upon

very

want

was

when

APPENDIX 3

Regional Dialects Found inVocal Repertoire

Technique for Singing in Dialects

Increasingly, singers are required to sing in regional dialects. With the number of inter-

nationally televised performances, it is very important that any dialect work not be treated

generically but with authenticity. Singing in regional dialects is a wonderful and worth-

while challenge. It can help to establish a character or a locale as much as the technical

aspects of the production can. It is very important to take the vowel variants listed either

here or on dialect tapes and CDs and then apply all the diction techniques you have learned

from this book. Changing the vowels to accommodate new variants and usage should be

like changing a light gel on a theatrical light. The basic shape inside the mouth used for

tone production should not change as you move from dialect to dialect—only the color of

the "gel" on top of it changes.

In the United States, there have been hundreds of productions of Carlisle Floyd's Su-

sannah. Set in Appalachia, it should be sung in Appalachian dialect. Jake Heggie's Dead

Man Walking has received many productions in the United States and recently had its Eu-

ropean premiere in Dresden as well as productions in Australia, Sweden, and Austria. It

is set in New Orleans and requires several different New Orleans dialects as well as other

Southern accents. George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess has been produced and toured in-

ternationally and requires the Gullah dialect.

In the United Kingdom, the standard performance practice for operas in English

seems to be the sole use of British Received Pronunciation. In Great Britain, where each

city and village has its own distinguishing accent, and of course in Wales, Scotland, and

Ireland, locale-specific dialects are found in abundance. The folksongs of Wales, Scot-

land, and Ireland would come to life with at least a flavoring of the regional dialects, but

265


there are locale-specific operas that could be illuminated by full usage of local dialects.

Benjamin Britten's operas, for example, are locale specific and would seem to offer op-

portunities for regional dialect use. Albert Herring, set in Suffolk, is an opera filled with

shopkeepers and townspeople that could be in local accents. Though Albert Herring has

been performed at Glyndebourne with a regional Suffolk accent, it is most often sung in

standard RP. Other characters in Britten operas that offer opportunities for the use of re-

gional dialects might be the rude mechanicals in Midsummer Night's Dream and the crew

members of Billy Budd. Ralph Vaughan Williams's Riders to the Sea would come to life

if it were sung in an Irish dialect.

Listed below are some of the dialects suggested for frequently performed vocal works.

An application of the dialect to specific texts from the works or possible repertoire sug-

gestions is also included. Remember that intelligibility is the highest priority in any di-

alect work. Often it is best to use only a few of the characteristics of a dialect and give a

"flavor" of it rather than every single characteristic and lose intelligibility.

U.S. Dialects

General Southern

General Southern (GS) is a range of dialects found in the Confederate states that seceded

from the United States during the Civil War and adjoining border states. The American

South was mostly settled by English from the West Midlands and the West Country. South-

ern dialects can be found chiefly in the states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,

Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Texas,

Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, and the Ozarks of Missouri. Also, some of the southern-

most rural counties of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois have strong Southern influences. Al-

though initially non-rhotic (reduced r colorations), today the only areas that do not use r

colors are Savannah, New Orleans, Mobile, and Norfolk.

General Characteristics

The diphthong [ai] becomes [a:].

my

fine

like

AS

[mai]

[fain]

[laik]

GS

[ma:]

[fam]

[lade]

Tip: Sing [a:e] to keep it from spreading or tightening.

Tip: For better intelligibility try

*Tip: Take care to not let it spread to


The diphthong [au] becomes

AS GS

down

sound

now

Tip: If this spreads, modify it to

The diphthong [ei] becomes

AS GS

say

rain

The vowels [a] and are pronounced

AS GS

pond

dog

The vowels and switch or merge to one sound when followed by nasal consonant.

pin

pen

win

when

sing

think

AS GS

The diphthong followed by becomes or

AS GS

fail

wail

available

fell = fail

well = wail


On-glides occur before stressed [i] and [u] vowels.

AS GS

me

you

[mi]

[ju]

Tip: Glide quickly to the primary vowel or else it may lose intelligibility.

The single vowels add an off-glide after them.

This makes the characteristic drawl.

AS GS

pat

pet

pit

him

them

Tip: Do not chew on these or add

If so, it borders on caricature.

Final unstressed y's are pronounced [i] when elongated and [i] when short.

AS GSvalley

ready

lovely

short

short

short

Tip: Use [i] only for fast speech-like rhythms.

The liquid U [ju] is pronounced [m].

AS GS

new

due

Tip: Go quickly through the on-glide to the primary vowel.

*Tip: With thick orchestration, the t may need to be sounded for clarity.


The consonant [z] becomes a [d] before [n].

AS GS

wasn't

hasn't

business

Tip: Only partial d's are sounded.

The g's in "ing" endings are dropped.

AS GS

doing

singing

meeting

Medial t's are flapped or glottalized:

AS GS

pretty

plenty

ain't

night

[r] is the phonetic symbol for a flapped t

[?] is the phonetic symbol for a glottalized consonant

Tip: Final glottalized t's and flapped t's can only be used with light orchestration. With

thick orchestration sound aspirated t's.

The "wh" in wh spellings is always pronounced.

when

where

AS GS


Appalachian

Appalachian (AP) dialect is spoken in the Appalachian mountain range that spans southern

West Virginia, Southeastern Ohio, Eastern Kentucky, Shenandoah Valleys of Virginia, East

Tennessee, and Western North Carolina. Settlers of this area came from West Anglia, the

Scottish Highlands, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland via Ireland. Consequently, Appalachian

English has very prominent r colorings. The most frequently performed vocal repertoire

that uses this accent is Susannah by Carlisle Floyd.

All of the general characteristics for General Southern listed above apply. Here are the

sounds that are unique to Appalachian.

"The" does not change to before a vowel.

AS AP

the earth

the air

the elders

The vowel is pronounced in stressed words and syllables.

AS AP

love

justice

fun

The length of r coloring in diphthongs and triphthongs is elongated.

heart

here

warmin:

AS AP

Words ending in "ere" spellings pronounced I in AS become

"You" is pronounced when stressed and or when unstressed.

"Your" and "yourself is pronounced and

"Myself" is pronounced or

"Get" is pronounced

"Again" is pronounced


The pronounced in AS becomes

AS AP

there

here

sere

This is an exception.

Intrusive r's are found between words.

Law and order

Here are a few common words with characteristic pronunciations.

wash is pronounced

sure is pronounced

poor is pronounced

creek is pronounced

hollow is pronounced

greasy is pronounced

woman is pronounced

naked is pronounced

The principal repertoire set in this dialect would be Carlisle Floyd's opera Susannah.

Also lovely in this dialect are John Jacob Miles' Folk Songs Settings, and the Blue Moun-

tain Ballads of Paul Bowles.

Here are some key words and phrases from the Susannah score.

Susannah

Reverand Blitch

The elders

"naked as a jay bird"

"Come, sinner tonight's the night"

Little Bat

Sam Polk

Square dance

"washed in the blood of the Lamb"

is the symbol for a flapped t. It is produced by the flapping of the tongue against the gum ridge.


just A Flavor

Singing in any regional dialect is a slippery slope. It is very tempting to exaggerate and

overdo it. When that happens, it become a caricature and is offensive. It is actually best to

put just a flavor of the accent in and err on the side of caution. Singing in this dialect can

add so much to bring the characters and setting of Susannah to life. It is very important

that these vowel and pronunciation variants be sung with full, beautiful vowels. Since this

dialect is associated with country and western music, it is very important to not let the

characteristic "twang" of country and western close down or whiten out the voice. Carlisle

Floyd's Susannah must be sung like grand opera, not Grand OF Opry!

Excellent examples of this accent in film can be found in The Song Catcher and Nell.

New Orleans

Sir Andre Previn's Streetcar Named Desire and Jake Heggie's Dead Man Walking use

New Orleans dialects as well as have characters from other southern locales. New Orleans

is a French, Cajun, and Creole city. The accent is similar to Northern Atlantic coast cities

such as New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore but is non-rhotic and has reduced r color-

ings. It has been compared to the accent of Hoboken, New Jersey. Here are some of the

specific characteristics of the New Orleans accent.

Like General Southern, [ai] becomes [a:].

E X A M P L E A real good time

In lower class characters, [3-] sometimes becomes

E X A M P L E S work third learn

Words with "ar" spellings are pronounced

E X A M P L E S party heart or Mardi Gras

Final "ow" spellings are pronounced

E X A M P L E S yellow fellow

Tip: When the last syllable is elongated musically sing The schwa ending can

only be used on words set in speech rhythm and on notes of short duration.


The "ed" endings are pronounced [id].

E X A M P L E married

The substitution of [d] for voiced "th" and [t] for unvoiced "th"

E X A M P L E S through think these them

In Cajun the final "ch" sounds are often pronounced as

E X A M P L E church

Phrases from A Streetcar Named Desire

"Hiyah, sweetheart."

"I was common as dirt." "Whatsa matter, baby?"

"I don't go in for stuff like that".

"I want magic!" "Don't turn on that light!"

Phrases from Dead Man Walking

Joseph De Rocher

"God lets bad things happen, and they happen all the time."

"Sorry to let you down, Sister."

"But I ask you to hate the crime and not the criminal."

"We're De Rochers and we only cry when we run out a beer."

"It is the decision of the pardon board that the appeal of Joseph De Rocher be

denied and execution be carried out."


Gullah

Gullah is the dialect for George Gershwin's opera, Porgy and Bess. Gullah, sometimes

called Geechee, originated with African American slaves on the coastal areas and islands

of Georgia and South Carolina. Gullah is an African American accent found around

Charleston, South Carolina. It is said to take its name from a pronunciation of the native

slaves from Angola. Many of the words in Gullah are actually anglicized Bantu vocabu-

lary. An excellent resource on this dialect is The African Heritage of American English by

Joseph E. Holloway and Winifred K. Vass (Indiana University Press, 1977). Gullah is a

southern dialect and uses most of the characteristics of General Southern listed above. Here

are some of its particular characteristics.

Dropped r colored vowels.

E X A M P L E Porgy live here

Final unstressed y's are pronounced

E X A M P L E family

Initial th's both voiced and unvoiced are pronounced [d].

E X A M P L E S there the that

The folks with plenty of plenty

A slight "h" is added before vowels.

E X A M P L E I don't know

Prefixes and final consonants and consonant clusters are dropped.

E X A M P L E S I expect so

Don't suppose so

The Promised Land

Initial "st" combinations are pronounced "sht"

E X A M P L E S street stranger history or


The "tr" combinations are pronounced

E X A M P L E that's true

The and combinations are pronounced and

E X A M P L E S don't you

did you

Words with "v" are sometimes pronounced [b].

E X A M P L E Calvary

Phrases from the Porgy and Bess score

"A woman is a sometime thing."

"Oh yo' daddy's rich an' yo' ma is good lookin."

"Yes, de Lawd will meet you at the courthouse do'."

"What die on Calvary."

"There, there Bess, you don' need to be afraid no more."

"Oh, Hev'nly Father, hab mercy on we"

George Gershwin's notation of this accent in the opera libretto is inconsistent. Some-

times he writes "the," the next time "de," and so on. It is important for artists to go through

their role and make it consistently in the dialect.

An excellent video for hearing Gullah is Family Across the Sea, SCETV (South Car-

olina Educational TV), 1991. An excellent cultural center on Gullah Culture is www

.penncenter.com.

www.penncenter.com

www.penncenter.com


The British Isles and Ireland

As noted above, for many years, the performance practice has been to perform all vocal

repertoire from the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, an t the British Common-

wealth in British Received Pronunciation. Though this does standardize the pronunciation,

it tends to neutralize and erase the geographic origin or setting of the works and negate the

educational background and class of the characters. With the wealth of regional accents

found in the United Kingdom, it seems a shame that, at the very least, the flavors of these

dialectical variants are not used in the cannon of classical repertoire.

Here are the general characteristics of Scots, Irish, Welsh, and some of the regional di-

alects of England followed by specific repertoire suggestions for their application.

Scots

The Scots accent has many variations. Scottish accents can be divided into three large

groups: Northern accents of Western and Middle Highlands; Southern border and the

Lothian accents of the Lowlands, which includes Edinburgh and Glasgow; and Central,

Ayrshire, or Scottish Midlands accents from what is considered Robert Burns country.

Each of these general groups of accents will be discussed below. For specifics, be sure to

listen and drill with dialect tapes that are specific to the locale needed. Here are some over-

all general characteristics for all Scottish accents.


Vowel Changes

The vowel becomes Often colored with as in the French word "lune."

E X A M P L E S "pool" = "pull"

"fool" = "full"

Ask List words and Hand List words all use [a].

E X A M P L E [a] [a] [a] [a]

The man and Sam would be daft to not dance.

"O" spellings as in "God, not, upon" and words that use in AS and in RP are pro-

nounced


E X A M P L E [o] [o] [o]

He caught the dog in the shop.

The vowel is pronounced [e] and is longer in duration [e:] on stressed words and

syllables.

E X A M P L E [e:] [e] [e:]

He fajled when he fell.

Several diphthongs become monothongs.

The diphthong becomes [e:].

E X A M P L E [ei] [e:] [ei]

Today the rain might spoil the parade.

The diphthong becomes

E X A M P L E [01] [o:] [01]

It's but a slow boat ride home.

The diphthong becomes in the words "now, out, about, house."

E X A M P L E

Get out of the house now!

Tip: If it decreases intelligibility, do not use this vowel but use the diphthong variant

below.

E X A M P L E

He came down from the town to show you around.

The diphthong [ai] as in "night, buy" is pronounced closer to [ei] as in "day."

E X A M P L E

It was a fine night filled with light.


The vowel is often pronounced almost as schwa

E X A M P L E

He was a little bit tired of it.

The "er" and "ear" spellings are pronounced

E X A M P L E S heard learn certain perfect

The "ur" and "or" spellings are pronounced

E X A M P L E S word further

The diphthong is pronounced [ir].

E X A M P L E

He lives very near here.

[ir] [ir]

Consonant Changes

Consonant r's are flipped or rolled.

E X A M P L E w [r] [r] [r] [r] [r]

The roses are for Mary and Margaret.

The final consonant is often sounded as [n].

E X A M P L E Singing and dancing and playing.

DarkL is used in all positions. It is a very distinctive sound that adds authenticity.

E X A M P L E He fell down and landed in the loch.

The "ch" is pronounced as [x] in words that are spelled with "ch," "ough," and "augh."

E X A M P L E S loch daughter bought

Suggested Works to Be Sung in Scottish Accents

Benjamin Britten: The Scottish songs in the Folk Songs of the British Isles

: A Birthday Hansel: Soprano, harp

Eric Gross: Five Burns Settings

John McCabe: Weaving Song, arrangement of Scottish folk songs

Thea Musgrave: A Suite O' Bairnsangs; Sir Patrick Spens; Songs for a Winter's

Evening

Francis George Scott: Scottish Lyrics, Books I-V;

R. Vaughan Williams: Songs of Travel (Robert Louis Stevenson)

Judith Weir: Scotch Minstrelsy (settings of five Scottish ballads)

Malcolm Wilkinson: From a Child's Garden (Robert Louis Stevenson)

Note: Listen to the OUP website for a reading of "Bright is the Ring of Words" from The

Songs of Travel by Robert Louis Stevenson in Scots.

Irish

Irish accents differ greatly from locale to locale. The Northern accents are very different

from the Southern ones. It is very important to know specifically the locale and origin of

the text and then study and listen to tapes and CDs of native speakers from that locale.

Each of the cities and the counties has different variants. Here are some general charac-

teristics.



Vowel Changes

Ask Words are pronounced with RP

E X A M P L E S pass[pas] half[haf]

Hand Words are pronounced with [a].

E X A M P L E S back[bak] had [had] that and

Stressed "O" spellings as in "God not upon" are pronounced [a].

E X A M P L E S God [gad] not [nat] upon stop

* [«] is a mixed vowel most similar to [y].


The spellings as in "ought, caught, all" are close to [a].

E X A M P L E S ought[at]

The vowel as in "Dublin, love, up, young" is pronounced

E X A M P L E S Dublin love up young

The vowel [u] as in "food, too, you" is pronounced with no lip rounding.

E X A M P L E S food too you

Dublin

Vowel Changes


E X A M P L E S day eight


E X A M P L E S no stone

Western Ireland

Vowel Changes


E X A M P L E S day eight


E X A M P L E S no [no:] stone

Old spellings as in "auld" are pronounced

E X A M P L E Auld lang syne

caugh [kat] all[al]


The diphthong is pronounced

E X A M P L E S about house down

Suffixes and prefixes and unstressed syllables are pronounced

E X A M P L E rabbit

Consonant Changes (All Irish Dialects)

The g's in "ing" endings are dropped.

E X A M P L E S Coin' singin' askin'

The "wh" is sounded as

E X A M P L E S where when

The consonants and are pronounced as a dental [t].

E X A M P L E S thin faith

The consonants [d] and [t] before an r are and

E X A M P L E S try dress

R Colorings

In Northern Ireland r colors are non-rhotic and are reduced:

In the South, the r colorings are very heavy and elongated:

Note of Caution

There are many different Irish accents. You must modify all of the above to the specific

locale. Research your role and listen to dialect tapes of native speakers from the proper

locale.

Suggested Works to Be Sung in Irish Accents

Arnold Bax: Across the Door, Five Irish Songs, Cape Anne

Sir Rodney Bennet: Crazy Jane (W. B. Yeats)


Gilbert and Sullivan: The Emerald Isle

John McCabe: Irish Songbook

Charles Villiers Stanford: Shamus O'Brien, selected songs

Sir John Taverner: A Mini Song Cycle for Gina (W. B. Yeats)

R. Vaughan Williams: Two Poems by Seamus O'Sullivan; Riders to the Sea (J. M.

Synge)

Note: Listen to the accompanying recording on the OUP website for a reading of the text

of Maura's aria from Riders to the Sea and "Down by the Sally Gardens."

Welsh

The primary accent variants in Welsh are found in the differences between North and

South Wales. As noted about all the other regional dialects, it is very important to deter-

mine the specific locale and the unique characteristics of that locale. Then listen to dialect

tapes with speakers from that locale. Below are the general features for Welsh accents.


Vowel Changes

The Ask List spellings are pronounced [a].

E X A M P L E S draft [draft] branch fast [fast]

The Hand List spellings are also pronounced [a].

E X A M P L E S glad [glad] and [and] that

The of father as well as the dipthong are pronounced with

E X A M P L E S father start darlin' dark

Reduced or dropped r colorings:

Like RP, the r colored vowels are reduced and, at a fast tempo, the diphthongs have the r'

colors dropped.

E X A M P L E S bird worker learn sort


Like RP, stressed "o" spellings are pronounced [D].

E X A M P L E S not God upon

Like RP, the raised open o [o] is pronounced for aw, al, augh, ough spellings.

E X A M P L E S law all caught thought

The [i] in peace and [u] in food are pure vowels without British on glides.

E X A M P L E S peace not not

The diphthong [ou] is sounded as a pure [01] vowel.

E X A M P L E S know go alone

The diphthong [ei] is pronounced as a pure [e:] vowel.

E X A M P L E S late pay same

The diphthong [au] is pronounced [eu].

E X A M P L E S sound around house

The unstressed syllables are pronounced with full vowel sounds rather than a schwa [9].

E X A M P L E S breakfast moment complete

Some Welsh accents pronounce words with liquid U's in RP as [m].

E X A M P L E S new tune threw

Consonant Changes

Words with "wh" spellings are pronounced only with [w].

E X A M P L E S what when why

Medial consonants in stressed words are elongated.

E X A M P L E S whisper twenty wherever


The g is dropped in "ing" endings and pronounced [in].

E X A M P L E S walkin' sinqin' even in'

Initial r's and r's between vowels are flipped [r].

E X A M P L E S carry very red right

The consonant 1's are very light in South Wales [1] and in North Wales the dark 1 [1] is used

in the beginning and middle of words.

In Northern Wales:

The consonants [3] and [z] are sounded as [J] and [s].

E X A M P L E S decision vision is was prison

Initial stressed r's are rolled extensively.

The name "Jesu" is pronounced

In Cardiff:

The voiced consonants [b], [d], [g], [v] are pronounced unvoiced as [p], [t], [k], [fj.

E X A M P L E S better Dad good voice

Word of Caution: There is a wide range of regional accents within Wales. Even within a

very short distance, there are significant accent differences. It is very important to know

the specifics of the origin and locale of the Welsh texts that you are singing. Recommen-

dations for dialect tapes/CDs can be found in the bibliography.

Suggested Works to Be Sung in Welsh Accents

Milton Babbit: Vision and Prayer (Dylan Thomas)

Samuel Barber: Despite and Still (Robert Graves)

Ivor Gurney: "Goodnight to the Meadow," "Hawk and Buckle," "Nine of the Clock"

Alun Hoddinott: Six Welsh Folksongs

Robin Holloway: "Where We May Be" (Robert Graves)

David Matthews: The Sleeping Lord (David Jones)

William Mathias: Fields of Praise (Dylan Thomas)

APPENDIX 3 Regional Dialects Found in Vocal Repertoire

: Vision of Time and Eternity (Henry Vaughan)

Edmund Rubbra: Out in Dark Weather (Edward Thomas)

Sir Michael Tippett: "Compassion," "The Dancer," "Song" from The Heart's

Assurance (Alun Lewis)

Ralph Vaughan Williams: Five Mystical Songs (George Herbert)

Hugh Wood: Robert Graves Songs, Sets I, II, III

Listen to the reading of " The Ashgrove" in a Welsh accent in the accompanying

recording on the OUP website.

East Anglia

East Anglia is made up of the two counties Norfolk and Suffolk located along the east

coast of England. The Norfolk and Suffolk accents are said to be closest to American ac-

cents. The early settlers in New England were from East Anglia, but they differ greatly

from American accents of modern day. The accent notes below apply to both counties.


Vowel Changes

The Ask List and Hand List words are pronounced with [a] and [ae] respectively, like RP.

285

E X A M P L E S ask

hand

laugh

that

dance

back

The diphthong [ai] changes to approximately

E X A M P L E S night sky pie

The diphthong [ei] changes to [e:] in words such as "cake" and "face."

They are spelled as "air" or "ear" in these dialects.

E X A M P L E S 'cake' is spelled "cairke" or "cearke"

'face' is spelled "fairce" or "fearce"

Otherwise, the diphthong [ei] changes to [aei] in words with "ai,"ay","ei", and "ey"

spellings.

E X A M P L E S day train rein they


The diphthong [ou] is pronounced closer to

E X A M P L E S toe whole boat suppose

Be careful that these vowel changes don't end up sounding like the monothong [u] "two'

who'll" and "boot".

Words that are pronounced in RP with the diphthong are pronounced

E X A M P L E S cheer = chair

here = hair ear = air

beer = bear

The vowel found in "o" spellings in RP is now pronounced like in AS.

E X A M P L E S not God on upon

The vowel changes to

E X A M P L E S love fun judge but

The "oo" spellings as in "roof and "hoof are pronounced

Like AS, an "o" spelling followed by the consonants f, ff, gh, or th as in "often," "off,""cough," "cloth" are pronounced with

The vowel is pronounced [a].

E X A M P L E S learn church girl her word

Consonant Changes

Yod Dropping: Liquid U [ju] is dropped after all consonants.

E X A M P L E S beautiful

huge

due

new

few

tune

"Ing" endings are sounded as [in].

E X A M P L E S being going talking


Medial and final t's are glottaled [?] but a medial t is sounded if they begin a stressed

syllable.

E X A M P L E S Medial and final t's:

Stressed syllables:

getting

night

determine

little

got

retry

Final d's are unvoiced and sound as t's.

E X A M P L E land warned hundred

Dark 1's are not found in these dialects, only clear light 1's are sounded in all positions.

E X A M P L E S hill lack

The spelling "thr" is pronounced [tr].

E X A M P L E S three thread throng

Initial v's are sounded as [w].

E X A M P L E S village vicar voice

The consonant [h] is sounded at the beginning of stressed words and dropped in unstressed

words.

E X A M P L E happy to see him

Note: These are general characteristics for East Anglian dialects. Be sure to listen to tapes

of native Suffolk and Norfolk speakers to learn the subtle differences between the two

accents.

Excellent examples of the Suffolk dialect can be heard on channel 4's reality program

Rock School, the second series, which is set in Suffolk. Another excellent example is the

Singing Postman, a.k.a. Allan Smethurst.

Suggested Repertoire to Be Sung in East Anglian Dialects

Benjamin Britten: the rude mechanicals in Midsummer Nights Dream.


The West Country Dialects

The southwestern part of England is known as the West Country. This region includes the

counties of Devon, Cornwall, Sommerset, Avon, Gloustershire, Dorset, and Wiltshire as

well as Hampshire, Hereford, Worcester, and Shropshire. All the accents are rhotic with r

colored vowels similar to Ireland and most of North America.

The West Country accents are probably most identified in North America as "pirate

speech." Cartoonesque phrases like "Ooh arr, me 'earties!" are very close to these accents.

This may be because of the seafaring and fishing tradition of the West Country. Edward

Teach (Blackboard) was a native of Bristol, and privateer Sir Francis Drake was from

Tavistock in Devon. Two of Gilbert and Sullivan's operettas are set in West Country: The

Pirates of Penzance is set in Cornwall and The Sorcerer is set in the fictional village of

Ploverleigh in Somerset. The 1950 Disney film Treasure Island is filled with examples

of these accents. Because of the picturesque aspects of these accents it is very important

to learn the specifics of each locale and not slip into stereotype or into caricature.


Vowel Changes from RP

The Ask/ Hand lists are pronounced, like AS, all with

E X A M P L E S grass ask Bath gas crash

The vowels with r colorations correspond with most of Ireland and North America.

E X A M P L E heart garden thirst further

The diphthong is more opened toward

E X A M P L E make day

The diphthong [ai] sounds more toward

E X A M P L E S fly buy sigh

Consonant Changes

Consonant r's can be burred or flipped

E X A M P L E S real very


Final d's and t's are glottalized.

E X A M P L E S not hard bet cord

The initial fricative consonants can be sounded as voiced

E X A M P L E S far thought see shot

Medial and final "ing" is always [in].

E X A M P L E S being betting talking

Inital and medial h's are frequently dropped.

E X A M P L E S him behave

Consonant 1's are very dark in all positions.

E X A M P L E S lot falling hill

Some changes for rural areas:

"Thr" spellings are sounded as

E X A M P L E S three thread cutthroat

The consonant is sounded as [f].

E X A M P L E S think thought

The consonant [k] is sounded as [g] (very rural west country).

E X A M P L E S comical cart

Suggested Repertoire to Be Sung in West Country Dialects

Benjamin Britten: Billy Budd—Redburn, Dansker

290

Gilbert and Sullivan: The Sorcerer—some dialogue and choruses; Mrs Partlet could

have a flavoring of West Country.

: The Pirates ofPenzance—Ruth and some of the pirate crew could have a

flavoring of the accents.

Note: Resources for tapes and CDs of native speakers speaking all of the accents

listed above can be found in the bibliography.


GLOSSARY

Accent: The manner in which someone speaks a foreign language, a second language,

or any language that is not their native language.

Affricate consonant: A combined consonant sound made up of a stop-plosive and a

fricative consonant that are sounded together simultaneously. There are two affricate con-

sonant blends found in English:

[tj] chill [dj] Jill

Alphabet: Any set of written symbols or letters with which the sounds of a language are

written. The Greek alphabet, the Roman alphabet, and so on. See the Roman alphabet

and International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

Alveolar consonant: A consonant made with the tongue tip touching the alveolar ridge.

The alveolar consonants are:

[t] two [d] do [n] no [1] low [tj] chew [d3] jaw

Alveolar ridge: Also called the gum ridge or teeth ridge, it is the part of the roof of the

mouth that lies just above the upper front teeth.

American Standard: Notated as AS, it is a neutralized form of General American

(GAM). Based on a Midwestern American pronunciation with the regionalisms removed,

AS is the American dialect used as a performance standard in this text.

Articulators: The parts of the body used to form speech sounds. The articulators that

move are the lips, lower jaw, tongue, and soft palate. The articulators that do not move are

the teeth, gum ridge, hard palate, and the glottis.

Ask List: Named by Edith Skinner in her book Speak with Distinction, it is a list of

words and spellings, such as "ask," that have three different vowel variants for the stressed

291

292 GLOSSARY

"a" vowel. The words in the Ask List are pronounced as follows for the dialects listed

below:

E X A M P L E Laugh in American Standard [ae]

in Received Pronunciation [a]

in Mid-Atlantic pronunciation [a]

Aspirant consonant: A consonant sound composed predominantly of breath. The only

pure aspirant sound in English is [h]. It is non-vibrated breath released through a mouth

shape of the vowel that follows it. [m] is also an aspirant. It is a combination of [h] and

[w].

Aspiration: An explosion or puff of air with the release of one of the unvoiced stop-

plosive consonants. It is notated in the IPA by a superscript h [h] following a stop-plosive

consonant.

night [naith] pick [pikh] hope [houph]

Back placement: A vowel or consonant that is produced in the back of the throat and

sounds constricted or trapped.

Back vowel: A vowel sound made with the back of the tongue arched toward the soft

palate. The six back vowels in English are:

[u] shoe should [o] obey all honest father

Bilabial: A term used for consonant articulated with both lips. The five bilabial conso-

nants in English are:

[p] punch [b] bunch [m] me [w] were whir

Blade of the tongue: The forward part of the tongue.

Breath lift: The practice of initiating the sound with a pulse of the breath. It is an alternate

means for stressing an operative word in English with an easy onset rather than a glottal

attack.

Classic texts: A catch-all phrase for:

1. Non-contemporary texts in prose or verse that require elegance and eloquence of

style in performance.

• Non-contemporary texts that do not require specific accents

• Foreign works translated into English

2. Works set in imaginary times and places.

Cluster: A group of consonants. The initial consonant clusters are often opened in

singing to stress musically and vocally an operative or key word.

Cognate pairs: Pairs of consonants that are made in the same position and place of the

articulators. One of the consonants in the pair is voiced. The other is unvoiced. The cog-

nate pairs in English are:

Colloquial American: Relaxed, informal day-to-day speech. It is characterized by

dropped and glottalized final consonants with Midwestern vowel variants.

Consonant sound: A sound made with the expulsion of air. The breath is either stopped,

impeded, or interrupted by the articulators.

Continuants: A consonant that can be sustained or elongated as long as the breath lasts.

In English the nasal, lateral, and fricative consonants are all continuants.

Dark "L": A variety of a consonant "1" that employs the arching of the back of the tongue

toward the soft palate giving it a characteristic "dark" sound. The phonetic symbol for the

dark 1 is [1]. In most dialects of North American English the "1" tends to be dark in the fol-

lowing positions:

When followed by another consonant: "milk"

When it is final: "bell"

When it is syllabic: "bottle"

Denasalization: The act of diminishing some of the nasal resonance from a nasal con-

sonant in order to aid projection and vocal ease.

Dental consonants: Consonants made with the tip on the tongue in contact with the

upper front teeth. English has two dental consonants:

GLOSSARY 293

Close vowel: A vowel produced with a closed jaw position and a high tongue arch. The

four close vowels in English are:

[i]he [i] him [u] who

[b/p] [g/k] [d/t] [f/v] [z/s]

Diacritical marks: Diacritical marks are used in this text to show syllabic stress. ['] placed

before the primary stressed syllable; and [J placed before the syllable with secondary

stress.

E X A M P L E , undeveloped

Dialect: The general pronunciation practiced by a social or economic class or in a par-

ticular region by people who speak the same native tongue.

thine thigh

294 GLOSSARY

Diphthongization: The sound produced when the articulators move from one vowel to

another in the same syllable. Unintentional diphthongization of pure vowels is an error in

AS, RP, and MA English.

Diphthong sound [difGDrj]: A combination of two vowels within one syllable. One of

the vowels has more emphasis and is longer.

Easy onset: The starting of a vowel smoothly on the breath without a hard glottal attack

(hard onset). A technique used in voice therapy to alleviate vocal abuse. See easy onset

exercises in chapter 3, pp. 38-41.

Flapped t: A "t" consonant that is produced by the flapping of the tongue against the

gum ridge. It is very characteristic of medial t's and connective t's in General American

and some of the southern American dialects. The IPA symbol for a flapped t is [r].

E X A M P L E Better AS GAM

Forward placement: An easy, frontal placement in which the vowels and consonants

are resonated in the mask, the front of the face.

Fricative consonant: A consonant in which breath passes through a specific shape of the

articulators so as to produce frictional noises. The ten fricative consonants in English are:

[v] vine [f] fine

[s] soon [3] genre

this

show [ml when [hlhe

[z] zoom

Front vowel: A vowel produced by the front of the tongue arching toward the hard

palate. The six fronting vowels in English are:

[i] keen [i] kin ken [e(i)] cage cat [a] calf

General American: A dialect of American English based on the speech patterns of the

Midwestern States. General American, with some of the regionalisms removed, is the

basis for Broadcast Speech and American Standard pronunciation.

Glide consonant: A glide consonant, also called a semi-vowel glide, is a consonant that

is formed when the articulators glide quickly from its preceding related vowel to the sound

that follows it. The three glides in English are:

[w] wed yes red

Glide vowel: A glide vowel, also called a related glide vowel, is the vowel that precedes

and is related organically to a semi-vowel glide consonant. The three related vowels and

their glide consonants in English are:

[u] [w] [i]

GLOSSARY 295

Glottal attack: A hard explosive stop and release of the breath in the glottis when initiat-

ing a vowel. It is also known as hard onset. It is not healthy and desirable in spoken or sung

English. Rather it is important to substitute a breath lift for an easy onset to an initial

vowel of a stressed word. The phonetic symbol for a glottal attack is [?]. See breath lift.

Glottal sound: A sound that is made in the throat or glottis. The one glottal sound in

English is:

[h]he

Glottis: The space found inside the larynx between the vocal folds.

Good Speech: Dialect name used in Edith Skinner's Speak with Distinction. It is a North

American dialect that is similar to modern Mid-Atlantic pronunciation.

Grammar mini review:

A Noun is a person, place, thing, state of being, or proper name. Nouns can func-

tion as the subject or the object of a sentence or phrase.

A Verb connotes actions or feelings.

An Adverb modifies the verb. It tells how, where, or something about the verb.

An Adjective modifies the noun.

A Predicate Adjective is an adjective that has now become part of the verb. It

follows a form of the verb "to be" and takes on primary stress. "She is fine."

A Predicate Nominative is a noun that has become part of the verb. It follows

the form of the verb "to be" and takes on primary stress. "Life is bliss."

Subjunctive case is contrary to fact. "If I were a rich man."

Conditional case implies a condition. "If you build it, they will come."

Imperative is a command form. "Go! Get up!"

A Phrasal Verb is a verb that is made up of a verb plus a preposition. The preposi-

tion becomes part of the verb and receives primary stress along with the verb.

"Turn off the light!"

Gum ridge: Another term for the alveolar ridge.

Hand List: Named by Edith Skinner in her book Speak with Distinction, it is a list of

words and spellings, such as "hand," that are pronounced [ae] for the stressed "a" vowel.

The words in the Hand List are pronounced as follows for the dialects listed below:

E X A M P L E Happy in American Standard [ae]

in Received Pronunciation [ae]

in Mid-Atlantic pronunciation [ae].

Hard onset: See glottal attack.

296 GLOSSARY

Hard palate: The first third of the roof of the mouth. It is backed by cartilage causing it

to have a hard surface.

Hard "R": An R-colored vowel with too much tongue tension causing it to have a hard

or tense quality, which is characteristic of a regional Midwestern accent. Though in AS an

R-colored vowel is characteristic, it must not sound tense or hard.

Implosion: An implosion occurs when two stop-plosive cognates are sounded back to

back. When an implosion occurs, the first consonant is held and released with the explo-

sion of the second stop-plosive. Implosions occur with the following combinations:

b + p

Boj^jprays

d + t

har^Jlme

g + k

le^cramps

p + b

tof^billing

t + d

si^down

k + g

look^good

p + p

toj^price

t + t

hi)(j;une

g + gba^groceries

b + b

Boj^breaks

d + d

bayl^diction

k + k

speak^quickly

Inflection: Also called intonation, is the pattern of movement, pitch, or speed that oc-

curs within a stressed operative word in a phrase or a syllable.

Intermediate "A": The front vowel [a], which is found on the vowel chart to be an in-

termediate vowel between the [a] of "father" and the [ae] of "cat." It is the vowel variant

used for stressed "A" vowels in Ask List Spellings. It is also the first element in the diph-

thong [ai] as in "night."

Intermediate "O": The back vowel [D], which is found on the vowel chart to be an in-

termediate vowel between the [a] of "father" and the [o] of "all." It is the vowel used for

stressed "O" spellings in Received Pronunciation and Mid-Atlantic dialects. It is used in

certain regional accent of American English but not considered part of American Standard

pronunciation.

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): The IPA was developed and first published

by the International Phonetic Association in 1888. Each sound of all the world languages

was given a single specific symbol. It uses the letters of the Roman alphabet plus many

non-Roman letters.

Intrusive "R": A consonant "R" that is mistakenly added to the ends of words or within

word phrases where then is no "R." It is characteristic of some regional British dialects

but should be avoided in RP and MA.

E X A M P L E Paula (r) is arriving—Law (r) and Order—Barbara(r)

GLOSSARY 297

IPA: See the International Phonetic Alphabet.

Labio-dental consonant: A type of consonant articulated by the lower lip in contact

with the upper teeth. The two labio-dental consonants in English are:

[f] fine [v] vine

Larynx [laejirjks]: Often mispronounced, is another name for the voice box. Located at

the top of the trachea, it houses the vocal folds.

Lateral consonant: A lateral consonant is produced with the tip of the tongue against

the alveolar ridge and sides of the tongue free from contact. In this position, the breath

passes over the sides of the tongue to produce the consonant sound. The only one lateral

consonant in English is [1] as in "light."

Linking "R": When a word with a final "R" is followed in the same phrase by another

word beginning with a vowel, the two words are linked together by a consonant "R." In

AS and Modern RP and MA, they are linked with a burred r [j]. In Historic RP and MA

they are linked with a flipped r [r].

E X A M P L E AS, Modern RP, and MA Historic RP and MA

far (j)_away far (r)_away

Liquid "U": A popular name for the [ju] combination that is pronounced in words such

as: music, beauty, tune, duke, cue, knew, new.

Lisp: An incorrectly produced sibilant [s].

Low vowel: A vowel produced with the tongue arch low in the mouth and the jaw in an

open position. See vowel chart, p. 35.

Merge: This occurs when a word with a final continuant consonant is followed by a word

with an initial continuant consonant in the same phrase. When these consonants are back

to back they should be sustained and merged seamlessly one into the next consonant. The

symbol for a merge is: [J.

EXAMPLE

Mid-Atlantic pronunciation: A hybrid pronunciation that strives to be neither Amer-

ican nor British but is equally intelligible on both sides of the Atlantic. It uses the vowel

sounds of American English with the reduced "R colors" and "R" treatments of British

English. It is recommended for use with musical works that are not specifically American

or British.

with this sae man beige shoes of them

* The vowel variant for MA dialect.

** RP and MA only.

298 GLOSSARY

Mid vowel: A vowel sound that is produced with the middle of the tongue arching to-

ward the place where the soft and hard palates meet. The four mid vowels in English are:

[3r] learn father amass love

Nasal consonant: A nasal consonant is a consonant in which the vibrating air escapes

through the nose because the soft palate or velum is relaxed. The three nasal consonants

in English are:

[m] me [n] no sing

Nasalization: The production of a sound in which the air escapes through the mouth and

the nose because the soft palate is relaxed. Although there are several nasal sounds in

French, in English nasal sounds should be avoided.

Naso-pharyngeal space: The space behind the soft palate at the top of the windpipe.

Neutral vowel: The weak vowel [a] often found in unstressed syllables in English. Also

called a schwa.

Non-rhotic: A term used to describe a dialect or accent that does not have "R" coloring

in its vowels, diphthongs, and triphthongs spelled with an "r." AS is rhotic, while RP and

MA are non-rhotic.

Off-glide: An extra weak vowel sounded after a primary vowel that is characteristic of

certain regional dialects, especially Southern American.

E X A M P L E him man

On-glide: An extra pre-vowel that is sounded before the primary vowel in certain re-

gional American and British dialects.

E X A M P L E me[m(i)i] you

Onset: The beginning or start of a sound.

Open vowel: A vowel made with a low jaw and a low tongue arch. The six open vow-

els in English are:

cat [a] cast* cup con** [a] father law

Palato-alveolar consonant: A consonant produced with the tip of the tongue pointing

toward the alveolar ridge. The two alveolar-palatal consonants in English are:

shine genre

GLOSSARY

Passaggio: The point of transition between the vocal registers.

Pharynx: The tube of the vocal tract.

Phonetic alphabet: See International Phonetic Alphabet.

Phrase: A musical passage or rhythmic thought group that is done without interruption

in one breath.

Placement: A term used in theater and by teachers of voice, speech, and dialects to de-

scribe the areas in the head, neck, or mouth from which the speech sounds resonate.

Plosive consonant: Also known as a stop-plosive, it is a consonant that is produced

when the released breath is stopped by the articulators. There are eight plosives in English:

[b] boy [d] dew [g] go [tj] church

[p] pie [t] two [k] kite [ds] germ

Primary stress: The syllable that receives the strongest stress in a word when spoken.

It is notated with the symbol ['] before the beginning of the stressed syllable.

E X A M P L E 'hidden a'gree 'never di'scern

Pure vowel: A vowel in which the articulators hold the position throughout the entire

length of the sound. In AS, RP, and MA all vowels should be pure vowels without unin-

tended diphthongs or on-glides and off-glides.

R-coloring: This term refers to the rhotic vowel that is sounded in certain dialects where

there are R spellings found in the middle or end of the word. The presence of r-coloring

is very characteristic and widely prevalent in AS and General American dialects.

Received Pronunciation: Know as RP, this term refers to a pronunciation and usage of

British English that was cultivated in the well-educated upper-class in Southern England.

It is the performance standard for music compositions from the United Kingdom that do

not require a specific regional dialect. See chapter 14 for a full discussion.

Resonance: The process that amplifies and modifies the intensity of a sound. In speech

sounds, amplification occurs primarily in the mouth, nose, and throat. The fundamental

tone is produced in the vocal folds and is "resonated" within these spaces.

Resonators: The chambers of the body that amplify and intensify the tone produced by

the vocal folds. The primary resonators are the pharynx, the mouth, and the nose. Other

resonators include the upper chest, the sinuses, and even the skeletal structure of the chest

and head.

299

300 GLOSSARY

Retroflexion: Another term for the "R" coloring of a vowel.

Rhotic: Another term for "R" coloring.

Roman alphabet: The alphabet for written English and other European languages. It

was the model for the IPA.

"R" spellings—vowel or consonant?

RULE An "R" is sounded as a consonant when it is followed by a vowel, "R"

consonants are found in three positions: at the beginning of a wotd, as part of

an initial consonant cluster, or as an intervocalic "R* between two vowels*

1. At the beginning of the word:

AS RP/MA

ru

2. As part of an initial consonant cluster:

AS RP/MA

trouble

3. Or, as an intervocalic R between two vowels.

AS RP/MA

charity

RULE An "Rw is sounded as an "IT colored vowel when it is followed by a con-

sonant or is the final sound in the word.

1. When it is followed by a consonant:

AS RP/MA

card

2. When it is the final sound in the word:

AS RP/MA

devour

GLOSSARY 301

Schwa: The unstressed neutral [a] vowel.

Secondary stress: The lesser amount of intensity given to the syllable of a word in

which two syllables receive stress. It is notated with the [,] symbol before the syllable that

has secondary stress.

Semi-vowel: See glide vowel.

Shadow vowel: A short, volume-reduced vowel added to a final voiced consonant that

occurs at the end of a phrase where there is punctuation or a breath. It is a technique for

maintaining support and projection of the final voiced consonants through the accom-

paniment. The preferred vowel for a shadow vowel is [i] "ih" as opposed to [a] "uh,"

which sounds very Italianate.

E X A M P L E "Above the warless world«"

Sibilant: A speech sound characterized by hissing or buzzing. The six sibilants in En-

glish are:

[z] zoo [3] genre [dj] Jane

[s] sue [J] shoe [tj] chain

Singer-ese: Also known as "uni-vowel" singing. It is an artificial, old-fashioned pro-

nunciation made up of Italianate or modified vowels that is too frequently heard in the

sung English of classical singers. It is to be avoided. In this day and age of mass media

and international telecasts, it is important that the English sounds "read" with the listener

as honest, accurate, and real. Of course vowels need to be modified in order to maneuver

around an extreme range text setting and for vocal ease, but these modifications must be

done with subtlety and finesse and the listener should never be aware of them.

Soft palate: The smooth, soft back part of the roof of the mouth. It is also called the

velum.

Spelling pronunciation: An incorrect pronunciation based on the spelling of English.

It is often mispronounced and sounds affected or pedantic.

Incorrect AS RP/MA Correct AS RP/MA

labor

Standard of pronunciation: In the United States there is no standard of pronuncia-

tion. However, General American (GAM) based on the dialects of the Midwestern and

Western states, is considered accent-less and most easy to understand. General American

is used for broadcast speech on American radio and television. American Standard, AS, is

302

the pronunciation studied in this text as a neutralized version of General American. In the

United Kingdom, Received Pronunciation, RP, was considered the broadcast standard.

Since the mid-twentieth century, a more modern version of RP that is inclusive of the re-

gional dialects is used in broadcast speech. To reflect this change, the terms Historic RP

and Modern RP are used in this text.

Stop-plosive: Another term for a plosive consonant.

Stressed syllable: A syllable that has a stronger degree of intensity or volume in rela-

tion to the other syllables of a word. English words have three possible stressed syllable

patterns:

Primary Stress Primary and Secondary Stress Double Stress

'anger .vulnerability 'rainbow

The diacritical mark ['] is used above and in front of a syllable to show primary stress and

[] below and in front of a syllable to show secondary stress.

Strong form (sf): The strong form of a word—articles, prepositions, conjunctions, aux-

iliary verbs—when in a stressed position in a phrase uses a full vowel sound. See weak

form (wf).

E X A M P L E If you CAN.

Sub-lingual pressure: Air pressure at the base of the tongue that can constrict the tone.

Sub-vocal pressure: Also known as sub-glottal pressure, it is the pressure of air beneath

the vocal folds. Sub-glottal pressure causes the vocal folds to open and vibrate. Excessive

pressure can cause breathiness and vocal abuse.

Syllabic consonant: A syllabic consonant occurs when an unstressed syllable is sounded

with the final consonant only, omitting the unstressed vowel. In English the three syllabic

consonants are final m, n, or 1, notated as

E X A M P L E chasm heaven little

An unstressed syllable that is sounded with only a syllabic consonant can be used in

speech, musical theatre, and pop music but not in classical singing. In classical singing, a

vowel sound is needed to sing through a syllable.

Syllabification: The division of a word into syllables. Often, the division of a word in a

dictionary is not how it is sounded when spoken or sung. For example, dic-tion-ar-y in the

dictionary; di-ctio-na-ry when sung.

GLOSSARY

Tessitura: The general range of a musical composition.

Theater standard: Another term for American Standard.

Tip of the tongue: The point of the tongue, immediately in front of the top flat surface

of the tongue, which is called the blade.

Trachea: The windpipe. The tube located between the throat and the bronchial tubes.

Transcription: The phonetic notation of the sounds of a language. The transcriptions in

this text are in Broad Transcription, an accurate but not overly detailed notation that is ac-

cessible to a non-linguistically trained musical community.

Triphthong sound [LufODrj]: Often mispronounced, a triphthong is a syllable that is

sounded with three vowels. Even if set musically on two notes, it can be sung as one syl-

lable or as two syllables. The two triphthongs in English are: [ai9r] (RP/MA) or [aia-]

(AS) as in "fire" and [au9r] (RP/MA) or [aua-] (AS) as in "flower."

Unaspirated: A term that refers to the nonrelease of air of a plosive consonant in cer-

tain positions or in foreign languages. The unaspirated plosives from Italian, for example,

can be substituted for the aspirated English "p" when great projection is needed or to

avoid "popping" the mike when using a microphone.

Unstressed syllable: A weak syllable that has no syllabic stress. It can be sung with a

[sjschwa vowel or, where appropriate, one of the schwa substitutes [e],[i],[u],[o]. See

chapter 2.

Unvoiced: Another term for voiceless.

Velar: A term used to describe a sound that is formed with the back of the tongue and the

soft palate or velum. The three velar consonants in English are:

[k] key [g] go [n] sing

Velum: Another name for the soft palate.

Vibrated: Another term for voiced.

Vocal cords: Another term for vocal folds.

Vocal folds: Folds of muscle located within the larynx that, when closed by sub-glottal

air pressure, cause most of the speech sounds.

Vocal fry: A vocal fry is a breathy, creaky, scratchy sound produced when the speaker or

singer runs out of breath before finishing the phrase. It characteristically sounds like the

GLOSSARY 303

304 GLOSSARY

"creaky door" sound that is associated with Halloween or horror films. This is a very com-

mon stylistic technique used in pop music. When the singer or speaker runs out of breath

before finishing the phrase, excessive tension builds at the vocal folds. Excessive vocal fry

can cause vocal damage.

Voice box: Another term for larynx.

Voiced consonant: A consonant that is produced by the vibration of the vocal folds.

The sixteen voiced consonants in English are:

[b] boy [d] do

[w] were [j] you[g]g_o

/R] red

[v] vine

[m] me [n] no

thine [z] zoo

song

[3] genre

[1] law wheel

id3]join

Voiceless consonant: Another term for unvoiced consonants. A consonant that is pro-

duced with no vibration of the vocal folds. The ten unvoiced consonants in English are:

[p] pie [t] two [k] key [f] fine thigh [s] so shine heel [tj] church

Vowel sound: A speech sound in which the flow of breath is free and unobstructed by

the articulators. In English, all vowels are voiced and should be produced with the soft

palate raised.

Weak form (wf): A weak form of a word is unstressed, has a weak [9] vowel sound,

and is used only when a set with a very short note value occurs at a fast tempo.

E X A M P L E "I can see that now!"

MUSIC PUBLISHERS GUIDE

Music Publishers

Here is contact information for publishers of musical works cited in this book, as well as

national organizations on music in various English-speaking countries.

American Composers Alliance, 648 Broadway, Room 803, New York, NY 10012. Tel. (212)362-

8900. www.com.posers.com.

Bardic Editionfax crescent, Aylesbury, Bucks HP20 2ES. Tel. 01296 28609. www.bardic-music.com.

Bayley & Ferguson, www.bmic.org.

Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd. 295 Regent Street, London WIN 9AE. Tel. 0171 580

2060 / Boosey & Hawks, Inc., 35 East 21st Street, New York, NY 10010. Tel. (212)358-5300.

www.boosey.com.

Breitkopf & Hartel. Castle House, Ivychurch, Romney Marsh, Kent TN29 OAL. Tel. 01797 344011/

Breitkopf & Hartel. Walkmuehlstrasse 52 D65195 Wiesbaden DE www.breitkopf.com.

Carl Fischer. 65 Bleecker Street, New York, NY 10012. Tel. (212) 777-0900. www.carlfischer.com.

Peters Edition Ltd. 19-21 Baches Street, London Nl 6DN, Tel. 0171 253 1683. C.F. Peters Corp.

70-30 80th Street, Glendale, NY 11385 Tel. +1 (0) (718) 416-7800. www.cfpeters-ny.com.

Warner Chappell Music Ltd. 129 Park Street, London WIY 3FA Tel. 0171 629 7600. www.warner-

chappell.com.

Chester Music. Hire and Distribution, Newmarket Road, Bury St Edmonds, Suffolk IP33 3YB. Tel.

01284 702600. www.chester-novello.com.

Curwen (J) & Sons Ltd. Some of the archive held by Robertson and some by William Elkin.

Classical Vocal Reprints. 3253 Cambridge Ave, Bronx, NY 10463-3618. Tel. (800)298-7474.

www.classisicalvocalrep.com.

Dunvagen Music available in US: www.schirmir.com.. In Europe: www.chester-novello.com.

Edward B. Marks Music Company. Carlin America, Inc. 126 East 38th Street, New York, NY

10016. Tel. (212) 779-7977. www.carlinamerica.com.

ECS Publishing, 138 Ipswich Street, Boston, MA 02215-3534. Tel. (617) 236-1935. www

.ecspublishing.com.

Elkin. The Elkin catalogue is now held by Novello. www.elkinmusic.com.

305

www.com.posers.com

www.bardic-music.com

www.boosey.com

www.breitkopf.com

www.carlfischer.com

www.cfpeters-ny.com

www.warnerchappell.com

www.warnerchappell.com

www.chester-novello.com

www.classisicalvocalrep.com

www.schirmir.com

www.carlinamerica.com

www.ecspublishing.com

www.ecspublishing.com

www.elkinmusic.com


www.bmic.org

306 MUSIC PUBLISHERS GU

Edwin F. Kalmus & Company Inc. P.O. 5011, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0811. Tel. (561) 241-6340.

www.kalmus-music.com.

Elkin-Vogel. Elkin Music International, Inc., 94 Merrills Chase, Asheville, NC 28803. Tel. (800)-

367-3554. www.elkinmusic.com.

Faber Music Ltd. 3 Queen Square, London WCIN 3AU. Tel. 0171 278 7436. www.fabermusic.com.

Faberprint. See Faber Music Ltd.

Galahad Music Inc, 250 West 57th Street, New York, NY 10019 Tel. (212) 581-1388.

Galaxy Music. See ECS Publishing, www.escpublishing.com.

G. Schirmir, Inc. 257 Park Avenue South, 20th Floor; New York, NY 10010. Tel. (212) 254-2100.

www.schirmir.com.

Henry Carl Music, 7588 Middle Ridge Road, Madison, OH. 45057. E-mail [email protected].

Highgate Press. See ECS Publishing, www.escpublishing.com.

Hal Leonard Corp, 7777 W. Bluemound Rd, Milwaukee, WI. 53213. [email protected].

International Music Publications. Woodford Trading Estate, Southend Road, Woodford Green,

Essex IG8 8HN. Tel. 0181 551 6131. Acquired by Faber.www.fabermusic.com.

Alfred A. Kalmus Ltd. 38 Eldon Way, paddock Wood, Kent TN12 6BE. Tel. 01892 833422.

www.kalmus-music.com.

MMB Music, Inc. 3524 Washington Ave. St. Louis, MO 63103. Tel. (314)531-9635. www.mmb

music.com.

Novello & Co. Hire and Distribution, Newmarket Road, Bury St. Edmonds, Suffolk IP33 3YB. Tel.

01284 702600. www.chester-novello.com.

Oxford University Press Music Department. Walton Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Tel. 01865 556767.

Oxford University Press. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4314. Tel. (212) 726-6000

x. 6048. www.oup-uk.org www.oup-usa.org.

Peermusic Classical. 870 7th Ave, New York, NY 10019. Tel. (212) 265-3910. www.peermusic

.com./classical.

Theodore Presser Company, 558 No. Gulph Road, King of Prussia, PA 19406. www.presser.com.

Schott & Co, Led. Marketing and Sales Department, Brunswick Road, Ashford, Kent TN23 1DX

Tel. 01233 628987. Schott Music International/European American Music. 35 East 21st Street,

8th Floor, New York, NY 10010-6212. Tel. +1(0) (212) 358-4999, (212)871-0210. www.schott-

music.com.

tainer & Bell Ltd. PO Box 110, Victoria House, 23 Gruneisen Road, London N3 1DZ. Tel. 0181 343

3303.

Southern Music Company. P.O. Box 329, San Antonio, TX 78292. Tel. (210) 226-8167. www

.southernmusic.com.

Thames Publishing. 14 Barlby Road, London W10 6AR. Tel. 0181 969 3579. Distributor William

Elkin.

Universal. See Kalmus.

Josef Weinberger, Ltd. 12-14 Mortimer Street, London WIN 7RD.

Williamson Music Co. 1065 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10018. Tel. (212) 541-6968.

www.williamsonmusic.com.

www.kalmus-music.com

www.elkinmusic.com

www.fabermusic.com

www.escpublishing.com

www.schirmir.com

www.escpublishing.com

www.fabermusic.com

www.kalmus-music.com

www.mmbmusic.com

www.mmbmusic.com


www.oup-uk.org

www.peermusic.com./classical

www.peermusic.com./classical

www.presser.com

www.schottmusic.com

www.schottmusic.com

www.southernmusic.com

www.southernmusic.com

www.williamsonmusic.com

www.oup-usa.org

MUSIC PUBLISHERS GIDE

Self-Publishing

Libby Larsen: www.libbylarsen.com.

Alan Smith: [email protected].

Judith Zaimont: [email protected].

National Music Information Centers

American Music Center: Suite 1001, 30 W. 26th Street, Suite 1001, New York, NU 10010-12011.

www.amc.net; e-mail [email protected].

Australian Music Centre (SOUNZ Australia): PO Box N690, AU-Grosvenor Place NSW 1220 Aus-

tralia. www.amcoz.com.au; e-mail [email protected].

British Music Information Centre: 75 Westminster Bridge Road, GB-London SE1 7HS. www.bmic

.co.uk; e-rnail [email protected].

Canadian Music Centre: National Office, Chalmers House, 20 St. Joseph Street, CA-Toronto, On-

tario M4Y 1J9. www.musiccentre.ca; e-mail [email protected].

(Ireland) The Contemporary Music Centre: 19, Fishamble Street, Temple Bar, IE-Dublin 8. www

.cmc.ie; e-mail [email protected].

New Zealand Music Centre (SOUNZ New Zealand): PO Box 10 042, Wellington, New Zealand.

www.sounz.org.nz; e-mail [email protected].

Scottish Music Information Centre: City Halls, Candleriggs, GB-Glasgow Gl 1NQ UK. www

.scottishmusiccentre.com; e-mail [email protected].

Welsh Music Information Centre: Wales Millennium Centre, GB-Cardiff CF10 SAL UK. www

.wmic.org; e-mail [email protected].

307

www.libbylarsen.com

www.amc.net

www.amcoz.com.au

www.bmic.co.uk

www.bmic.co.uk

www.musiccentre.ca

www.cmc.ie

www.cmc.ie

www.sounz.org.nz

www.scottishmusiccentre.com

www.scottishmusiccentre.com

www.wmic.org

www.wmic.org


SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

Dialects

Books

Blumenfeld, Robert. Accents: A Manual for Actors. New York: Limelight Editions, 2002.

Blunt, Jerry. Stage Dialects. Woodstock, Illinois: Dramatic Publishing Company, 1980.

. More Stage Dialects. Woodstock, Illinois: Dramatic Publishing, 1980.

Hughes, Arthur, Peter Trudgill, and Dominic Watt. English Accents and Dialects. London: Arnold;

New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Turner, Lorenzo Dow, Katherine Wyly Mille, and Michael B. Montgomery. Africanisms in Gullah

Dialect. Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1969.

Upton, Clive, and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1996.

Wells, J. C. Accents of English. 3 vols. 1: Introduction; 2: The British Isles; 3: Beyond the British Isles.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.

Video and Audio Recordings

Records

English with an Accent, BBC 22166 (23 accents).

English with a Dialect, BBC 22173 (British Isles accents).

Great Actors of the Past, compiled by Robert Bebb, Argo Records, SW510.

Cassettes and CDs

About a Hundred Years: The History of Sound Recording, Symposium CD 1222. East Barnet, Hert-

fordshire, England: symposium records, 1997. Voices of Arthur Conan Doyle, Sarah Bernhardt,

Thomas Alva Edison, Johannes Brahms, Mahatma Gandhi, Field Marshall von Hindenburg,

Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, Leon Tolstoy, and others.

Accents for Actors. Terry Besson. [email protected]. Single dialect booklets/CDs of

the dialects of the British Isles.

309

310

Accents and Dialects for Stage and Screen. Paul Meier Dialect Services, www.paulmeier.com.

Single dialect booklets/CDs of 24 different dialects.

Accents for Actors: Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and England, compiled and directed by Christopher

Casson, with commentary by Joseph D. Pheiffer. Cassette SAC 1027. New Rochelle, NY: Spoken

Arts, 1983. Recordings by native speakers.

The Art of the Savoyard, Pearl, Gemm CD 9991, Wadhurst, East Sussex, England: Pavilion Records,

1993. Victorian English: Voices of singers who worked with Gilbert and Sullivan themselves in

their comic operas. Includes the voices of Richard Temple, who was the first Mikado and Pirate

King, and of Sir Arthur Sullivan.

Dialects for Actors. Gillian Lane-Plescia. The Dialect Resource, www.dialectresouce.com. A series

of CDs and tapes of primary source speakers.

Great Shakespeareans, Pearl, Gemm CD 9465. Wadhurst, East Sussex, England: Pavilion Records,

1990. Voices of Edwin Booth, Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, Arthur Bourchier, Lewis Waller, Ben

Greet, John Barrymore, Sir Johnston Forbes-Robertson, Sir John Gielgud, Henry Ainley, and

Maurice Evans.

International Dialects of English Archive (IDEA), Paul Meier, founder and director. Online at

http://www.ku.edu/~idea/. Hundreds of downloadable mp3 recordings of native speakers from

around the world speaking English in their native English dialect or foreign language accent.

International Phonetic Alphabet demonstrated. Online at http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/ and

http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html. Eric Armstrong and Paul Meier have designed an

online, interactive animation, providing the student of phonetics a chance to hear and compare

all the sounds of the IPA. Also available as a CD-ROM.

In Their Own Voices: The U.S. Presidential Elections of 1908 and 1912, Marston CD 52028-2.

Marston Records, 2000. Voices of William Jennings Bryan, William H. Taft, Theodore Roose-

velt, and Woodrow Wilson.

Skinner, Edith. Speak with Distinction, ed. Lilene Mansell (accompanying cassette). New York:

Applause Books Publishers, 1990.

Videotape

PBS television series. The Story of English, videotape, host: Robert MacNeil. 1986. This series

traces the origins and changes in English pronunciation throughout the world.

Acting / Text Analysis

Berry, Cecily. The Actor and the Text. New York: Applause Books, 1992.

Bradley, Ian. The Complete Annotated Gilbert & Sullivan. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Crystal, David. Pronouncing Shakespeare: The Globe Experiment. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-

sity Press, 2005.

Crystal, David, and Ben Crystal. Shakespeare's Words; A Glossary and Language Companion. Lon-

don: Penguin Books, 2003.

Rodenburg, Patsy. Speaking Shakespeare. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, London: Methuen, 2002.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AD RESOURCES

www.paulmeier.com

www.dialectresouce.com

http://www.ku.edu/~idea/

http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/

http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES 311

Song Analysis

Emmons, Shirlee, and Wilber Watkins, Jr. Researching the Song: A Lexicon. New York: Oxford Uni-

versity Press, 2005

Mabry, Sharon. Exploring Twentieth Century Vocal Music: A Practical Guide to Innovations in Per-

formance and Repertoire. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Manning, Jane. New Vocal Repertory, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1992, 1998.

Speech and Voice Books

Berry, Cecily. Voice and the Actor. New York: Wiley, 1973.

Crannell, Kenneth C. Voice and Articulation. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 1991.

Lessac, Arthur. The Use and Training of the Human Voice. New York: Drama Book Specialists, 1967.

Linklater, Kristin. Freeing the Natural Voice. New York: Drama Book Publishers, 1976.

Rodenburg, Patsy. The Actor Speaks: Voice and the Performer. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,

2002; London: Methuen Drama, 1997.

. The Need for Words. New York: Theatre Arts Books, Routledge, 2001.

. The Right to Speak: Working with the Voice. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Skinner, Edith. Speak with Distinction, ed. Lilene Mansell. New York: Applause Theatre Book Pub-

lishers, 1990.

Singing and Singer's Diction

Coffin, Berton. Sounds of Singing: Principles and Applications of Vocal Techniques with Chromatic

Vowel Chan, 2nd edn. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1987, 2002.

Kayes, Gillyanne. Singing and the Actor, 2nd edn. New York: Routledge, 2004; London: A & C

Black, 2004.

Marshall, Madeleine. The Singer's Manual of English Diction. New York: Schirmir Books, 1953.

Uris, Dorothy. To Sing in English. New York and London: Boosey and Hawks, 1971.

Pronouncing Dictionaries

Colloiani, Louis. Shakespeare's Names: A New Pronouncing Dictionary. New York: Drama Pub-

lishers, 1999.

Ehlich, Eugene, and Raymond Hand, Jr., revised and updated by. NBC Handbook of Pronunciation,

4th edn. New York: Harper and Row, 1984.

312

Ellis, Alexander J. On Early English Pronunciation with Special Reference to Shakespeare and

Chaucer, in three volumes "on the Pronunciation of the XlVth, XVIth , XVIIth andXVIIIth Cen-

turies." London: Asher, 1869 (reprinted 1929).

Greet, W. Cabell. World Words: Recommended Pronunciations, 2nd edn. New York: Columbia Uni-

versity Press, by arrangement with the Columbia Broadcasting System, 1948.

Jones, Daniel. Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary, 14th edn. J. M. Dent & Sons, London,

1989. Out of print—still is the clearest presentation of Historic British Received Pronunciation.

. The Pronunciation of English, definitive edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1992.

. English Pronouncing Dictionary, 17th edn., ed. Peter Roach and James Hartman. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2006. This dictionary lists RP and American pronunciations. Sev-

eral American pronunciation variants are listed making it difficult to determine what is General

American Pronunciation. The accompanying CR-Rom has interactive exercises to drill RP and

American pronunciation.

Kenyon, John S., and Thomas A. Knott, eds. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English.

Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster Inc., 1953. My preferred source for American Standard

pronunciation.

Kokeritz, Helge. A Guide to Chaucer's Pronunciation. New York: Holt, Rhinehart and Winston,

1962.

. Shakespeare's Names: A Pronouncing Dictionary. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.

. Shakespeare's Pronunciation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953.

Pointon, G. E., ed. and transcriber. BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1990. This dictionary includes English, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh names of

people and places.

Upton, Clive, William A. Kretzschmar, Jr., and Rafal Kokopka, eds. Oxford Dictionary of Pronun-

ciation for Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. This is a thorough pro-

nunciation dictionary of contemporary British and American English—excellent for modern RP

and AS.

Wells, J. C. Longman Pronouncing Dictionary. Harlow, U.K.: Pearson Education, 2004.

Books on the English Language, Grammar,and Phonetics

Bryson, Bill. Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States.

New York: Avon Books, 1994. Humorous and wonderfully informative.

. The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way. New York: Avon Books, 1990.

Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1995.

Graham, William. The Scots Word Book, 3rd rev. edn. Edinburgh: Ramsay Head Press, 1980.

McArthur, Tom. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1986.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AD RESOURCES

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES 313

McCrum, Robert, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. The Story of English, a companion to the PBS

television series. New York: Elizabeth Sifton Books, Viking, 1986.

O'Connor, Patricia T. Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe 's Guide to Better English in Plain English. New

York: Riverhead Books, a division of Penguin Putnam Books, 1996.

Pullum, Geoffrey K., and William A. Ladusaw. Phonetic Symbol Guide. Chicago: Chicago Univer-

sity Press, 1986.

Zimmerman, J. E. Dictionary of Classical Mythology, 18th printing. Toronto: Bantam Books, 1985.

Other Dictionaries

Giffel, Margaret Ross, and Adrienne Fried Block. Operas in English: A Dictionary. Westport, Conn.:

Greenwood Press, 1999.

Hall, Joan Houston, ed. Dictionary of American Regional English, Vols. 1-4. Boston: Harvard Uni-

versity Press, 1986-2002.

Mugglestone, Lynda, ed. The Oxford History of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Simpson, John, and Edmund Weiner, eds. Oxford English Dictionary, 20 vols. Oxford: Clarendon

Press; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Recommended Recordings

American Anthem. Nathan Gunn, baritone, Kevin Murphy, piano. EMI Records, Ltd., 1990.

French & English Songs. Sir Thomas Allen, baritone, Geoffrey Parsons / Roger Vignoles, piano.

London: EMI Records, Ltd /Virgin Classics, 2002.

/ Want Magic! Renee Fleming, soprano; James Levine, conductor, The Metropolitan Opera Or-

chestra. London: Decca Record Company, 1998.

My Native Land: A Collection of American Songs. Jennifer Larmore, mezzo-soprano, Antoine Pal-

loc, piano. Hamburg, Germany: Teldec Classics International, 1997.

Songs of America. Thomas Hampson, baritone. Music from the Library of Congress. New York:

Angel Records, 2005.

A Treasury of English Song. London: Hyperion Records, 2004.

The Deepest Desire. Joyce di Donate, mezzo-soprano, David Zobel, piano, Frances Shelly, flute.

Paris: Eloquentia EL 0504, 2005.

Bibliographies and Reference Works

Art-Song in the United States, An Annotated Bibliography. National Association of Teachers of

Singing, N.A.T.S.

Banfield, Stephen. Sensibility and English Song: Critical Studies of the Early Twentieth Century.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

314 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

Carman, Judith, et al. Art Song in the U.S. 1759-1999: An Annotated Bibliography. Metuchen, NJ:

Scarecrow Press, 2000.

Clark, Mark Ross. Guide to the Aria Repertoire. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2006.

Coffin, Berton. Singer's Repertoire, Vols. 1-5. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1973.

Friedberg, Ruth C. American Art Songs and American Poetry. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press,

1987.

Elliot, Martha. Singing in Style. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.

Emmons, Shirlee, and Wilbur Watkin Lewis. Researching the Song. New York: Oxford University

Press, 2006.

Emmons, Shirlee, and Stanley Sonntag. The Art of the Song Recital. Long Grove, 111.: Waveland

Press, 2001.

Espina, Noni. Repertoire for the Solo Voice. Vols. 1-2. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977.

Giffel, Margaret Ross, and Adrienne Fried Block. Operas in English: A Dictionary. Westport,

Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999.

Kagen, Sergius. Music for the Voice. Rev. edn. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968.

Kimball, Carol. Song: A Guide to Style and Literature. Redmond, Wash.: Psst . . . Inc., 1966.

Manning, Jane. New Vocal Repertory, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1992, 1998.

Nagy, Gloria Jean. A Singer's Overview: Contemporary Canadian Literature, 1940-1997. Ottawa:

Nepean, 1994; rev. ed. Montreal: N.A.T.S., 1997. Available from the Canadian Music Centre.

Pilkington, Michael. British Solo Song. London: Thames/Elkin Publications, 2003.

Villamil, Victoria Etnier. A Singer's Guide to the American Art Song, 1870-1980. Metuchen, NJ. :

Scarecrow Press, 1993.

Helpful Websites

Opera Base Professional or Opera Europa: www.operabase.com

Aria Database: www.ariadatabase.com

British Song Fa la la la la: http://cfaonline.cfa.asu.edu/hoffer/

Canadian Art Song website: www.canadianartsong.com

Diction Domain: www.scaredofthat.com

The IPA Source: www.ipasource.com

Transcriptions and word for word translations of songs and arias.

The Lied and Art Song Text Page: www.recmusic.org

The Living Composer Project: www.composers21.com

Opera Glass: www.opera.stanford.edu

The Poetry Archive: www.poetryarchive.org

www.operabase.com

www.ariadatabase.com

http://cfaonline.cfa.asu.edu/hoffer/

www.canadianartsong.com

www.scaredofthat.com

www.ipasource.com

www.recmusic.org

www.composers21.com

www.opera.stanford.edu

www.poetryarchive.org

INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS

"A Lullaby" (Agee/Pasatieri), 152"A Minor Bird" (Frost/Dougherty), 62"Annabel Lee" (Poe), 169"Ann Street" (Morris/Ives), 85"Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake's Progress

(Auden/Stravinsky), 197,251-252"Auguries of Innocence" (Blake), 92

"Echo" (Rossetti/Gannon), 118''Endless Pleasure, Endless Love" from Semele

(Handel), 95

'Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" (Shake-speare/Finzi), 149

"Bells" (Edgar Allan Poe), 16"Bells in the Rain" (Wylie/Duke), 69, 179''Beloved, Thou Hast Brought Me Many

Flowers" (Browning/Larsen), 98''Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs of

Travel (Stevenson/Vaughan Williams),234-235

''Buddy on the Nightshift" from LunchtimeFollies (Weill), 83

''But who may abide" from Messiah (Handel), 97

''Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound ofMusic (Rodgers/Hammerstein), 176-177

"Come away, Death" (Shakespeare), 21, 22, 24,93, 239

"Daphne" (Walton), 110"Dido's Lament" from Dido and Aeneas

(Purcell), 177, 178, 235"Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento),

132"Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women

(Adamo), 160"Down By the Sally Gardens" (Yeats), 50"Drink to Me Only with Thine Eyes" (Jonson), 83

"Ghastly! Ghastly!" from The Yeoman of theGuard (Gilbert & Sullivan), 227

"Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from SweeneyTodd (Sondheim), 146

'Hear ye, Israel" from Elijah (Mendelssohn),163,165

'Here's a First-Rate Opportunity" from ThePirates ofPenzance (Gilbert & Sullivan), 205

'He shall feed his flock" from Messiah (Handel),156

'Hymn" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento),164

"I Attempt from Love's Sickness" from TheIndian Queen (Purcell), 52

"If with All Your Hearts" from Elijah(Mendelssohn), 50

"In Haven" from Sea Pictures (Elgar), 164"In Remembrance of Schubert" from To Be Sung

Upon the Water(Wordsworth/Argento), 190-191"In Summertime on Bredon"

(Housman/Somervell), 240"It is Enough" from Elijah (Mendelssohn),

252-253

315

316 INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS

"Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land(Copland), 102, 186

"Lonely House" from Street Scene (Weill), 138"Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs

(Copland), 88"Look Down, Fair Moon" (Whitman/Rorem), 118"Loveliest of Trees" (Housman/Duke), 182-183"Love's Philosophy" (Shelley/Quilter), 238-239"Love Too Frequently Betrayed" from The

Rake's Progress (Auden/Stravinsky), 252"Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretia

(Britten), 24

"Soliloquy" (Millay/Zaimont), 205"Somewhere" from West Side Story

(Sondheim/Bernstein), 111"Sonnet?" (Shakespeare), 182"Sonnet 18" (Shakespeare), 28-29"Sonnet 29" (Shakespeare), 227"Sonnet 71" (Shakespeare), 251"Spring" (Nashe/Gurney), 234-235"Sure on this Shining Night" (Agee/Barber), 58,

137"Sweeter than Roses" (Purcell), 101"Symphony in Yellow" (Wilde/Griffes), 204

"Manhattan Joy Ride" (Dodd/Sargent), 191-192"Music When Soft Voices Die" (Shelley), 23, 145"My Riches at her Feet I Threw" from Trial by

Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 88

"O had I Jubal's Lyre" from Joshua (Handel), 97"Oh, Lady be Good!" from Lunchtime Follies

(Gershwin), 65"O Isis and Osiris, hear me" from The Magic

Flute (Porter, trans/Mozart), 253"O Mistress Mine, Where are you Roaming?"

(Shakespeare), 174"On Dullness" (Pope), 41"Orpheus with His Lute" (Shakespeare/

Schuman), 254"O Sleep, why dost thou leave me" from Semele

(Handel), 45, 153"Over the Ripening Peach" from Ruddigore

(Gilbert & Sullivan), 46

"Passing By" (Anonymous), 213"Prologue: Shadow and Substance" from

To Be Sung Upon the Water(Wordsworth/Argento), 190

"She walks in Beauty"(Lord Byron), 28"Silent Noon" from The House of Life (Rossetti/

Vaughan Williams), 238"Silver" (de la Mare/Duke), 62"Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs

(Copland), 132"Sleep" (Fletcher/Warlock), 238"Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men (Floyd),

156-157

"The Ash Grove" (Old Welsh Melody), 91"The Black Swan" from The Medium (Menotti),

74,122"The Daisies" (Stephens/Barber), 27"The Donkey" (Chesterton/Clarke), 239-240"The Flowers Appeareth on the Earth" from

Ecclesiastes, 223"The Lament of Ian the Proud"

(MacLeod/Griffes), 199-200, 203"The Lover's Maze" (Campion/Warlock), 91"The People that Walked in Darkness" from

Messiah (Handel), 156"There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti

(Bernstein), 96"There was an Old Man from Madras" from

The Complete Nonsense (Lear), 227"The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel

(Stevenson/Vaughan Williams), 235"The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of Baby Doe

(Moore), 48"The Soft Complaining Flute" from Ode to

St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 219"The Sun whose Rays" from The Mikado

(Gilbert & Sullivan), 85"The Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah

(Floyd), 176"The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah

(Handel), 253"The World Is Too Much with Us" (Wordsworth),

150"Things Change, Jo" from Little Women

(Adamo), 77-78"This Little Rose" (Dickinson/Roy), 191"Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah (Handel), 96"Tom Sails Away" (Ives), 152-153"To Sit in Solemn Silence in a Dull, Dark, Dock"

from The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan), 216

INDEX OF POETRY AND SONG TEXTS 317

"Weep you No More Sad Fountains" (Dowland),135-136

"What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti(Bernstein), 163

"What If I Never Speed" (Dowland), 219"What Passion Cannot Music Raise and Quell"

from Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 218"What's the Use of Wondrin'" from Carousel

(Rodgers & Hammerstein), 74"When my First Old, Old Love I Knew" from

Trial By Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 87-88"Where the Music Comes From" (Hoiby), 139"Who is Sylvia?" (Shakespeare), 23

'Who is There to Love me?" from A Hand ofBridge (Barber), 178

'Why Do They Shut Me Out of Heaven?"(Dickinson/Copland), 204

'Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe(Moore), 44

''Winter" from Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento),132

''Woe Unto Them Who Forsake Him" fromElijah (Mendelssohn), 253

"Youth, Day, Old Age, and Night" (Whitman),15-16


GENERAL INDEX

African Heritage of American English, The(Holloway/Vass), 274

Agee, James, 58, 137, 151-152, 188-189Adamo, Mark, 160

"Do You Know the Land?" from Little Women,160

"Things Change, Jo" from Little Women,77-78

Affricates, 117, 119, 133-135A Hand of Bridge (Barber), 178Aids for projection and legato, 121, 124, 128,

134, 144, 148, 155, 158, 162, 174Alignment of spine, 31Alleviating trilled "r's," 108Alveolar ridge, 33American Standard Pronunciation (AS), 6-7,

214-215Andrews, Dame Julie, 242Appalachian dialect, 270-272

application to Susannah (Floyd), 271-272general characteristics, 270-271

Argento, Dominick"Dirge" from Six Elizabethan Songs, 132"In Remembrance of Schubert" from To Be

Sung upon the Water (Wordsworth),190-191

"Prologue: Shadow and Substance" from ToBe Sung upon the Water (Wordsworth),190

Arrows. See Expressive doublingsArticulators, 31, 33-34AS. See American Standard PronunciationAsk Word List, 224, 226

variants in three dialects, 248Ask Words versus Hand Words, 223-227Aspirants, 117, 160-163

Auden, W. H., 197, 251-252Audience expectations, 5

[b]\[p] productionaids for projection, 121microphone alert, 122tips for vocal ease, 121

Backing vowels, 35, 59-70Barber, Samuel

"Must the Winter Come So Soon?" fromVanessa (Menotti), 166

"Nocturne" (Prokosch), 201"Sure on this Shining Night" (Agee), 58, 137,

188-189"The Daisies" (Stephens), 27"Who Is There to Love Me?" from A Hand of

Bridge, 178BBC, 1, 2, 6BBC English, 208Bernstein, Leonard

"Somewhere" from West Side Story, 111"There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti,

95-96"What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti, 163

Bilabial consonant, 141Blake, William, 198

"Auguries of Innocence," 92British Received Pronunciation (RP), 7-8, 10-11,

28,207-208, 214-215, 241-243, 248,250

articulating the letter "t," 236commonly used words, 210international phonetic alphabet for, 208-210rolling "r's", technique for, 233rules for "r's," 231-233

319

320 GENERAL INDEX

British Received Pronunciation (RP)—continued,stress patterns, 229-230unstressed -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry,

-mony, 230-231unstressed words and syllables, 229usuage of Liquid U in historic versus modern,

228versus American Standard, 214-215

Britten, Benjamin"Wasteful. So brief is beauty," excerpt from

The Rape ofLucretia, 200-201"Lucretia's Aria" from The Rape ofLucretia,

24Bronte, Emily, 213Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 98Byron, Lord, 28

[o] substitution for [h], 162-163Cadence, 18Campion, Thomas, 91Carousel (Rodgers/Hammerstein), 74Chesterton, G. K, 239-240Clarke, Rebecca

"The Donkey," 239-240Clear [1], 180-182

drills, 181rules for using, 181

"Comfort'V'comforteth" pronunciation, 166Consonantscognate pairs, 115

general rules for, 114types, 116-117See also Fricatives, fricative consonants; Nasal

consonants; Plosive consonantsConsul, The (Menotti), 46Copland, Aaron

"Laurie's Song" from The Tender Land, 102,186

"Long Time Ago" from Old American Songs,y> QQo/, So

"Simple Gifts" from Old American Songs, 132"Why Do They Shut Me Out of Heaven?"

from Twelve Emily Dickinson Songs, 204Crooning, 200-201Cud chew, 32

[d]\[t] productionaids for projection, 124dry "t's" and "d's," 125

wet "t's" and "d's," 124Dark[l], 180, 181

avoiding, 181Dead Man Walking (McNally/Heggie), 273De la Mare, Walter, 62Denasality, 174-176

avoiding, 174how to access denasalized consonants,

175-176Dentes, 33Dickinson, Emily, 191,204Diction, 3Dictionaries, 7-8

AmericanThe African Heritage of American English,

274Longman Dictionary of American English, 1The NBC Handbook of Pronunciation, 1Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for

Current English, 1The Pronouncing Dictionary of American

English, 1British

The Cambridge English PronouncingDictionary, 1

Everyman's English PronouncingDictionary, 8

Longman English Pronouncing Dictionary, 8Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for

Current English, 8Dido and Aeneas (Purcell), 177, 178, 235Diphthongs, 79-96

definition, 79general rules, 79

Dodd, Louise Richardson, 191-192Doublings. See Expressive doublingsDougherty, Celius

"A Minor Bird" (Frost), 62Dowland, John

"What If I Never Speed," 219Duke, John

"Bells in the Rain" (Wylie), 69, 179"Loveliest of Trees" (Housman), 182-183"Silver" (de la Mare), 62

Easy onset, 38exercises, 38, 39

Ecclesiastes, 223"ed" endings, rules, 124"ed," "eth" endings, poetic, 165

GENERAL INDEX 321

Elgar, Edward"In Haven" from Sea Pictures, 164

Elijah (Mendelssohn), 50, 163, 165, 252-253Elocution courses, 113English consonants chart, 115English dialects

American Standard (AS), 6-7, 214-215British Received Pronunciation (RP), 7,

207-208, 214-215Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation (MA), 7, 8,

241-243English Pronouncing Dictionary, The, 207-208Enunciation, 3Epiglottis, 33Esophagus, 33"Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah (Handel), 69Expression, 3Expressive doublings, 149, 192-201

doubling technique, 194feeling and transmitting the beat, 195of fricatives, 149how to double single consonants, plosive

clusters with glides, 198notation with arrows, 197-201preparation for consonant doublings, 195

Family Across the Sea, SCETV, 275Feeling and transmitting the beat, 195

conducting the song, 196Flapped "t" [r], 236Fletcher, John, 238Final "s" pronunciation, 150Final unstressed "y" rule, 45Finesse factor, 255-256Finzi, Gerald

"Come Away, Death" (Shakespeare), 21, 22,24, 93,239

"Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun" fromLet Us Garlands Bring (Shakespeare),149

Floyd, Carlisle"Slim's Aria" from Of Mice and Men,

156-157"The Trees on the Mountains" from Susannah,

176Frasier, 242Fricatives, 141-166

definition, 141expressive doublings of, 149overview of fricative consonants, 141-142

Fronting vowels, the, 35, 43-55description, 35review of, 55

Frost, Robert, 62

[g]\[k] productionaids for projection, 128dry "k's" and "g's," 129tips for vocal ease, 130wet "k's" and "g's," 128-129

Gannon, Lee"Echo" (Rossetti), 118

Gershwin, George"Oh, Lady be Good!" (Gershwin), 65Porgy and Bess, 275

Gershwin, Ira"Oh, Lady be Good!" (Gershwin), 65

Gilbert, W. S. and Sullivan, Arthur"Ghastly! Ghastly!" from The Yeoman of the

Guard, 227"Here's a First-Rate Opportunity" from

The Pirates ofPenzance, 205"I am the Very Model of a Modern Major-

General" from The Pirates ofPenzance,237

"My Riches at Her Feet" from Trial by Jury, 88"Over the Ripening Peach" from Ruddigore, 46"There is Beauty in the Bellow of the Blast"

from The Mikado, 237"The Sun Whose Rays" from The Mikado, 85"Unlearned He in Aught" from H.M.S.

Pinafore, 70"When my First Old, Old Love I Knew" from

Trial By Jury, 87-88Gilmore Girls, 242Glide vowels, as related to semi-vowel glides, 99Glottal attacks

drills for eliminating, 38rule for eliminating, 36-37See also Hard onset

Globalized consonant, 186, 236Glottis, 33Gold, Ernest

"Music when soft voices die" (Shelley), 23,145Grace note placements, 101Griffes, Charles T.

"Symphony in Yellow" (Wilde), 204"The Lament of Ian the Proud" (MacLeod),

199-200, 203Gullah culture, 274-275

322 GENERAL INDEX

Gullet, 33Gum ridge (alveolar ridge), 33Gurney, Ivor"Spring" (Nashe), 239Guthrie, Sir Tyrone, 241

IPA for American English, 11-13IPA for British English, 208-210

Ives, Charles"Ann Street," 85"Tom Sails Away," 152-153

[h]\[Av] productionaids for projection and legato, 162[o] substitution for [h], 162-163

Halloway, Joseph E., 274Hammerstein, Oscar. See Rodgers, Richard, and

Oscar HammersteinHandel, G. F.

"But Who May Abide" from Messiah, 97"Endless Pleasure, Endless Love" from

Semele, 95"Ev'ry Valley" from Messiah, 69"He Shall Feed His Flock" from Messiah, 52,

156"O had I Jubal's Lyre" from Joshua, 97"O Sleep, Why Dost Thou Leave Me?" from

Semele, 46, 152, 198"Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah, 87-88"The People that Walked in Darkness" from

Messiah, 156"The Soft Complaining Flute" from Ode to

St Cecilia's Day, 219"The Trumpet Shall Sound" from Messiah,

253"Thus Saith the Lord" from Messiah, 96"What Passion Cannot Music Raise and

Quell?" from Ode to St Cecilia's Day,218

Hand Word List, 225, 226Hard onset, 38Hard palate, 33, 34Heggie, Jake, 273Hierarchy of stress, 22Hoiby, Lee

"Where the Music Comes From," 138-139Housman, Alfred Edward, 182-183, 240H.M.S. Pinafore (Gilbert & Sullivan), 70Hypernasality, 173

hypernasality check, 173-174

Implosions, 131-132, 187overview of implosions, 131review, 187

Interdependence, 256International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), 9

Jaw, 33, 34Jones, Daniel, 8, 207Jorison, Ben, 83, 164

[1] productionclear [1], 181-182

drills, 181rules for using, 181

dark[l], 180, 181avoiding, 181

tips for vocal ease, 181-182Labia, 33Labio-dental consonant, 141Larsen, Libby, 98Larynx, 33Lear, Edward, 227Legato connection, the, 185-190Lingua. See TongueLingua-alveolar consonant, 167Lingua-dental consonant, 141Lingua-palatal consonant, 141Lingua-velar consonant, 167Lip buzz, 31Lips. See LabiaLiquid U, 60-61

spellings that use, 61use in historic versus modern RP, 228use in MA, 245

Lisping "s," 147drills for overcoming, 148Little Women (Adamo), 77-78, 160Longman English Pronouncing Dictionary, 1,

208Lowered [i] vowel, 44-45Lunchtime Follies (Weill), 83

[m] productionaids for projection and vocal ease, 174-177accessing denasalized consonants, 175-177avoiding denasality, 174avoiding hypernasality, 173

MA. See Mid-Atlantic PronunciationMacLeod, Fiona, 199-200, 203

GENERAL INDEX 323

Massagediaphragm, 32facial, 31tongue/neck massage, 31

McNally, Terrence, 273Mendelssohn, Felix

"Hear Ye, Israel" from Elijah, 163, 165"If with All Your Hearts" from Elijah, 50"It is Enough" from Elijah, 252-253"Woe unto Them who Forsake Him" from

Elijah, 253Menotti, Gian Carlo, 166

"Lullaby" from The Consul, 46"The Black Swan" from The Medium, 74, 122"The Idle Gift" (Menotti), 139

Merges, 142-143, 144, 148, 155, 158, 188-190definition and rule, 142overview of merging consonants, 189

Messiah, 52, 69, 87-88, 96, 97, 156Microphones, singing with, 122, 125, 129Mid-Atlantic Pronunciation (MA), 241-253

overview of Mid-Atlantic dialect, 243polysyllabic word endings, 249-250repertoire suggestions for, 244rules for, 245use of [o], 249use of [D], 250

Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 205Mixed vowels, 35, 71-78Moore, Douglas

"The Silver Aria" from The Ballad of BabyDoe, 48

"Willow Song" from The Ballad of Baby Doe,44

Moss, Howard, 62-63Mouth (oral passage), 33Mozart, W. A.

"O Isis and Osiris, Hear Me" (Porter, trans),253

[n] productionavoiding denasality, 174avoiding hypernasality, 173

[n] versus [q]+[g], 172-173Nasal consonants, 117, 167-183

singing through/musical application, 179Nasalization, 5

avoiding when followed by nasal consonants,54,55

See also Denasality; HypernasalityNasal passage, 33

Nashe, Thomas, 239Neutral English, 6"No Word from Tom." See Stravinsky, Igor:

"Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake'sProgress

[o] production, spellings for [o], 67[o] production, British variant of [o], 67[o] as RP variant, 218[D] production, common words that use, 218Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (Handel), 218, 219Off glides, 51,57,60, 64, 268Of Mice and Men (Floyd), 156-157"Often" pronunciation variant, 67Old American Songs (Copland), 82, 88, 132On-glides, 68Optimum pitch, 39-41

determining, 39exercises for, 40, 41

Oral passage, 33

Pasatieri, Thomas"A Lullaby" (Agee), 151-152

Passaggio. See Tips for Vocal EasePharynx, 33Phonetics. See International Phonetic Alphabet

(IPA)Plosive consonants, 117, 119-138

doubling of plosives, 198overview of, 119See also [b]\[p] production; [d]\[t] production;

[g]\[k] productionPoe, Edgar Allan, 16, 169Pope, Alexander

"On Dullness," 41Porgy and Bess (Gershwin), 274-275Prefix rule, 48Previn, Sir Andre, 272-273Pronunciation, 3Puff exercise, 31Pulsing the phrase, 24, 202-203

notation with arrows, 202-203play the pipe, 202

Purcell, Henry"Dido's Lament," 177, 178, 235"I Attempt from Love's Sickness" from The In-

dian Queen, 52"Sweeter than Roses," 101

Pygmalion (Shaw), 207

324 GENERAL INDEX

Quilter, Roger"Love's Philosophy" (Shelley), 238-239

"R" as a consonant or a vowel, 106"R's," general application, 107-108Reduced "r" colorings, 75, 93, 221-223Regional dialects. See U.K. and Ireland regional

dialects; U.S. regional dialects"Rejoice Greatly" from Messiah (Handel), 87, 88Rodgers, Richard, and Oscar Hammerstein, 74,

176-177, 242"Climb Every Mountain" from The Sound of

Music, 176-177"What's the Use of Wondrin'" from Carousel,

74Rolled "r's," 107-109

alleviating rolled "r's," 107-109musical application for, 234rules for when to use, 108, 232-233technique for, 233

Rorem, Ned, 61"Look Down, Fair Moon" (Whitman), 118"See How They Love Me" (Moss), 62

Rossetti, Christina, 118Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 238Roy, William

"This Little Rose" (Dickinson), 191RP. See British Received PronunciationRuddigore (Gilbert & Sullivan), 46

Sargent, Paul"Manhattan Joy Ride" (Dodd), 191-192

Schuman, William"Orpheus with His Lute" from Henry VIII

(Shakespeare), 254Schwa substitutes, 19, 20Sea Pictures (Elgar), 164"See How They Love Me" (Moss/Rorem), 62Semele (Handel), 46, 95, 152, 198Semi-vowel glides, 99-111

musical application, 101Sesame Street, 25Shadow vowels, 135-138

musical excerpts, 137-138rules for, 136-137

Shakespeare, William"Come Away, Death," 21, 22, 93"Fear No More the Heat o' the Sun," (Finzi),

149

"O Mistress Mine, Where are you Roaming?"174

"Orpheus with His Lute" (Schuman), 254"Sonnet 7," 182"Sonnet 18," 28-29"Sonnet 29," 227"Sonnet 71,"251"Who is Sylvia?" 23

Shaw, George Bernard, 207Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 23, 145, 238-239Short "o" vowel, 70, 214, 217-218Shoulder rolls, 31Silent "1" pronunciations, 57Singerese, 5Six Elizabethan Songs (Argento), 132, 164Skinner, Edith Warman, 223, 241Soft palate (velum), 33, 34Somervell, Sir Arthur

"In Summertime on Bredon" (Housman), 240Sondheim, Stephen

"Green Finch and Linnet Bird" from SweeneyTodd, 146

"Somewhere" from West Side Story (Bern-stein), 111

"There is a Garden" from Trouble in Tahiti(Bernstein), 95-96

"What a Movie!" from Trouble in Tahiti(Bernstein), 163

Songs of Travel (Stevenson/Vaughan Williams),234-235

Speak with Distinction (Edith Skinner), 223, 241Star Wars, 242Stephens, James, 27Stevenson, Robert Louis, 53, 234-235Stravinsky, Igor

"Ann Truelove's Aria" from The Rake'sProgress (Auden), 197, 251-252

"Love, Too Frequently Betrayed" fromThe Rake's Progress (Auden), 252

Streetcar Named Desire (Williams/Previn), 272Street Scene (Weill), 138Stretches

neck, 32soft palate, 32tongue, 31

Stress patterns, 18in RP, 229-230RP stress patterns versus AS, 229-230

Sullivan, Arthur. See Gilbert, W. S., and Sullivan,Arthur

Susannah (Floyd), 176, 270-271

GENERAL INDEX 325

[8]\[6] production, 157-159aids for projection and legato, 158merging rule, 158

Teeth (denies), 33, 34Ten Blake Songs (Vaughan Williams), 198"The," pronunciation rule, 73The Ballad of Baby Doe (Moore), 44, 48The Complete Nonsense (Lear), 227The Consul (Menotti), 46"The Count" from Sesame Street, 25The House of Life (Rossetti/Vaughan Williams),

238The Illusionist, 242The Indian Queen (Purcell), 52The Pirates ofPenzance (Gilbert & Sullivan),

205, 237The Rake's Progress (Stravinsky), 197, 251-252The Rape ofLucretia (Britten), 24, 234The Sound of Music (Rodgers/Hammerstein),

176-177,242The Tender Land (Copland), 102, 186The Yeoman of the Guard (Gilbert & Sullivan),

227Third dimension, the, 256-257Three dialect overview, 263-264Three Poems of Edith Sitwell (Walton), 110Thought transmission race, 194Throat (pharynx), 33Tips for Vocal Ease, 36, 44, 48, 54, 57, 68, 80,

87,102,104,107,116,121,130,153,174, 179, 181-182

"To be," rule for stressing, 23Tongue, 31-33, 34-35Transatlantic pronunciation, 241Trial By Jury (Gilbert & Sullivan), 87, 88Triphthongs, 96-97Trouble in Tahiti (Sondheim/Bernstein), 96, 163Twelve Poems of Emily Dickinson (Copland), 204

U.K. and Ireland regional dialects, 276-290East Anglia, 285-287

general characteristics, 288suggested repertoire for use, 287

Irish, 279-282Dublin, 280general characteristics, 279suggested repertoire for use, 281-282Western Ireland, 280-281

Scots, 276-279general characteristics, 276-278

suggested repertoire for, 279Welsh, 282-284

Cardiff, 284general characteristics, 282-284Northern Wales, 284suggested repertoire for use, 284

West Country, 288-290general characteristics, 288-290suggested repertoire for use, 289-290

Unstressed neutral vowel, 19Unstressed prefix rule, 48Unstressed "y" rule, 45U.S. regional dialects, 266-275

Appalachian, 270-272application to Susannah (Floyd), 271general characteristics, 270-271

General Southern, 266-270Gullah, 274-275

application to Porgy and Bess (Gershwin),275

general characteristics, 274-275New Orleans, 272-273

application to Dead Man Walking (Mc-Nally/Heggie), 273

application to Streetcar Named Desire(Previn), 273

general characteristics, 272-273Uvula, 33

[v]\[f] productionaids for projection and legato, 144rule for merging, 144

Vanessa (Menotti/Barber), 166Vaughan Williams, Ralph

"Bright is the Ring of Words" from Songs ofTravel (Stevenson), 234-235

"The Lamb" from Ten Blake Songs (Blake),198

"The Roadside Fire" from Songs of Travel(Stevenson), 235

Vass, Winifred, 274Velar valve reflex, 167Velum, 33Vocal folds, 33Voice box (larynx), 33

[M] productionuse in AS, 162use in MA, 245

326 GENERAL INDEX

Walton, William"Daphne" from Three Poems of Edith Sitwell,

110Warlock, Peter

"Sleep" (John Fletcher), 238"The Lover's Maze" (Campion), 91

Weill, Kurt, 83, 138West Side Story (Sondheim/Bernstein), 111Whistling "s," 147Whitman, Walt, 15-16, 118Wilde, Oscar, 204Will and Grace, 242Williams, Tennessee, 272-273Wind pipe (trachea), 33"With" pronunciation rule, 158

Wordsworth, William, 150, 190-191Wylie, Elinor, 69, 179

Yodeling, 201

[z]\[s] productionaids for projection and legato, 148tips for vocal ease, 153

b]\[J] productionaids for projection and legato, 155lateralization, 154

Zaimont, Judith"Soliloquy" (Millay), 204-205

Documents

Singing and Communicating in English