Situational Lcadenhif I t99

the-other hand, the.group is at a row.lev_el of readiness, considerableleadership intervention may be reluired.- -- ----'-'""'

what readership action shourd be taken? The next step isdeciding whrrh of the four leadership styles (see Tabie g-1) would beappropriate for the teay. suppose the manager has determined thatthe. grou-p's _readiness revel, ln t"r*. of acclomprirrriig alr of thesetasks, is high-that is,.the sroup i, "bi";";;iiil;"dil): Using Table8-1, the manager wourd know fit"t *tett;";k;;";iiltrri. group, adehgoting (S4) style (low task-low relatio"rhil ts"i;or) should beused. some membersof the group may be ro*".-i" i""Ciness than thegroup as a whole_yilh- respect to specific tasks. roi-"r.-pre, a teammember may be R3 (able Lut insec,r,:e) with rgg"id toi".porraing toservice problems or 1l"y line of equipt"""l. T1'";;;r wourd usean S3 (high relation_ship-low task) ieadership style to build the mem_ber's confidence and self-esteem.

what was the resurt of the readership intervention? This steprequires assessment to determine if resuftr -"t.r, "*p"ctations. Aswill be discussed in chapter ro, inai"ii;;il"d;il;fi"*" a rittrebit at a time. Development invorvllpo"iti""iy i"i'i*tng suc.es.iueapproximations as the individuar or ggrp approaches the desiredlevel of performance. Therefot", rrt", a -readership intervention, themanager must assess the result througJr rechecking the objectives,

ffiui:#U:t"g readiness, and ."."J"irrirrg if iu"1h"-, Ieadership is

What follow-up, if u!y: il required? If there is a gap betweenpresent performance and de.sirgd performance of the iidividual orsoup, then follow-up is required i'tte ro"o, oi"ddili;; leadershipinterventions, and the cycte rtr*r "gri.".

In a dynamic environmentsuch as the leadership enviro"-l"t,"i"Iow--up ;; ;H;"; certainty.Leadership under *o-d"r., "";;;;it;e conditions ;;il moving tar-gets' Tasks, readiness, and results

"t"..rr..rr."giig;'rliio*-rrp i, "

must. Paul Hersev summarizes this reality bt;#;;;sl':t ""airrg

i"a full-time job that must be p"r.ii"J every hour of every day.,,

Components of ReadinessIt has been argued that the _\ey to effective leadership is to identifythe rea'd'iness reuer of the individuai ot gto,rp you are attempting toinfluence and then bring to ue"" irrl

-"pp"opii"t" r""a""sirip style. Ifthat is true, how

"rt, -.ir"g""r g"i

" iltter handle on what readinessactually means?

- i . . . j

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1 1 8

20O / Sifuotional l*od;enhif

In examining the components-of readiness' several comments

should be made. First, according to Oa.'iJb.-Mc|ielta"d's research'lz

achievement-motivalteJ peopfeiave certain characteristics in com-

mon, including tl,J?ip;;t#; ;"t.high.uut obtainable- goals' the

concern for personal aciievement rathei than the rewards of success'

and the desire f*';;k-;;i""."t fee{uact< (how well am I doing?)

rather than for "tti;;iJi""aU"ttt

ft* *"ff do vou like me?)' Of

thesecharacteristic,*"""emostinterested,intermsoftask.relevantreadiness, in the ."pttiW to set high,but attainable goals'

Second, in teriiis of education and/or experience' we are contend-

ing that there is no.l;;toul diff"t"nce bltween l!:-::" One can

sain task-relevant i""ai""r. through education or experience or some

iombination of boti. The only diffeierr." b"t*""n the two is that when

we are talking aUout education' we are referring to formal classroom

experiences, and ";";;;;

involves what is learned on one's own or

"" tnirlllJ,

in our recent work, we have argued that education and/or

experience affects ;lii;y ""d

tr'"t achieiement motivation affects

rvillinsness. As a result, we are "ogs"rli"s lrru.tll" concept of readi'

;;J:"#il;t "i t*"-ai"iensions: auititv and willingness'

Ability (j"u ,".ai""r.iis related to ttre ability to do something. It

hastodowi thknowledgeanddemonstratedsk i l l . Ind iv idualswhohave high jot ,""iilr"".li . p"*i.ular area have the knowledge, skill,

and experie""" to p"li*.JJ.i" t"rxs without direction from others'

A person r,igr, i,'llf';;;i;; might sav:-"Mv talent reallv lies in

that aspect orrnv:i[]r^;ff;;; ffi;;; inthat area without much

help from mY boss'"willingness iisychological- readiness) is related to the willing-

ness, or moti,ratio'i, io do "o'-"tf

i"g- i; h"t to do with confidence and

commitment. I"i;iil"r, *t "

travJtrigh psychologicar readiness in a

particular "ruu

o, ,"rpo"riuility _thinl tirat responsibility is impor'

iant and t".rr" r"tf-";"ffi;;;"..#a-gooa feelingsLbout themselves in

that aspect or tir"ir:ou. They do noineed extensive encouragement to

get them to ao tr,i"!Ji" ittit ut"a.' A comment from a person high in

psychologicur t""iii"tt *igftt u"' "l i""t1y enjoy that aspect of mv job'

My boss doesn,t h;;;; g"i.ft", me or providl .ny "tr.ootagement

for

-" to do work in that area'"---- To recap the previous discussion:

/Ability is a function of:

t Knowledge-knowledge of the task'

t Experience-experience with or related to the task'

r SAjtl or performa"i'-a""'ottstrated skill and/or performance in suc'

."ttf"ffi completing similar tasks'

I 1 9

t Situational lzdenhipa I 2Ol

Willingness is a function of:

t Confidence-the person's feeling that, 'I can do it."t Commitmcnf-the person's feeling that, "I will do it."t Motivatipn-the person's feeling of, "I want to do it."

The high probability leadership style is one that is appropriate tothe person's readiness level regarding that s-pecific task. Very fewpeople are likely to be at the extremes of a readiness continuum; mostindividuals fall somewhere in between.

Writing Effective Task Statements

A well-formulated task statement contributes greatly toward the as'sessment of individual readiness. In contrast, the leader will find thatvague and weakly formulated task statements make it diflicult toaccurately assess task readiness, and can lead to unnecessary frictionand conflict.

Gustav Pansegrouw, president of P-E Corporate Services, a man-agement consulting firm, has found the following technique for writ'ing task statements very useful, particularly from the follower'sperspective.l3

A key task for a customer order clerk may be stated as follows:

"To answer the phone promPtly."

Using this task statement as a guide, the manager may assessthe clerk's task readiness level as R2, willing but unable.

Using the same task statement as a guide, the clerk may assessthe task readiness level as R4, willing and able.

This difference in task readiness assessment between managerand clerk is usually the result of different meanings attached to theword'!romptly." Each person might have a different interpretation ofwhat "promptly" means.

If the task is formulated in the following way:

'To answer the phone on the first ring."

both persons would have a much clearer understanding of the task.With such a specific statement of the task as a guide, it becomes mucheasier to assess task-relevant readiness. The probability of agreementbetween both parties' assessments also increases.

The major difference between the two task statements just pre-sented is that the second one contains a cleorly dcfined and measur-

r20

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2O2 | Situational l-cdenhif

o_ble perfortnance stondard for the task. The expected performance isthus an integral port of the task.

of all the aspects of accomplishing tasks, individual readiness isthe most critical. At any given time, each person is at a variety oftask'specific readiness levels, depending on the task that musi beperformed. It is not that an individual is high or low in readiness, butthat. each person tends to be approximately ready according to aspecific task.

It should be remembered that although readiness is a usefulconcept for making diagnostic judgments] other situational vari-ables-the supervisor's style (if close by), a crisis or time bind, thenature of the work-can be of equal or greater importance. yet, thereadiness concept is a solid bench mark for choosing the appropriatestyle with an individual or group at a particular time.

Direction of Readiness Change

Recent research at the Centet tor Leadership Studies has indicatedthat it is useful to measrue not only a follower's general level ofreadiness, such as Rl or R2, but the direction of this readiness. Theprimary reason is that there are important differences in leadertehavior if the follower's readiness is increasing' decreasing, or static.

For example, place yourself in the role of leader in each of threesituations. Recall that one aspect ofyour role as leader is to diagnosethe follower's ability and willingness to respond to your efforts to

implement a speeifrc goal. In other words, how receptive is the fol'Iower in each if tttesJ situations to your leadership efforts?

Situation 1

The follower's confidence, commitment, and motivation are low and

are continuing to decline. Knowledge, experience, and skill remainmarginal.

Situation 2

The follower's knowledge, skill, and experience are increasing from

an entry level while confrdence, commitment, and motivation remainIow.

Situation 3

Ability and willingness remain low; the follower is unable and

insecure.After reading the three situations, you ca.n diagnose th9 appro;

priate readiness livel by looking for the key elements of ability and

1 2 1

Situational LcadenhiPe I 2OB

wi l l ingness.Rememberthatabi l i tyhasthethreecomponentsofk;;;ia;;, experience, and skill, while willingness has_ the three

;;il;G;s ofionfidence, commitment, and motivation. one conve-

;i";i way of assessing these components is to use a scale from ***

i", "

rrrgit level of ."iditt"s to --- for a low level of readiness.'-' -$;p"se you have made the correct diagnosis that the follower is

nr-"""bi", u-nwilling, and insecure regarding the..goal' You now

;;";;;i;g";J the"'directinn of the fouower's readiness. Based on

tfre irrformalion in each situation, do any of the elements seem to be

increasing, decreasing, or remaining-static?In Situation t th-e'follower is declining in readine-ss; in Situation

2 the follower is increasing in readiness; while in situation 3 the

follower remains static or unchanged in readiness'What is the implication of tliis analysis to your- leadership ef-

forts? Although in eich situation the follower's general level of readi-

ness is Rl, dis this mean that your leadership interventions should

be the same? Probably not. situation 1 suggests action to correct

i"gtu.ri"" behavior; Situation 2 suggests continuing developmental

fli""i"t; and Situation 3 suggests initiating developm-ental behavior'

Each of these potential lead-ership interventions will be discussed

further in chaPters 10 and 11'

Instruments to Measure Readiness

To help managers and their followers make valid judgments about

foffo*":r readiiess, the Center for Leadership Studies has developed

two different Readiness Scale instruments: the Manager Rating Scale

and the Self-Rating ScaIe.La Both leadership instruments measure

iot neadiness (abi[ty) and Psychological Readiness (willingness) on

five behavioral dimensions.In the Manager Rating scale, for example, the manager selects

one to five of the staff member's major objectives or responsibilitiesand writes them on the form. Then, with respect tn eoch majol ob1e9-Uu" ot r"tponsibility, the manager rates the staff member on five Job

Readiness dimensions and five Psychological Readiness dimensions,basing the rating on observations of the staJf member's behavior. TVo

of the-five itemsirom the Job Readiness Dimension and two of the five

items from the Psychological Readiness Dimension are illustrated in

Figure 8-5. The ten items used on the complete form.were selectedJ;;; tilot rtody from a pool of more than thirty indicators of bothdimensions. The ieader wiil note that behavioral indicators, e.g. "Hasexperience relevant to the job" and "Does not have experience rele-,r"rrt to the job," were also developed and are opposite ends of theeight-point rating scale.

122

t_Itl_It_IItIttIIT

Situational Lcadenhipa I 2O5

In more recent work, the Center for Leadership Studies devel-oped a Readiness Style Match rating form that measures readinessusing only one scale for each dimension-one measuring obility andthe other measuring willingness-rs In this instrument, a person'sability (knowledge, skill, and experience) is thought of as a matter ofdegree. That is, an individual's ability does not change drasticallyfrom one moment to the next. At any given moment, an individual hasa little, some, quite a bit, or a gteat deal of ability.

Willingness (confidence, commitment, and motivation), however,is different. A person's motivation can, and often does, fluctuate fromone moment to another. Therefore, a person is seldom, on occasion,often, or usually willing to take responsibility in a particular area.

The use of both a Manager's Rating Form and a Staff MemberForm of the Readiness Style Match is necessary to initiate a programcombining Situ.ational Leadership with Contracting for LeadershipStyle.r6 We will discuss that process in some detail in chapter 12.

Components of Leadership Style

Once managers have identilied the readiness level of the individual orgroup they are attempting to influence, the key to effective leadershipthen is to bring to bear the appropriate leadership style.If that is true,how can managers get a better handle on the behaviors that compriseeach of the four leadership styles?

Instruments to measure leader behavior. To help managersand their staff members make better judgments about leadershipstyle, the Center for Leadership Studies has developed two differentLeadership Scale instruments: Leadership Scale: Perception by Man-ager and, Leadership Scale: Perception by Staff Member.rT Both leader-ship instruments measure task and relationship behavlo-ffi-ffi'e

imensions. Thein Table

Ve ?lfmensions were establi behav-iors, behavioral indicators of the extremes of each of these dimensionswere identified to help managers and their staff members differenti-ate between high and low amounts of each leader behavior. Forexample, with the task-behavior dimension "organizing" on the StalfMember Form, the end points of a rating seale were chosen to be"organizes the work situation for me" and "lets me organize the worksituation." For the relationship-behavior dimension'lroviding feed-back," the end points of the rating scale were chosen to be Yrequentlyprovides feedback on my accomplishments" and "leaves it up to me toevaluate accomplishments."

124

: J _

- s t J , . '

TABLE &2 Task Behavlor and Relatlonshlp Behavlor Dlmenslons and ThelrBehavlor Indlcators

TASK.BEHAVIORDIMENSIONS BEHAVIORAL INDICATOR

The extent to which a leader . .

Goal settingOrganizingSetting time linesDireclingControlling

Specilies the goals people are to accomplish.Organizes the work situation for people.Sels time lines for people.Provides specitic directions.Specifies and requires regular reporting on progress.

RETATIONSH IP.BEHAVIORDIMENSIONS BEHAVIORAL INDICATOR

The extent to which a leadet .

Giving supportCommunicating

Facilitating interactionsActive listening

Providing feedback

Provides support and encouragement.Involves people in "give-and-lake" discussions aboutwork activities.Facilitates people's interactions with others.Seeks out and listens to people's opinions andconcerns.Provides leedback on people's accomplishments.

In the Readiness Style Match instrument discussed earlier, eachof the four basic leadership styles are described, rather than theseparate behavioral dimensions that make up each style. The descrip-tions of the four leader behaviors follow:

Telling (Sl)-Provide specific instructions and closely superviseperformance

Selling (S2)-Explain decisions and provide opportunity forclarificationParticipating (S3)-Share ideas and facilitate in making decisionsDelegating (S4)-Turn over responsibility for decisions andimplementation.

The advantage of using the readiness StyJe Match is that itpermits managers and their staff members to rate leadership styleand readiness on the same instrument. Figure 8-6 shows that integra-tion. This figure provides a good summary of the key componentsinvolved in Situational Leadership.

a

t

L25

Et

tI

Eo

< /Ft 's I

5 I l

aslfl

(LOW)

tIIII

lS3. Share' 'rrnitt

I l

I S2. Exprain ,orr-

\o"o1o"s "noopportunity forclarification

- t i[sc.rrrn ou?1 responsihi l r ty

for decisrons andimplementation

7

Sl.Provide specrf icInslf ucltonsend closelysupervise \pertormance\

\

STYLE OF LEADEB

TASK BEHAV;On-*1H16H1(GUIDANCEI

WILLINGNESS

This person asABLE (has rhenecessaryknowledge and ski l l r .

Thrs person isWILLING (hasthe necessaryconfrdence andcommitment l .

FTGURE 8'6 Defining readiness and the four basic readership stytes

SITOATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND VARIOOSoRGANIZATIoNAL sETTit.iad.. .-

we have found that srtuationar Leadership has apprication in everykind of organizatio".r r"tii"e, ;ilil", it'u" f"Jll;; industry,education, government,.milit"arry;-;;;.,r"r, the family. The conceDts

;3fl$ #:d:tffff"f ;ilt'o*ot" are trying i" i"n""i.i-fi,iThe only problem we have found in working in various organiza_tronal settings is that some of thJ;ng.uage t-,a"s to b;;"d;ted to fitspecinc vocaburariT:_1.

:.dii#; r"!"il;;; ii 1i"1,,i,,g ,o,-working spouses' when we talkei "iow

task andier.ti""lrrrp behav_ror' that did not ring any u"rri roiii"m. we ,oor, ""riired that in

t

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FOLLOWER(S) FEADINESS

208 / Sdtuational Lcdenhif

working in such family settings, it was much easier for parents andchildren to identify with "directive" behavior than with task behaviorand to identify with "supportive" behavior than with relationshipbehavior.

On the other hand, when working with trainers and facilitatorswho have had a lot of personal growth experience and, therefore, arehigh on human relation quotients, even directive behavior will oftentend to be a negative stimulus. Therefore, in working with thesepeople we have found the word guidance is a good substitute fordirectiue behauior. We want to emphasize that in utilizing variouslabels for the two basic leader behaviors-task behavior and relation-ship behavior-we are not changing the definitions at all. Task behav-ior is essentially the extent to which a leader engages in one-waycommunication by explaining what each staff member is to do as wellas when, where, and how tasks are to be accomplished. Relationshipbehavior, even when we call it supportive behavior, is still the extentto which a leader engages in two-way communication by providingsocioemotional support, "psychological strokes," and facilitatingbehaviors.

The reason it is important to modify the use of various words isthat a key concept in all behavioral sciences is communication. Ifyou're going to help people gtow and develop, you have to learn to putframeworks, concepts, and research results into terminology that isacceptable to the groups you are attempting to influence. This has tobe done if you want to have the highest probability of gaining accep-tance and, therefore, affecting their growth.

Parent-Child Relationships

We have found tremendous application of Situational Leadership tothe family and the parent-child relationship. The book A SituationalApproach to Parentingls is devoted completely to applying SituationalLeadership to the family setting.

We suggest that when working with children (while they willneed "different strokes even for the same folks"), there is a generalpattern and movement in leadership style over their developmentalyears. Thus, when working with children who are low in readiness ona particular task, a directive parent style has the highest probabilityof success. This is especially true during the first few years of chil-dren's lives when they are unable to control much of their own envi-ronment. This whole developmental process will be discussed in moredepth in chapter 10.

127

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIt

Ineffective Parent Styles

one of the useful aspects of situational Leadership is that one canbegrn to predict not only the leadership styles with the highest proba-bility of effectiveness, but also which styles tend to be ineffective inwhat circumstances. For instance, we can take four examples of par-ents who tend to use a single leadership style during the child's entiredevelopmental period.

First, let us look at the parent who uses a high directive-lowsupportive style (S1) with their children throughout the developmen-tal years; that is, "As long as you're living in this house, you,ll behome at ten o'clock and abide by the rules I've set." TWo predictionsmight be made. The first one is that the children might pack theirb-ags and leave home atthe earliest opportunity. If this does ,rot occur,they may succumb_to their parents'authority and become very pas-sive, dependent individuals throughout their lives, alway. .r""di.rgsomeone to tell them what to do and when to do it.

A high probabllity result of a parent using exclusively a style ofhigh directive-high supportive behavior (S2) might be'called the"mama's boy" or "daddy's little girl" syndrome. EvLn when the chil-dren get older, they may chronologically be adults, but they are stillpsychologically dependent on their parent(s) to make decisions forthem. since most of the direction for their behavior and socioemo-tional support has been p_rovided by their parent(s), these youngpeople are unable to provide it for themselves.

what happens when parents are unfailingly supportive and neverstructure or direct any of their children's activitiei? Ttre response tothis -high supportive-low directive style (sB) may be called a'..spoiledbrat" syndrome, for the children develop into individuals who havelittle regard for rules and little consideration for the rights ofothers.

As we mentioned in chapter s, some people mighiquestion whyit-is inappropriate to use the same leadership style all the time-"afterall, we've been told that consistency is good." This advice *ight h"rn"been- given in the past, but, as we argue, according to situationalLeadership, consistency is not using the same styL ar the time.Instead, consistency is using the same style for all similar situations,but varying the-style appropriately as the situation changes. parentsare consistent if they tend to -discipli?e their childr"r, ,uli"r, they arebehaving inappropriately and reward the_m_when thev are u"rri"i"tappropriately. Parents are inconsistent if they smile-and engage iiother supportive behavior when their childret a.e bad as well aswhen they are good.

:?. $

1 1 .128

l-

210 I Situational Leadenhif

This discussion of consistency urges parents to remember thatchildren are often at different levels ofreadiness in various aspects oftheir lives. Thus, parental style must vary as children's activitieschange.

Management of Researchand Development Personnel

In working with highly trained and emotionally stable people, aneffective leader behavior style in many cases is low relationship-lowtask behavior.le This was dramatically demonstrated in a militarysetting. Normally, in basically crisis-oriented organizations such asthe military or the frre department, the most appropriate style tendsto be high task (S1), since under combat or fire conditions successoften depends on immediate response to orders. Time demancls do notpermit talking things over or explaining ilecisions. For success, be-havior must be almost automatic. Although a high task style may beeffective for a combat officer, it is often ineffeciive in working withresearch and devellpment personnel within the military. This waspointed out when line offrcers trained at West point were sent tocommand outposts in the American advanced-warning system. Thescientific and technical personnel involved, living in close quarters inan Arctic region, did not respond favorably to the high levlls of taskbehavior of the combat-trained oflicers. The levels 6f education, re-search experience, and readiness ofthese people were such that theydid not need their commanding officer to initiate a great deal ofstructure in their aotk. In fact, they tended to resent it. bther experi-ences with scientific and research-oriented personnel indicate ihatmany of these people also desire or need a limited amount of socioemo-tional support.

Educational Sett ing

Educational settings provide us with numerous examples of situa-tional Leadership in operation.2o

Teacher-student relationship. In an educational setting, situa-tional Leadership is being used in studying the teacher-studentrelationship.

. lor.examp_le, PaIl Herse_y and two colleagues in Brazil, Arrigo L.Angelini and sofia-caracusha-nsky,2r condricted a study

"pptlyirrgsituational Leadership to teaching. In the study, "r, "it"*pt

wasmade to compare the learning effectiveness scores between (1) stu-dents who attended a course in which a conventional teacher-student

t29

III

Situational Ledenhif t 2tl

relationship prevailed (control subgroups); and (2) students who at-tended a course in which situational Leadership was applied by thesame teacher (experimental subgroups). In the control g-np clisses,lectures prevailed, but group discussions, audiovisual aids, and otherparticipative resources were also used. In the experimental classes,the readiness level of students (willingness and ability to direct theirown learning and provide their own reinforcement) was developedover time !v q systematic shift in teaching style. The teacher's stylestarted at Sl (high task-low relationship-teacher in front of the classlecturing); then moved to 52 (high task-high relationship behavior-group discussions in a circular design with the teacher directing theconversation); then to s3 (high relationship-low task-group diicus-sions with the teacher participating as a supportive, but nondirectivegroup member); and finally to 54 Oow relationship-low task-thegrgup continuing to discuss with the teacher involved only whenasked by the class). The development of student readiness wai a slowprocess at first, with gradual decreases in teacher direction and in-creases in teacher encouragement. As the students demonstratedt-heir ability not only to assume more and more responsibility fordirecting their own learning, but also to provide their own reinforce-ment (self-gratification), decreases in teacher socioemotional supportaccompanied continual decreases in teacher direction.

n two experimen

Administrator-governing board relationship. An importantarea for the top administrator (college president or superintendent)in an educational institution is the relationship this p""son main-tains with the governing board. since these boards have the ultimatepower to remove college presidents or superintendents when theylose confidence in their leadership, these administrators often tend tLuse a high relationship style (sB), providing only a limited amount ofstructure for these decision-making gxoups.z2 In fact, they sometimesseem to shy away from directing the activities of their board for fearof_arousing their criticism. situational Leadership questions thisbehavior.

Although the members of the governing board are often responsi-ble, well-educated individuals, tl"y tend to have little work experi-ence in an educational setting. For exarnple, in a survey of coliegetrustees in New York state, it was found that less than lb percent ofthe trustees serving on these boards had any teaching or administra-

level of enthusiasm, morale, and motiva-

" i\S'trl'

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130

.Ls:$,sL lm*';*:rSi*."

212 | Situational l,cadenhif

tive experience in an educational institution.zs In fact, the largemajority of the 1,269 trustees sampled were employed primarily inindustry, insurance and banking, merchandising and transportation,and medicine and law. Virtually half acted as cor?oration oflicialswith the rank of treasurer, director, or above. In addition to theirinvolvement in other than educational institutions, these trusteestended to be overcommitted and were probably unable to give the timeto university problems they would have liked to give. In fact, the mostfrequent dissatisfaction expressed by trustees was the lack of time todevote to the board.

The relative inexperience of the trustees and the heavy commit-ment elsewhere suggest that it may be appropriate for college presi-dents to combine with their high relationship behavior an increase oftask behavior in working with their trustees. In fapt, the respon-sibility for defining the role of trustees and organizing their workshould fall on the college president. Henry Wriston, former presidentof Brown University, said it well:

It may seem strange, at first thought, that this should be a president'sduty. A moment's reflection makes it clear that it can evolve on no otherperson. Tlustees are unpaid; they have no method of analyzing talentsand making assignments. The president is in a position to do so.za

Administrator-faculty relationship. In working with experi-enced faculty, the low relationship-low task style (S4) characterizedby a decentralized organization structure and delegation of respon-sibility to individuals may be appropriate. The level of education andexperience of these people is often such that they do not need theirdepartment chairperson to initiate much structure. Sometimes theytend to resent it. In addition, some faculty desire or need only aIimited amount of socioemotional support (relationship behavior).

Often an effective leader style in working with faculty tends tobe low relationship-low task, but certain deviations may be neces-sary. For example, during the early stages of a school year or acurriculum change, a certain amount of structure as to the specificareas to be taught, by whom, when, and where must be established.Once these requirements and limitations are understood by the fac-ulty, the administrator may move rapidly back to low relationship-low task style appropriate for working with experienced, responsible,self-motivated faculty.

Other deviations may be necessary. For example, a new, inex-perienced teacher might need more direction and socioemotional sup-port until gaining experience in the classroom.

1 3 r

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TTTTTTT

ONDERSTANDING EARLIER RESEARCH

Determining the Effectiveness of Participation

An analysis of studies in participationzs in terms of situational Lead-

LirUip Jl* r.rgg"sts somL interesting things about the appropriate

;;;;i participllion. Situational Leadership suggests that the higher

tfr" i"i"f of iask-relevant readiness of an individual or group, the

higher the probability that participation will be an effective manage-

r"!ii t".frnology. The lesJ task-ielevant readiness, the lower the

pi"U"Uiiiiy ihaTparticipation will be a useful manageme.lt nracliclInvoivemeni and plrticipatron in decisign mak

iffi6mi t!soE @elead-

@ess. At the other end of

the readiriess continuuit ("*tt"*"ly high levels of task'relevant read'

i""J, ""-" "r th"." r"t l t".itt gq"gi"g il..ryouptlrinY'

Thev would orefer thelndivitlualwith the highest level-g@

FIGURE 8.7Particlpation as an etfectivemanagement technique

@eindividualwiththehishestlevelot.exnert lselnan area to maKe an"

rding to Situational LeadershiP,

iarticipation al "

management technique has a higher probability of

success as one moves from low to moderate levels of readiness, andif,"" L"gi"s to plateau in potential effectiveness as one's followers

become ltigfi itr task-relevant readiness' as illustrated in Figure 8-7'

One iurther point about participation. Although participation

tends to satisfy affiliation and esteem needs by giving people a chance

to feel in on ihings and be recognized as important in the decision'

making process, it should be remembered that self-actualization maynot reJuit from participation. The highJevel need satisfaction most

often occurs in a work environment where people are given a job that

I

I

v c

8 . 9g oo c. z ' 69 ?o 6

214 I Situational Lead,enhiatr-

a\\s\s $ern a\ opDorNru\f !.or ac\\e.vement, grow.\h and ileve\op_ment, and challenge.

The Influence of Cultural Change26

The scientifrc and technical advancements in united States societysince the turn of the century almost stagger the imagination. As aresult, we have become a dynamic, industrial society with a higherlevel ofeducation and standard ofliving then ever tlought possibl".This phenomenon is beginning to have a pronounced effect on-much ofthe work force utilized by organizations.

_ Today, many employees enjoy a higher standard of living andtend to be better educated and more sophisticated than ever befoie. Asa result, these workers have increased potential for self-direction andself-control. consistent with these changes in readiness, a large ma-jority of our population, in Maslow's terms, now have theii basicphysiological and safety-security needs fairly well satisfied. Manage-ment can no longer depend on the satisfaction of these needs-throughpay, incentive plans, hospitalization, and so on-3gjl! vat-ing factors that influence ithere is that and

ve to worry aw are

low more susceptible to motiv needs: want toas "som

Haney has said:

The.managerial practice, therefore, should be geared to the subordi-nate's current leuel of [readiness] with the overall goal of helping him todevelop, to require progressiuely less external mnlrol and. to giin moreand more self-controL And why would a man want this? Beca-use underthese conditions he achieves satisfaction on thejob at the levels, primar-ily the ego and self-fulfillment levels, at which he is th-e mostmotivatable.2T

This concept is illustrated in Figure 8-8.This shift in the readiness level and need disposition of our

general population helps us to understand why the findings of many

:l,:i':::i:t:::'#1,:Hlt5l iH#;styles ?_g!q 3, but not at the extremes (1 and 4).

\

\tl

li

I

1 3 3

IIIIII

TIIIIIIIIIt

5E LF.CONIROT

INDIV IDUALGROWTH

FIGURE 8.8Extemal control versus self-Gontrol

exnn-ffiinr-or-

DOES SITOATIONAL LEADERSHIP WORK?

The widespread acceptance of Situational Leadership for more than

two decades as a concept with face validity is well documented' Prac-

ticing managers, pat"ttts, teachers, and administrators throughout

iii" .i"rra r"! it iras gi'tren them a practical, easy-to-use approach-for

a;L;;*"g'what thly should do-in challenging situations. It has

b""r, "

majlr factor in training and development programs for more

ihan a00 or tn" Fortune 500 companies, such as Bank of America,

drt"rpiff.r, BM, Mobil Oil, Union 76, and Xerox.It has been widely

".*pi"a in all of the military servjces and numerous fast-growing

entrlpreneurial companies' More tho' ^to -illiot't leaders receive

Sit""ii"""l L""d ile research studiesal LeadershiP from various direc-

tions, the real question that managers, teachers, parents, and admin-

istrators ask is: Does Situational Leadership work? We would like topresent just two of the many studies that attempt to answer thisquestion.-

So*" years ago, the Information Systems Group OSG) of Xerox,responsibli for copier/duplicator products, made a major commitmentto Situational Leadership as a training concept. Situational Leader-ship now is a cornerstone of ISG's building-block training strategy

I

216 / Situotional l*od,enhif

andistaughttomiddle.levelaswellasnewfirst. levelmanagers.AsC"tnp"* and Hambleton indicate:

Despitethemodel'sintuitiveappealandquickaccePtancebyourman.asers, because of lft" training

-"""o*t"t'tequired' ISG management

development hi;;";;ia ititicar qu""tioit' At"- TiT:rs who use

the model .o"r""itiiiln"ii int"r-"ctions with employees more effective

rhan those *t o"i? #il-h;;-;ii^ii trr"r "r"

t o mo"" effective, there

would u" r,o poirrli ti?riii"i i"'sil""ti-o"al Leadership.2s

Sixty-frve managers in sales' service' administration' and staff

functions p"*i.ip"il5H i;; ;;ffi .-ch" r" manasers completed three

types of forms.2e

' A rnonoger questiannaire' which was constructed to provide demo-

graphlc datJ' such 1s ?g-e' '"*' f"t:"t -oi

**it"' attd so on' The

ouesrlonnarre also asked for p"t""iiioi". of th" -"tt"gers' job perfor'

;;;;;;;tuse of Situational LeadershiP'

r A profess ional [reod'iness/ s.cqle' which was used't'o determine a [fol'

lower'sl Ievel of lreadiness] ro" """T^oi;;;;bb

objectives' Each

manager assessed one to four employees'

. A monoger rotingforra thic\ allowed the managers to assess their

own leadership Jtyles an-d-1hei.r fi"ri"*"iti jot p"-"ro1lance for each

major job ouSective' The followin;f;;J#'ance rating scale' iden'

tical to XuiiJt appraisal scale' was used:

Ii

ii

RATING PERFORMANCE DESCRIPTION

5 ExcePtional; -;nsistently exceeds expected level

3 ExPected level

? m:$#:lT;' requirements

To test the validity of situational Leadership, data were col-

Iected for two Predictions:

r Highly effective-mal'9gqTs will indicate more knowledge and use of

Situationat r,eaderstrip- than less effective managers'

r . Employge jou p"rro.-ance will be higher when manig"Tt;e*Lvj;:l;

ational 'Leaa"Iffi t"*""tfv tttt" *-hen they apply it ir

The studY led to these conclusions:

r llighly effective managers indicate- greater knowledge and use of-Sit"""iio""t

Leadership than less effective ones'

r35

Situational Lcdenhif I 217

rAl lmanagersinthestudyl"Bg'*dusingSituat ional l tadershipatleast some of the tim". flis nnding defronstrates that training in

;hir ;;; has had substantial on'the'job impact'

I On the average, managers who-apply the model correctly ratc their

[followers'] job p"tforn?nce higher than managers- who do:rot' The

data in this area ;;il;[lv ffiIgrtive of the Hersev-Blanchard

model of leadership e{fectiveness'"'

Gumpert and Hambleton conclude:

Stated simply, highly effective managers knew more about Situational

;;;;;*"- iria ,ir"i it -or" than lJss efiective managers. Qatl sun;LeadershiP and it *r" than lJss efiective managers' Pata sup-

frffi ;;'it;;;r;.tn"1,,*s3;1l|,"^TTry"^':*l?,3T:"t'":r:,",::ilfi *? J'H ili'ir "? rr'-ii- *ii" " bit""ti onal . Leadet!': : n,lqfl:;;;;,'"tsi'iii":t":oup"'ro'-ancewas judq:l\i9*,a?3 jl:9,"t""ilT"ilffifi"],ffiJ;"" ;;;i'"irv'"a siatiitical li si grriricant' 32

Researchwasconductedontheimpactolth."interactivevideosit,ratio"ai Leadership program on managers of a large firm that was

ffi;;"t"g maior .fr.iri"" "t"d jnternal rlstructuring. The sample of

ili;;;Atr.iufro tt"J?"."i""d the training:rine to eighteen months

;iiii;ffi2;"r".r.tt ."*pr"1"al iuestionnaire booklet that included

four sections: (1) ""-;;;ital

of training course content; (2) a test of

,liif ""a

knowledge ietention; (3) a report of a critical incident in-

;;iil;;re of thJ training; and (4) an open-ended opportunity to

provide feedback.The results indicated that situational Leadership was hig-hly

effective. M"""g"t.-otr"r"d favorable appraisals of th9 cowse; they

demorrst ated air impressive level of mastery (retention) of course

skills; and they ,";;;; successful outcomes as a consequence_ of

"ri"g tfr" skills on titl joU. The frndings lend support to the claim that

-""""g"ri"I training cin improve managerial performance, even un-

a"i*-"aitions of chlnge in the work place'33

CHANGING LEADERSHIPSTYLE APPROPRIATELY

If managers are currently using a style that is approp-riate for the

level of ieadiness of theii Soup, one of the indicators that they can

use in determininj *hen ."a t what degree t-hey should shift their

Jvl" i, performanie, or resu_!s.3aIIow weu is their group performing

in their present ".iirriti"rt

r pg4rT.nce is increasing, it would be

"pp ' "p ' i . t " forma, ,agersto 'h i f t th" i 's ty tetothelef ta longthe

I

1 3 6

ZlE I Situational Ledenhif

curvilinear function of the situational Leadership model. This would

;;ir"d- th"i t*f.-""flvant readiness is increasing. If_ performance

;;il;; on the decline, it gives managers a clue-that the,y may need

i" "t

in tn"ir readei b"t."io:" to the right along the curvilinear func-

;i";. il ifr" tt"*t.ftrftet, we will disculs specifrcally the implications

and implementation of these processes'

b

NOTES

1'EdgarH'Schein,OrgonbotiondlPsychologx(EnglewoodClif fs,N.J.:PrenticeHau'1965)'p . 6 r .

2. Ibid3.situational l .eadershipwasfirstpubl ishei lbyPaulHerseyandKennethH'Blanchardas

.Life Cycle tt eory if Leadership" in Troining and Deuilopment JournaL Mav 1969'

4. Kenneth Blanchard, i"u.l" zigsrni and Drei zigarmi. Lcodcrship .ond the one Minute

Monager.CN"* VorliWiiii"-fu-o*o* g Co', i".."f-g'sj' For furthei information on SLIIo

contact Blanchard Ttaining and Development' Inc" f2! Staf flage' Escondido' CA 92029'

S. Fillmore H. S.r,fora, Arr i,rit*i,,n*^ aid l*a<tership(Philadelphia: Institute for Research

in Hurnan Relations, 1950)'6. The following section ias 5!n adopted from Paul Hersey, Situetionel Selling (Escondido'

Cali f . :Centerforl ,eadershipStudies'1985)'p'19andfol lowing'7. Ibid8. Ibid9 . l b i d , P . 2 2 .

10. ,btd, PP.25-26.1r . Ib id , PP.28-31 '12. David C. McCleltand, J' W' Atkinson' R' A' Clark and E' L' Lowell' T/reAchieuement Motiue

(New York: Appte-ton.century-crofts, 1953); and The Achieving society (Princeton' N J':

D. Van Nostrand, 1961).t3. Coitributed by Gustav Pansegrouw, P-E Corporate Services'

14. These two instruments, originally using t!: term'maturity,'were developed-by Ronald K'

Hambleton, Ke";il'fi. fi;;;ii"rd, r-tta P...1 Hersey through a grant from Xerox Corpora'

t ion.We"'ug,","f ' l toXeroxCorporationnotonlyforprouidingfinancialsupportfortheinstrumentdevelopmentprojectbutalsoforallowingustoinvolvemanyoftheirmanagersand employees irr'o* a"r"ropment andralidstion work. In particular, we would like to

acknowledge a.rii.tt O""ft"m, Warren Rothman' and Ray Gumpert for their assistance'

encouragement, "iJ "o*t-"tive

criticism of our work. The instruments are available

throughlhe Center for l'eadership Studies' Escondido' Calif'

15. These instruments, o;girr"ttv usini the term_ "maturity,'were developed by Paul Hersey'

Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Joseph Keilty. Information on these instruments is available

through Center for Leadership Studies' Escondido' Calif'

16. The Integration oidinitun"t l*a&rsh;p with contracting for lzglar2lip styles was tirst

published as P""iii"rt V, X"nneth H. ilanchard, and Ronald K' Hambleton"'Contracting

for l,eadership stvr", e n""""s and Instrumentation for Building EfTective work Relation'

ships, in rn" nliniiis" of oD7g, qan Francisco, calif., sponsored by university Associ'

ares/LRC. ,'fri, pr"*"i"tio' i. """it"Ute

through the Clnhr for Leadership Studies'

Escondido, Calif.1?.Theinit ialversionsoftheseleadershipscalesweredeveloPedbyPaulHersey,Kenneth.H'

Blanchard,."ano"'raK.Hambleron.Informationontheseinstrumentsisavai lab}eihro,rgh the Center for t'eadership Studies' Escondido' Calii

18. paul Hersey and i;;;;1h i. Blanchard, T,.e Family Gcme (Escondido, Calif': Center for

LeadershiP Studies' 19?9)'

L37

IIIIItIIIIIIIIIIIII

Situational lzdenhif I 219: i

I

lg.SeePaulHerseyandKennethH'Btanchard,.ManagingR€g€srchandDevelopmentPereon.nel: An Appticatron ii;;i;;;hilTiltv" ntttitf Monoscmenl -Septcmber 1969'

20. See Kenneth H. Blanc;'ari."l-i"Jff."*y, ;e f-"a"itf ip ltre-ory for Educational Adminis'

tratorE.' Edurntbn Spring 1970' - - -21. l$ieol. Angelini, rLii ii""r*y

"nd sofra caracu.rhar.rsky, "The situational Leadership

Theory Applied to T;;i;;i Ft.t:l r*"'"iie-efr;"tiv_enessi sao Paulo' Brazil'

22. Kenneth H. stt"tl'"'i'-'iliil; goatat or ft"Jiti i Need for Directive Lcadership''*' '*ii"*^y

of Monagemznt Journa\ December 1967'

z^l. F. H. stutu. R. G' M;;;' ;;J it.t st""'h";J''RePort of: surye1'" in Colbse ond

IJniuersi!1r rr*urr-i,li rviieeship: n"*^iilaotiiii and Reprl. if o su*cv 0thaca:' New York State R'd;; il;i;rvbomrrittee on Educational Leadership' 1966)'

24. Henry M. Wrirtorr,,q"ii"'J;. p"r*ii." fN"* y_ori,Coi"-Uia University hess, f959)' p' ?8'

25. A classic studv in tn"T"" "i

n*r"[{"1 is viJoi }I' v"*-' Somc Personalitv Determi'

nants of the Bn",t"' iilti"'ieJii q"st-"*-d ctin"' N' J': Prentice Hall' 1960)'

26. see paul Hersey."a ril""lir, ii. gr"ncbsri, "cJt;;t Changes: lheir Inlluence on Organi'

zational structure and Management Behavior,' ?ra ining ind Development Journat' octo

,r. *ffl"ftf. H"r,.y, communicotion ond organizationol Behavior: Tert and cases, rev' ed'

(Homewood' Ill.: Irwin, f967), P' ?0: --28. Raymond A. Gumpert'iJ R#id K. Hambleton. 'situational Lcadership: How Xerox

Managers Fi""'T;; fi;;"g"tiJbivr"" to Emplovee Maturitv and Task Needs'" Manag*

ment-Reubttt, December 19?9' P' 9'

29. Ibtd, 9. rL.30. rbtd3r. Ibid, 9.72.

33: tijX*.n

summary avairable from center for r.eadership studies, Escondido, calif'

34. suggestior, -"a. uy rrli!-i*i, "itu"

ra.ulty club, university of Massachusetts, Fall 19?4'

Fred is ,ro* "

.o*,tlt"it o'itt' Blanchard Ttaining and Deielopment'

Fir l-'-

r38