CHAPTER - I V

THEATRE I N RITUAL

4.0 INTRODUCTION

The vast majority of the rttual arts of Kerala are

resplendent with all the elements of Theatre. Ritual arts like

Theyyam, Padayani, Kakkarasi, Koodiyattom, Kathakali etc. are

artistic embodiment!; of efficacy and entertainment bearing the

true culture of theatre. In the performative level most of them

appear to move towards pure theatre while sustaining the basic

ritual qualities. The conceptual frame work of these ritual arts

exposesthe widely acclaimed fact that they are basically rooted

in theatre elements in the varied aspects like the concepts

behind the formation of the performer, treatment of the

audience, and the stress given to the spectacular elements. Two

of the popular rit.ua1 arts are taken for special study to

compare these aspects in them with the theatres of Artaud and

Grotowski and with the modern Malayalam Theatre of the period

selected.

4.1.0 They yam ..

Theyyam is a form of worship performed by the people of

Northern Kerala. It consists of a special combination of symbols,

rituals and art forms, particularly dance. In this spectacular

art form,the ghosts,, good and evil spirits in the manifestation

of subhuman, animate and inanimate beings, ancestor-spirits of

legendary figures of great valour, extraordinary powers and , r

endowments, and Gods. and Goddesses like '~iva; '~akti, vishnu'

appear and are honoured. This is done by dressing up in the

intended form ('~olan;) and performing artistically according to

prescribed rites and rituals, developed through folk traditions

with the accompaniments of vocal and instrumental music.

Divisions of Theyyam can be possible. based on folk and

traditions. Theyyam like 'pottan', 'gulikan', 'chamundi',

'Kurathi' etc. manifest folk origins while Theyyams like

'Vishumurthi' 'Daivathar', 'Makkoppothi' etc. show the Sanskrit

tradition. From the classification of Theyyams we can conclude

that most of them are of totemic origins. Durkheim is of the

view that totemism is the most primitive form of worship. (1954;

47). Primitive peoples' worship of supernatural forces for

better life and prosperity led to the worship of corporel forces

later. Totemic cults like tree-worship and animal- worship

originated like this. Theyyams originated as part of the cults

of serpent, animal, ancestor, mothergoddess, spirits and heroes.

(Nambiar, AK, 1988:55).

4.1.1 Thevyam: a conununitv act.

The ritual art of Theyyam is based on the culture, the

religious beliefs and anthropological root of the society from

ancient times. The castes who perform Theyyam in North Malabar I < - 8 , *

are '~annan, ~ala~an', 'panan', 'velan, mnnuttan', 'm juttan, ~avilari,

, < I ,

'coppalan: '~heravan,. Paravan, Tiyyamalayar, ~arim~alar' etc. The

'~avarnas' donot perform Theyyam. Madan Bhapputti whom the ..- investigator met belonged to 'pulaya' community, who usually

perform 'Pottan Theyyam', 'Vishnumoorthi Theyyam',

'Karichamundi', 'Raktha Chamundi' etc. He has a shrine of

'Pottan Theyyam' adjacent to his house. In the ritual, there is

the participation of the whole community. The blacksmiths bring

firewood used in various rituals. The ornaments, the various

ritual implements, festival-ornaments are made by the goldsmiths,

the efficacy of the ritual being monitored by the village

atmosphere. The low castes referredto.above become the performers

u The Harijan manual-labqrers bring raw materials to the shrine

used for preparing the temple space. Muslims bring fire-

crackers. Other posts are filled by divine possessions

('Velichappadus'). The high castes become the conductors and the

patrons of the performance.

4.1.2. Ritual -. enactments in Theyyam.

In most cases rituals become the symbolic actions of a

culture. The expressive level of the symbol becomes the action

part of a ritual. In the first chapter it is already pointed

out that religious ritual is a symbolic effort of a community to

establish relationship with reality which transcends words or

deeds. The rituals of Theyyam differs with the nature of the

myth of the Theyyam. However,the Theyyam rituals in genera1,have

a common frame. The p u b l i c Theyyam-perfo annual

f e a t u r e . , t h e exact d a t e o f t h e c e l e b r a t i o n i s determined by t h e

d i v i n e r accord ing t o l u n a r c a l c u l a t i o n s . Once t h e d a t e i s

f i n a l i s e d , t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e p l a c e beg ins .

The i n v e s t i g a . t o r wi tnessed t h e fo l lowing s t a g e s of r i t u a l

enactment i n t h e Theyyam r i t u a l of ' P o t t a n Theyyam' and

'Kandakarnan'. I n t h e a f t e r n o o n of t h e performance, a f t e r a

solemn r i t u a l of p u r i f i c a t o r y b a t h , t h e o f f i c i a t i n g p r i e s t s

e n t e r e d t h e '~ottaim' which i s t h e n p u r i f i e d r i t u a l l y . The

' p a r i k a r m i ' s main job i s t o p r e p a r e t h e toddy-pot. ( 'Kalasam' )

and o t h e r o f f e r i n g s such as f r u i t s , coconuts , grams, f l o w e r s ,

wate r e t c . and a l s o a r r a n g e lamps wi th o i l wick ('deepam). The

commencing ceremony i s l o c a l l y known a s ' t hudanga l ' ( beg inn ing ) of

This i s t h e ' t h o t t a m ' r e c i t a l w i th t h e a~cornpan imen t s~drum o r

' t h u d i ' ( s m a l l drum). T h i s r e c i t a l i s a l s o known a s ' thudangi

t ho t t am ' ( t hudang i = t o beg in + t h o t t u = t o c r e a t e ) . The second

impor tan t s t a g e of t h e r i t u a l i s ' t h o t t a m n i l k a l ( n i l k a l - t o

s t a n d ) . The Theyyam-dancer emerged from t h e green room wi th h i s

i n i t i a l make up and a s p e c i a l robe c a l l e d 'Kacha' and s tood

be fo re t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e 'Kottam' and r e c i t e d t h e myth of

t h e Theyyam-dance of ' p o t t a n ' . T h i s i s c a l l e d ' v e l l a t o m ' . The

T.heyyams began t h e i r makeup a f t e r t h e ' t h o t t a m ' . When t h e

Theyyam g o t ready f o r t h e pelrforrnance, t h e r e was one more

' thottam' which was sung by t h e Theyyav h imse l f . T h e f o u r t h

impor tan t s t a g e i n t h e T.heyyam-performance i s known a s ' V a r a v i l i '

(Vara = b le s s ing /bo rn + V i l i = i n v o c a t i o n ) . Each Theyyam can be

d i s t i n g u i s h e d from i t s ' ~ a r a v i l i ' . A f t e r t h i s , t h e Theyyam

started the ciimax of dance. After the first 'Uranjattom' , the

Theyyam performed the sacrifice. The sacrifice followed another

'uranjattom' which .is known as 'Kalasamthullal' (end-performance)

Bhapputti whc performed the 'pottan Theyyam', told the

investigator later that he went in to a trance and was

possessed by the spirit. It was in that state of trance that he

made prophetic untterances which the elders were to take note (U-21) of& He called out from among the audience, to the dancing yard

one by one in the order of seniority and status and blessed

them. Generally the devotees reciprocated with cash offerings.

The investigator was also called for blessings. The last stage

of Theyvam is known as 'Kottikalasam' The Theyyarn performed a

dance of a vigorous kind with the accompaniments of drums and at

the end removed the crown. This is known as 'mutiazhichil'

(removal of the crown).

4.2.0. Actor-concept in Theyyam.

The concept of the performer in ritual art is different

from the actor in a theatre. Here, the performer is prepared not

to perform the art before an audience, but he performs it out of

the concept of dedication to the diety. He is turned in to a

divine being while in performance. In all consideration, his is

a total act. Proper traditional training is necessary for

effective ritual art which functions basically as a means of

uniting one's true self with the infinite power of nature.

4.2.1 Training of the performer in Theyyam.

When asked about the training he got for Theyyam-

performance, Madan Bhapputti narrated the following things to the

investigator. He began his training since the age of eight under

his father. There was no systematic training methods. Many of

the techniques were learned from direct observation, while

accompanying his father from seven to eight months during

festival season. After learning in this way he was sent to a

village to study with a famous teacher. There the training was

vigorous. The session began with jumps, remniscent of Kathakali,

to jump high enough to position the legs out infront of the body

and touch the forehead with toes. Such types of different body

movements were practj-sed. Then he was taught the special yell

peculiar to make his arms and hands vibrate, and various dance-

sequences. The names of important shrines where the diety was

worshipped, the special language to address temple officials and

important village members during the ritual etc. were taught.

This special language made him a type of authority during

performance.

He told the investigator that strict discipline cvritha']

is to be observed by t.he Theyyam-performer. One to fourteen days

of 'vritha' is to be observed. He would take only vegitarian

food and keep celibacy. Liquor is taken by certain Theyyams,

tells Bhapputti. This would make mind and body fully prepared

for t.he performance. All types of ' Anustanas' are incorporated

into Theyyams (Nampoothiri, Vishnu 1977: 2 6 ) - fhe rituals of

'vritha', 'Manthra', 'Thanthra' and 'Karma'. The Theyyam-

performer should always have the nMantrik upasana'. Bhapputti is >

a'manthravadi. When undergoing 'vritha' and painting the face,

taking the costumes, he has to murmur the mantras.

4.2.2. '~bhina~a' in Theyyam and 'Natyasastra'

All the four aspects of acting said in Natyasastra, = .

'~ngika, ~adhika', '~har~a'and 'Satvika' are incorporated in to the

enaction of Theyyam. This is supported by A.K.Nambiar (1979-26).

Tie character is imposed on 'the actor' in theatre, while 'God'

is imposed on the performer in Theyyam. In this respect, he

points outf;hd$heyvam is a theatre. The 'thauryathrika' (keethai,

'~rith~am' andCvadyad) is included in the whole performance of

Thevvam. As the actors take the role of unwordly characters in

the body painting and costumes, they try to bring in some divine

aspects. The heavy and high head -gear, artificial eyes, claws,

'Chilampu' and masks make the act.or different. The intonation

and dialogue are also extraordinary by their peculiar

stylisation.Artaudls theory that the actor should be different,

he is like a magician by his craft and appearance is

anticipated in this ancient ritual.

4.2.3. Transformation and transportation,

When asked about the transformation and transportation of

the performer, the informant told the investigator the following

detailst. After the make-up the performer looks into Valkannadi.

There occurs the meeting of God by the performer and here

onwards his transformation takes place. The masks and highly

sensuous and decorative costume lift the performer into an

extra-ordianry realm of unworldliness. But all the while., this

transformation occurs, he is aware of the role he is to perform.

But he is not aware that he is aware. The 'flow' in the actor is

there, during performance the mind is aware of the surroundings

and action. When asked about the transportation, he replied that

this happens only.after the head-gear is removed. Then he feels

that he has returned to his original self. But to regain

completely that feeling, it would take three or four hours.

4.2.4 Belief of the performer

When asked about their belief in the divine, Bapputti and

his son Gopalan had diverse opinions. The father said that

during performance, the power of the diety came to him from

recitation of special sacred syllables or mantras (He himself is

a 'Mantravadi'). This gave him power to perform the necessary

ritual, dance and speak to the audience. But the son in his own

characteristic way of modernity t.old the investigator that he

sees Thevvam as a performing art: having nothing to do with

religious conviction. He believes himself to be a good performer

and his ability came from his own training and stamina. Here

also we have to acknowledge the changing nature of Thevyam from

ritual to theatre.

4.2.5 Some moments of drama in Theyyams

The dramatic elements of performance in Thevvam which

take them nearer to theatre are noticed. In the very

presentation of dialogues by the 'Kolakkaran' in certain

Thevvams like 'Pottan Theyyam', the loud laughter, the

conversation like 'the deaf' etc. are theatrical. Also in

'Paniyan Theyyam', the stylised way in which '~aniyan' is taught

the alphabet is highly a dramatic entertainment. In 'Vishnu

Moorthy Theyyam', the myth 'Iliranyavadam' is taking place as a

high drama. In 'Bali Theyyam' the dramatic quality achieves a

further dimension. 'The scenes how Bali bends Ravana by his tail,

the dissuading scene of Bali by Thara at the eve of going to

fight with Sugreeva, the dialogue between Bali and Rama, the

acrobatic scene of the .monkeys etc. provide theatre in essence.

Here ritual goes to theatre and returns.

In the 'Makkopothi Theyyarn' theatre is in full flourish.

The affection shown by 'Makkopathi' towards her children, giving

water to them, the labour pain enacted etc. are full of dramatic

sequences- The 'Ramayana Theyyam" which is enacted in the famous

Andalloor 'Kavu' near Thalasseri is full of drama. All the

important characters '~ama' ( 'Daivathar ' ) , '~akshmana' ('~ngakarai) < 7 c ? < ,

~ a ~ ~ u r a n ' (Hanuman), '~eetha, Leva, Kusa etc. are enacted as

Theyyams. The dramatic scenes like .the search of 'sitar, the

loneliness of '~ama; the journey to 'lank; etc. are enacted. The

performer's histrionic talent is put in to full test. He appears

to be a good actor,inspite of his divine self,by using the whole

body for the enactment.

4.2.6. Status reversal of the actor in Theyyam.

Some rituals show ritual inversion. 'l'he liminal nature of

the ritual inversion is a mechanism invented by every culture,

particularly the pre-literate cultures for resolving the

contradiction in a society. (Turner, 1977:167). The performer

crosses over the cultural boundaries and uses the ritual to

criticise the society to ensure conformity of the individuals to

the social norms. The field data show the very same cultural

mechanism. This happens in Theyyam-rituals of all the castes in

varying degrees. The lower the caste in hierarchy, the more

intense the status reversal appears to be. The 'Pottan Theyyam'

abuses, reviles and even physically mal-treat the highest

authority with unusual aggressive temper. It is here the status

reversal happens to Theyyam. He calls out the land lords to kneel

and lie down in the dust. His language becomes very cutting , bordering on obscenity, r i u ~ playing the role of comedian, now

that of divine person, he continues to amuse the crowd.

In the theory cjf performance liminality has two meanings

(1) in the sense of manifesting what is hidden, making

transparent the opaque surf ace of social life. (ii) As all norms

of day-today life is relaxed, it is a licence during which

anything can take place. In Thevvams both these aspects are seen.

In trance the Theyyam-performer speaks out the frustration and

resentment of the community. The social norms are relaxed in

which the whole celebration is givenanairof enchantment. This is

what happens in 'Pottan Theyyam' performance. In any performance,

the playful nature is integral to liminal stage. In 'Pottan

Theyyam' there is the mixture of playfulness and seriousness. The

'pottan' speaks out nonsensical things, which would make the

devotees laugh, at the same time what he says will be taken

seriously. His jokes are cutting and penetrating social

criticisms, his scaring the people is playful . Even at the

serious moments of playing with fire, he tries to make people

laugh. In the status inversion role, he is enacting the

collective wish of the people he represents, which is the plural

ref lexibili ty .

4.2.7. Theyyam: a theatre of cruelty.

The ritual art form of Theyyam demands from the performer

a total sacrifice on his part. This sacrificial aspects of the

actor in the theatres of Artaud and Grotowski are analysed in

chapter 111. lnspite of the st.renuous 'Vrithanustanas' before

performance, and hard endurance during long performance with the

heavy head-gears some times, the performer is expected to sustain

the physical strength through out. In some ' Theyyam-

performances, the performer inflicts self-injury on his body. He

injures his head, sometimes blood oozing out, jumps in to the

fire, pierces knife through his mouth, dips hands in the boiling

oil. This expression of masochism can be traced back to

premordial tribal rituals. Certain T_heyyams like '~antakkarnan'

fix the burning torches on its body, enduring the terrible heat

throughout. Theyyams - like 'Pottan' and 'Ottakkolam' would walk on fire.

In a Theyyam called 'Umrr~attikuliyan' there is a fierce -

ritual which is rem.inding of human sacrifice in 'Kali pooja'. In

this Theyyam, the .last ritual is 'uchabali', symbolic of human

sacrifice. Here, the arm and the leg of the performer would be

tied tightly, and these parts would be pierced with an iron

needle and the blood would burst out. This blood-bath is carried

out at noon time. With the quick loss of blood, the performer may

become unconscious during the performance. At this stage, he

would be carried away like a deadbody, with a new cloth-covering.

This is enacted like a human sacrifice. The performer here rises

up to the concept oE the actor in Artaud and Grotowski. The basis

of this is the total sacrifice of the actor in a ritual theatre.

4.3.0 Audience in Theyyam.

The discussions of Artaud's and ~rotowski2 Theatres in

Chapter I11 revealed that they were centred arond building a new

relationship between the actor and the audience. This is the

fundamental concept in all ritual theatre. There might not have

been the division between the actor and the audience in tribal

dances. The spirit prevails even now in all ritual performances.

The bond of enactment might have been taken upon by the low

castes by a historical necessity. Inspite of this, the people

who come to witne~~s this ritual art are participants and not

spectators. According to the status one enjoys in the social

world, one is spatially posit.ioned during performance. The

Brahmins occupy a space further away from the shrine, Nayars

(being next to the hierarchy) occupy a raised platform covered

by a tile- roof closer to the complex. "~annan' and '~ala~an'

performers, socially lower than 'the Thiyyas' occupy the space

at the back of the compound.

4.3.1 Environmental Theatre of Theyyam and Audience

Involvement

The performance - space of Theyyam is in sacred groves or in open fields. Here the actor and spectator share the

experiences under the vast expanse of the sky in the lap of

nature. The performance may take place under a tree, on a

rock, in a wide open field,, a temporary thatched hut

constructed only Eor the period. There is the swinging

experiences of the spectator. Schechner points out that in the

environmental theatre, people get involved with the actor who

is an amateur transformed into C;od (1973 : 108).

Human beings are understood as integral parts of nature

in Theyyam. This is seen in the importance given to the trees

and animals in the concept of Theyyam. In Theyyam-celebration,

tree-symbolism plays an important role. The 'pipal' tree is

associated with fairies, 'Gulikan' with 'Chempakam', nimb tree

with 'Kali' etc. Informants said that Theyyam was originally

celebrated under the pipal tree or banian tree, and later on it

was celebrated in sacred groves. 'Pottan' and 'Gulikan' are

decorated almost totally with coc:onut-palms. In many Theyyams,

the facial decorations are either in the form of a leaf, flower

or fruit of venerated trees. 'Kanjiram' is a prominent tree in

most of the Pulaya 'Kottams'. It represents

the folkgod 'Kalisan'. The 'mudi ' of Theyyam is

usually patterned after the shapes of a fruit or a leaf. The

heart shape of a 'pipal'- tree-leaf is a common pattern. Some of

the Theyyam-danccs for y . 'Culiknn' begins clnncc by i~nying

respect to the tree 'chempakam'. The 'pottan - Theyyam' j um~s

into,as a ritual, the glowing charcoal hea made out of the

special wood of particular trees such or 'Chempakam'.

In some Theyyams, spirits are tkie sy~~tbol of

animals. Eg . Tiger -Theyyams ( ~ u l the animal-

further. In 'Pottan Theyyam', of a buffalo,

In the 'Muthappan Theyyam', the patterned

after the horn of a r ~uthappan'. Goat and

'Pulimaranja

is according

This points

audience.

4.3.2. Catharqis in Theyyam.

The identification of the spectator ith the performer in I the theatre of Theyyam is almost complete. T e spectator forgets

that he is only a spectator, he feel himself to be a

participant. The Theyyam-ritual is usually rganised to spend a b I

sleepless night. In all the mystic tradition,

important point for getting in touch with

loss of sleep is an

one's inner energy.

Loss of sleep in rhythmic performance such 7s drumming, dancing

and singing relaxes the performers who slowly go through a

process of getting intouch with the unconscious. When the

investigator participated in the ritual Its of Padavani ,

Theyyam or Mudiyettu , the same experienc was undergone. It - appeared that a participatory- trance was experienced by the

entire crowd by the rhythmic dance, the div'ne features of the

painted face of the dieties, the elabor te headgears, the 4 personifications of the qualities of gods, he ritual offerings

of birds and anima1.s etc. The symbolism of the painted design,

the colours, the musical accompaniments, the chant, the drum and

'thudi', the rhythmic jumping and running, all go in for a

hypnotic effect in t.he crowd. The:y also to erupt in frenzy

of rhythmic fervour, the whole sounds, movements

colour, leave a lasting effect This is the

experience of catharsis 1111 (N-22):

4.3.3. Mvths in Theyyam and audience. 1

All Thevvams are structured upon myth which are treasure- i houses of archetypal images representinq experience of

past life. There are two types of mythsC higher and lower I

incorporated in to Theyyam. The myths in E ics and the Vedas are lp called higher myths but local stories about heroes and heroines

! form the lower myths. Egs. of higher mbths are that of

'Vishnumoorthi', 'Ramayana Theyyam', 'Potta ' etc. and lower

myths 'Muchilott Bhagavathi', 'Huthappan' e/c. Some times the

higher myths may influence lower myths, chabging it completly.

(Eg. The Theyyam '~vermakkal). The function

awaken a feeling of shared experience .

Underlying the myth of ' Paniyan- 'Theyyam' tht

death. A beautiful myth of untouchability

Pottan Theyyam. According to Kavalam,

"Myths and rituals being the tradi

our art forms... . Only by diving

myths and rituals and establishin!

with them, we can creat.e new myths

by interpret life and get ex&

knowledge and craft" (1988:19).

4.4.0 Costumes.

Costume has different functions in the

plays an indispensable role in consummat:

Natyasastra also stresses the externt

'aharyabhinaya as one of the four pr

representation or interpretation through wh:

succeed in conveying to the audience, the aF

experiences, Bharatha calls it'nepathyabhinaj

four kinds of costumes and make up (i) li

models (iii) Painting of the body (iv) decorat

4.4.1 Theyyam-Costume.

In the very colour display Theyyam-cosl

f the myth is to

the audience.

e is the fear of

s incorporated in

.onal links enrich

eep in to ancient

a blood - relation snd rituals, there

rience, practical

tre-activities. It

g a ritual art.

representation,

lcipal types of

h dance and drama

ropriate aesthetic

; It consists of

ing objects, (ii)

on of the body.

me creates a mystic

as well as symbolic meaning. They do the function of

identification,dignity, symbolic meaning, magic potency, caste

feelings etc. During the ritua1,the costume manipulated by the

artistes will provide a moving, dynamic and three dimensional - sensation to the audience. . In the transformation, the Theyyams are treated as Gods or Goddesses and the officiating priest would

do all the poojas (offerings) to them as to the dieties. Thus the

costume does the function of transforming the characters to a

ritual level. For eg . 'Muchilott Bhagavati' or 'Pottan-Theyyam'

are realistic charac'ters of the social order with a progressive

behaviour against the upper hierarchy. By the observance of their

costume and make-up, they were elevated or merged to devotional

and ritual heights.Thi.5 is the foundation of Theyyam philosophy in

its costume and make-up.

4.4.2 Materials used, in Theyyam-decorat.ion.

The decoration of Theyyam is done only above the person's

waist. Below the waist the Tkyyam is left without much

decoration except covering the part with starched cloth for

elegant round shape. The material:; used for costume are easily

and directly available from nature. Tender coconut leaves, rice

powder ('arichattu') for the white colour, charcoal ('Kari') for

the black colour, turmeric for the yellow colour, are the basic

items. Different combinations of these basic colours are also

used. For eg. in hottan-h hey yam: coconut leaves are used in place of clothe and other exposed part of the body is painted with rice

powder and turmeric. All colours embody theirown meaning and

concepts. The materials generally used for the construction of

head-dresses are arecnut, light soft-wood planks of 'murik'.

Flowers, coloured clothes and coconut-leaves are the general

items for Theyyam make-up.

In the performance of Theyyam, the use of ornaments and

flowers is an important element. Most of the ornaments are made

from coconut leaves and soft wood 'murik'. Enlarged necklace and

ears are made of soft wood with golden paper coating. It is to be

pointed out here that the ornamerlts used in Theyyam-performance

became a common property for other performing arts in Kerala.

This influence is due to the acculturisation and social

hierarchical domination over Theyyams. The head dress is the soul

of Theyyam. The m a m s of Vaishnavaorig-in, which must have been - - the last to be integrated in the Theyyam- dance such as

'Vishnumoorthi', 'Daivathars' 'palott - Theyyams' used n

sophosticated crowns as their head dress. The crowning ceremony

('Mudiyettu') is done on the step (nada) infront of the

installation of the main diety in the 'Kottam' or sacred grove

('Kavu'). It is done in the solemn atmosphere of singing and

n( drumnlng and dancing. After the 'Mudiyettu' the Theyyam becomes

the diety.

4.4.3 Significance of weapons in Theyyam.

The weapons used in Theyyarns - have varied meanings. They

are so important that in the grove, the weapons are installed

to represent different dieties especially those of the Theyyams

of the category of heroes. Bapputti told the researcher that

in Theyvams of great heroic dimensions, weapons are more

important than food itself. Almost all dieties use various

kinds of weapons. The devotees consider them as symbols of

protection and security, hence the importance of weapons in

Theyyam-cult. Some of the best known weapons are bow and

arrow, sword and shield and other local weapons such as

'Chedakarn', 'Pallival', '~aduthila', 'Churika', 'Kathi' etc.

Women-Theyyams generally use sword, shield and knife.

4.4.5 'Mukhathezhuthu'

This is the pictorial representation of the face of

different particular Theyyams. The researcher is told by the

informants that writings on the face symbolically evoke feeling

of awe, wonder, devotion and reverence. Through the

'Mukhathezhuthu' the devotee gets a particular meaning and

message. The writings are mostly borrowed fromfeatures of

animals, shapes of flowers and leaves. The names of

facial writing reveal the nature and shape of design.

For eg. 'nathum kannu' refers to the shape of the eye

of a kind of bird similar to owl. 'Sankum peedavum' (means

conch and the stool) 'narikurichenezhuthu' means the

writing after the design of the panther, often the myths of the

nevyams arereferrcdtosvmbolically through the facial writings.

4.4.6 General functions of masks

A mask is a distinguishing feature of primitive

celebration. It must have been the archetype of modern facial

writing. They have been used as means of social control

because of their awe-inspiring nature. They have also been

used for religious experience as a powerful medium or mediating

to the people the overpowering reality of the sacred. world.

Masks are also used as a means of transformation. In the most

general sense a mask is a disguise which covers the wearer and

thereby conceals or transforms his identity (Moore, 1977 : 55).

Masks are sometimes used for social entertainment and

baffoonery such as scaring people for fun or clowning in

totemic religious rites.

4.4.7 Types of masks and their functions

i) Richard Schechner deals with various types of masks

and their function in the theatre. There are three types of

masks (1982 : 70), the mask that completely covers the face as

inthe chau'mask or the Balinese topeng mask or the Korean Mask

or Indian -chau: Here, during performance the body including

the head is moved as a unit, by tilting the head. Since the

mask doesn't change, it allows the audience-imagination to work and

really paint and play with that mask. The mask is seen beautiful

but blank, and invites the audience to paly. The second type is

as seen in .Xal&.&gcac or .Uthakali'. Here the face is painted

so heavily that the actor has also a transformation. The painted

face allows for more naturalistic acting, the 'bhava' can show

through,allowing the expression and improvisation (iii) the third

is the facial mask or the body-mask (as Grotowski visualised in

his poor theatre). The body-mask .is an attempt in a way to make

the face like a solid mask. Here like a wood carver,the actor

can do whatever he wants. Each of these three masks has a way of

changing the face into a semiotic system or a system of poses.

To a question by Ayyappa Panikkar regarding what happens

when the body is fully masked as in Theyyam, Schechner replied

that in Theyyarn a full transformation into a non-human being is

intended by the comp.Lete mask. "The transformation in Theyyarn

with its fabulous hallow brings the whole environment with it.

The body-mask does the transformation of the total human being.

The body-mask then allows the spectator and the performer to

concentrate like a puppet on apparently simple manifestation each

of which can experience." (Schechner, June 1982 : 70).

Vishnu Nampoothiri points out that the 'Kolakkaran' gets

more freedom when using the masks (1976 : 43). They can use even

vulgar language. There is a saying 'Like the paniyan who wears

the arecanut sheath'. They, also., are symbols of many ideas.

Some Theyyams like 'Kundarachamundi.', 'Madechamundi', use masks

intermittently in performance, to represent the different

re-incarnations of '~ali ' and Vishnu. He also points out that the

use of masks in Theyyam influenced the later classic arts like

Cankakkali, Kummatti, Krishnanattom and even Cathakali. -

The evaluation of the ma.sks in Theyyam. is done here

because, they have an important influence in the modern Malayalam

Theatre which is to be studied later.

4.4.8 Properties used in Theyyam; Yavanika, lamps -. and-peedom.

Some of the theatrical objects which found their way int-

Malayalam Theatre later were used as ritual objects in Thevvam*

Just before the conmencement of the singing, the performer

receives a large banana leaf from the officiating priest. The

leaf contains five liyhted wicks, an arecanut, five betel leaves,

turmeric powder and a small amount of uncooked rice. The priest

passes the lighted wicks over the idol of Tgevyam to transmit

power. The lighted wicks transfer this power of the deity from

the idol inside the shrine to the performer- Bapputti told the

investigator that the five lighted wicks represent the five

elements- air, fire, space, water and earth. These elements are

'sakti' in a form t.hat people can see and concentrate on.

'Peedom' is mainly used by the Theyyams - at the end of the

performance, when they hear the complaints of the local people

and try to solve them. The use of 'Xavanika' is there in certain

Theyyams likec~annikkorumakaL.

4.4.9 Lighting System

Traditional lighting objects like fire- wicks the an dams) and 'olachoottu', made of small bundles of dried coconut leaves

etc. are used. This moving lights give a metaphysical

atmosphere to the whole performance.

4.4.10 Musical Instruments

Many kinds of' musical instruments are used in Thevvam

performance. Drums, cymbals, conch, 'udukku', 'kuzhal',

'perumbara', cherrnangalam and 'thudi', 'ilathalam' etc. are the

most popular instruments.

4.5.0 Modernisation of Theyyam

Raghava Payyanadu points out (1978:48) that the role of

Theyyarn in ancient days was that of the saviour as well as the

teacher. Its make-belief charm has been lost because of the

scientific and economic re-setting of society. The society

which paid oblation and offering to Theyyam for rain or

prosperity in ancient days has been changed now. This open

endedness allowed it to become a more colourful spectacle than

a ritual performance. Consequently, new technical and

theatrical innovations have occurred in Theyyam.

The influence of theatre is scen in Theyyam make-up too.

Theyyam make-up artrstes told the investigator that there were

times when they were not allowed to use colours other than

those made from materials available from nature. Now they use

synthetic colours which are readily available in the market.

Formerly, the materials for Theyyam make-up were throw-away

types, now they try to make them durable. For eg. the

headgears which have been made by soft wood and glitter paper

now have been replaced by metal and paints. The masks of

'Pottan' and 'Gulikan' made of arecanut sheaths have been

replaced by durable materials.

Among the new generation of Theyyam artistes> the

paintaking process for the disciplined drilling of the art of

Thevvam has been vanishing. They lack the single minded

dedication as well as devotiontothe ritual art. Contrary to the

traditional performers who used the ritual performance, a full

time job, the young generation t-akes it only as a part time

occupation, like the actors in the amateur theatre.

The social and political realities of everyday world

have been drawn to it today. It has been taken out of temple

premises, performed during touri!;m weeks, during Republic day

celebrations, for political party functions. Thus the religious

and belief-part have been stripped off, and the stress on the

spectacular show is given. Thle Marxist party and Sastra

Sahitya Parishad make copious use of the Theyyam symbols today.

In an interesting article Ashley narrates the experiences

of taking the Theyyam of 'MuchiILott Bhagavathi' .out of its

ritual performance, and performing it within the frame of

Modern Theatre (Ashley, 1982). This was a clear illustration

that ritual arts can move towards theatre.

4.6.0 Mudiyettu

The ritual theatre of Mudiyettu' - is a typical ritual art form for the analysis of the complex nature of the performance

traditions of Kerala. In this art-form all the aspects of

theatre-performance, actor - formation, the concept of the

audience, make-up, costume and all other externals of

theatre, are inherent. This ritual is conducted to appease the

Goddess '~ali' residing in the sacred groves, which is usually

associated with festivals in temples. The term 'Mudiyettu' is

derived from the carriage of 'Mudi' (crown) or removing it from

the head by the performer.

4.6.1 Myth in Mudiyettu

The myth associated with this ritual performance is most

popular in Kerala. The story goes on like this. In innumerable

wars between Devas and Asuras, the latter was destroyed almost

totally, and most of the Asura-women became widows. The

prominent among them were 'Darumathi' and 'Danumathi'. After a

torturous and prolonged penance, they could please '~rahma'and

win from him the boons of getting two powerful sons, Darika and

Danavendra. The two children in their turn lost themselves in

severe penance and pleased Brahma. They got

from him the 'vara' (boons) that no man in the fourteen wor1.4~

of the universe would be able t.o kill them. However, they

forgot to include women in the periphery of the boon. Shielded

by these boons, they proceeded on a world conquering expedition.

They brought the entire universe under their control and began

to rule over the worlds. No peace loving man could live

comfortably in the world. The great Saint Narada reported the

matter to Lord Siva who promised to take appropriate steps to

annihilate the demon-kings and save the people from their

tyranny and cruelty. Then from Siva's third eye is born the

fierce 'Kali'. She straight away proceeded to kill Darika in

the battle field. The story of the killing of Darika is

enacted in the most dramatic way in Mudiyettu . As G.

Gangadharan Nair says, here "'the myth transformed into

beautiful visual art forms with tlne aid of dramatic situation

that harmoniously blend verisimil.itude and sense of horror."

(1987: 38).

4.6.2 Rituals in 'Mudiyettu'

The dramatic performance is preceeded by detailed ritual

known as 'Kalamezhuthu'. This is the floral drawings using

natural colours such as green (made put of a particular leaf

dried and powdered), white (made of rice powder), black (made

of roasted and powdered paddy husk), yellow (made of turmeric

powder) and red (made out of powdered turmeric, lime, rice

powder). The fierce image of '~ali'is drawn on the ground using

these colours, 'Kalam' to be erased is the next item when the

drawing is ccmpleted. 'Kalam p j a ' is performed afterwards. The next cermny is

'Thiriyuzhichil' which means dancing with holding oil-soaked

burning-wicks held in the hands and weilded by way of worship.

The 'Kalams' are worshipped for uprooting the evil effect of all

bad spirits from their families. After the 'Thiriyuzhichil' the

lit-thalams are put out. Then the 'pattu' begins. Songs in

praise of Ganapathy on the creation of the 'pandalt go on. Song

on '~hadrakali' describing her from top to toe is sung to the

accompaniment of 'Chenda' and other percu ssion instruments.

After the songs the 'Kalam' is erased with the tender coconut

leaves used for decoration.

4 . 6 . 3 Actor-concept in Mudiyettu

The concept of the actor in the ritual theatre of

Mudiyettu. is also relevant in the study of the ritual impact

on Modern Malayalam Theatre. The actor has to undergo a vow

which begins on the previous day of the performance. After

taking bath in the early hours of the morning the actor pays

oblation to the goddess 'Kali'. He has to wear only 'the mattu'

of the 'Veluthedan'. After putting on the costume and the

headgear,he is competely transformed into an unearthly being,

'Kali'. He must not touch others or speak with others either in

the 'Aniyara' or 'green room'. This means that transformation

has already been at work.

4 . 6 . 4 Traditions and perogatives 'of the actor.

Upper Hindu Professional camunities known as 'Kurup' and 'War' are

the traditional performers who stage 'Mudiyettu. <~urups' in the Cochin regions

and '~arars' in the Travancore area perform the art traditionally.

The right to perform Mudiyettu bras conferred on Varanattu Kurup

of Koratty Swaroopam traditionally. '~urup' is a communal title

given even to Marar, Ezhava, 'Asari' , 'Kaniyan' and such other

subcastes, namely Marar Kurup, E:zhava Kurup, Thacha Kurup and

Kanikurup. Kurup is the title conferred upon the caste Hindu Nair,

who had been the masters of martial training and Kalari

practices. Those who perform Mudiyettu now-a-days are Nairs,

Kurups and blarars. They do not allow other communities to get

themselves involved in this theatrical arts since the traditional

rights are exclusively conferred upon them.

There are certain folk traditions and beliefs which have

taken deep roots among '~udiyettu L performers. One is that, the

role of '~ali' will be taken by the nephew or brothers of the head

of the family. For eg. Narayanakurup, nephew of 'varanatt; house

of Koratty enacts the role of '~ali.: When the history of 'varanattu'

family was studied it was revealed that the right to enact the

role of Bhadrakali from generation, to generation was according to

matriarchical system. Another belief is that, the washer woman

makes available a white piece of cloth which is called 'mattu'

and it is further purified by Kurup. But Pazhoor Damodhara Marar

the great living exponent of '*iyettuf says (AI-2-3) that such

traditions have been broken because of the onslaught of

modernity. Today, all. types of people who show proficiency, in

the ritual art come forward to perform the ritual. The 'savarnas'

or the high class, people perform 'Mudiyettu because the ritual

art is conducted within the temple premises traditionally.

126

4.6.5 Actor training

The actor in Mudiyettu should be well-versed in

'Thauryathrika' (ie. Geetha, Nrithya, Vadya) and also he must

have the intimate knowledge of all the four elements of actions

2 ' i. e. '~n~ika, vachika', 'Aharya', ?;atvikabhinaya1 which are

inevitable for its performance. Bharata in Natyasastra (1, 12)

stresses the need for the actor to be an all rounder. ' Bhava '

should be combined with emotional gestures. Alons with this,arratiging

the rhythmic movements of the steps is a must for the performer

in Mudivettu .

For this strict and systematic training for the performer

is inevitable. But it must be pointed out here that the

training imparted, is not formal, the pupil takes to it

informally from childhood (A1 2 . 2 ) . I:or learning 'Kalamezhuthu, 3ongs anc

Mudiyettu, at least five years of training is necessary . It is

'Kalamezhuthu' and songs that are taught first. Two years'

training is needed for this. Students in the group of ten to

sixteen years are selected for training, from the castes '~urup'

and'~arars: The training is given in the houses of'Kalari ~sans:

In the dance-form of 'Kuli' (N - 23) it is seen the forms 'Athikrantham', 'Harinaplutham' etc. as described in Natyasastra

(4:79). Among the thirteen acting types as described by Bharata

in Natyasastra, 'Akampitham' and 'Kampitham' are seen in the

challenges and war scenes of 'Kali' anti '~arika: In the 'Koodiyatta'

(combined enactment) scene of '~ali' and Darika there is a

prolonged encircling of Kali and Darika called 'Pakirithirichil1-

which is in tune with ' thalavadyas ' . Many forms of 'Kalasams '

(dance sequences) like 'Vattakalasam', 'Edakkalasam', 'Thonkaram',

'Eratty', 'Astakalasam' etc. are taught to the people. Here, it

can be pointed out that all form:; of 'Kalasams' in Kathakali

might have been refined forms taken from MudiyeLu . It is

very obvious from the analysis that how intensly the actor in

'Mudiyettu is prepared before the performance.

4.6.6 Acting Score

'~udiyettu' is a ritual dra.ma.It is a ritual close to the

concept of theatre in many respects. All the three elements of

theatre (?hauryathriki) are incor.porated into it. But the actor

need not show the gestures as in modivattom or Kathakali. The

Angikabhinaya is divided into three 'Irunnattom', 'Pathinjattom'

'Ilakiyattom'. In the 'Ilakiyai:tom8, the actor has all the

freedom of movements, he can whirl or jump. Usually, this

'attom' is used to express the rasas, the fierceness, wonder, or

fear. In Mudiyettu' the character 'Kali', 'Darika' and

'Danavendra' have all these aspects of '~bhina~a'. After the

'Ilakiyatta', there is the scene of 'Ayudhanottam' (looking into

the weapons). It is the scene of sharpening the weapons of ~ali'

and 'Darika'.

All the characters will take part in the 'Pathinjattom' of

the battle scene. As the battle progresses 'Pathinjattom' shifts

into 'Ilakiyattcm' which ends in 'Kdiyattcm'. It is in the battle scene

that all the characters show the best elements of theatre. The

two styles of '~oodi~attom' 'Vikshepam Veesuka' '~ranguperumattom'

(Behaviour on the stage) are incorporated in to Mudiyettu-.

The main characters in Mudiyettu show great 'bhavabhinay;.

In the challenging and fighting scenes of '~ali' and '~arika' the.

labhinayas slyles prescribed by Bharatha 'Akampitha' and 'Kampitha'

are shown like giving hints, advice., questions, instructs etc.

are shown by the heads ('Akampithabhinayal)= In the fighting

styles of '~ali' and '~arika' various movements and steps of 'Kalari'

are incorporated* The character Koimpidanayar acts with

rhythmetic steps. He does not dance like other characters- Thus

Mudi~ettu has got a systematic acting-score.

4.6.7. Transformation and transportation of the performer.

When asked about the transformat.ion and transportation while .

enacting,Damodara Marar stated this (AI. 2-4) . .

"I usually enact the role of Kali- Even when I begin

the 'Vrithanustana', i feel the transformation already

taking place in me. But all the while, I have the

feeling I should make my performance of Mudiyettu

successful as spectacle. While I perform the role of

Kali, there is also the feeling of the actor in me,

though some times it. trespasses towards a kind of

trance.. In Pallippattu, there had an incident that

Kali actually killed Darika, getting in to an actual

trance. But I feel this kind of transformation is not

good for the performance". He says that the breaking

up of the balance of the performer happens because of the

breaking up of the 'rhythm'. The transportation takes place

without any external aid, though Kali, when out of control

should be physically held by other!; and brought under control.

For this the sword in the hands of Kali would be made to pierce

on the ground. The actor thereby regains his self.

4.6.8 From Ritual to Theatre in Eudiyettuq

How the ritual performance of '~udiyettu' comes almost

near to theatre is illustrated by the following examples. The

theatrical quality of this ritual is illustrated in the

introduction of the unritualistic character 'Koimpadanayar' in

the third scene of Mudiyettu . S.K. Nayar says that the

character reminds us of 'Ittikkandappakaimal' in 'Yatrakali' (N. 24)

He comes to the stage like a nayar-chieftain and poses questions

to the'melakkars' and converses with them. Damodhara Marar (A-12.8)

says that this character has got a dramatic function in the myth

itself. He is actually 'Nandikesa' (the carriage of Siva) who

comes to aid and appease Kali, who imitates what all things he

enacts in the performance. He also dilutes the fierce tempo of

the enactment, by providing comic relief to the audience through

his comic dialogues. During this time he lets loose a volley of

social criticisms against the society. Another powerful

dramatic function is carried out by the 'Koolies'. In the

fighting scene '~ali' stands with anger and Darika is positioned

in the middle of the stage ready to fight with'~a1i.' In between

them there are '~oolies with their ridiculous gestures.

I

Koolies are laughing and foolishly behaving. These two extremes

of characters can be seen in classical as well as folk

traditions. G. Sankara Pillai points out that it provides an

extra-ordinary theatrical beauty to the whole performance,achieved

by an aesthetically contrasting mixture of the sublime as well

as the ridiculous (1990 : 3 8 5 ) .

4.6.9 Catharsis: a theatre- function

The performance of ritual arts are generally at the

contexts of a religious tradition. There, the characters are

above the secular and mundance world. Here the performance is

ritualistic and not secular, or it is supposed to be so. The

audience here is both participant and spectator, as a spectator

he witnesses the enactment and a:j a participant, he involves

himself in the religious act. He is a believer here, and

therefore, there is 'no willing suspension of disbelief' as in

theatre. But we see in Mudiyettu , .Theyyam or Padayani the

sequence of satire, irreverance , vulgarity or obscenity

incorporated,as in the characters 'Paradesi', 'Pattarum-Pennum',

in 'Padayani (A 11. 3.8) and ' ~oim~adanayar' in pludiyettu . This actually brings the ritual arts closer to Theatre. Why is

this introduced? Is this against the ethos of spirituality in

the ritual arts? Has it got connection with therapeutic aspect

of drama as with Artistotle or ~reud't Here it is worthy to

quote Ranjini and Gananath:

"Ritual drama is a collective phenomenon, not an

individual. In this case, we could say that

psychological anxiety endemic to the group or a source

of group concern is handled through obscenity in drama.

It is therefore fair to say that humour in ritual drama

is a form of catharsis. The group by virtue of a shared

religion, vicariously participates in the ritual

enactment and purges the:ir own internal terrors and

anxiety through communally shared humour." (1976:69)

Here the comic catharsis is almost reverse of tragic catharsis.

But here we have to remember also that in some ritual dramas

where this ritual element is not. there, the catharsis occurs

through the Aristotilian process, there the audience identify

themselves with the mythological characters represented on the

stage, the emotions of pity and terror are aroused and

subsequently purged at the culmination of the drama. This is

what happens in Mudiyettu and padayani .

> 4.6.10 Mudiyettu as Theatre, Sampoorna Mudiyettu.

Ritual towards theatre.

It is interesting to note here that how the veteran

Pazhoor Damodara Marar tried to take this traditional ritual

art-form almost closer to a theatre performance and to analyse

his experiences. (AI. 2-13). He tried to present it like a

theatre-form without losing its ritual qualities. He calls

this form ' ~ a m ~ o o r n ~ Mudiyettu . For the movement of 'Vethala'

he created a sacred grove where Vethala

meets 'Kali' and offers his help to her to kill Darika. It was

presented for about six hours with thirty two actors through

thriteen scenes. It was a tremendous success as a spectacle. He

told the investigator that more than the devotee in him, it was

the artist who succeeded in its presentation- He witnesses that

the theatre in this ritual art - form got projected and won

success, the ritual aspect lingered in the background. This had

been a great example how a ritual can be taken to theatre with

success.

4.6.11 The ConceDt of the director in Mudiyettu.

The above example inevitably leads us to a question of the

director in a ritual art-form. In Theyyam it is the father, or

the grand father or the uncle of the performer. Here, it is the

head of the family as Pazhoor, himself was. The whole performance

was conducted under his leadership. The leader or 'the Asan' as he ,

is called , should be an expert in 'Kalamezhuthu pattu or

'Mudiyettu'. He is the soul of the art-form-like the director in

a theatre. He has got a high status in a society. He would be

invited 'even- to the functions of the upper class society. It is

through him the problems of the society are solved. Through him,

thus, the ritual art becomes an integral part of the society.

4.7.0. Audience in Mudiyettu

As in all ritual performance,, the audience here is less a

spectator and more a participant. They go to witness Mudiyettu

as devotees, although theatrical entertainment is provided (as

through 'Koimpidanayars' and '~oolies). But as Pazhoor points out

they are more devotees, as they come with of serving 'penance' or

'vrithas'. These people never get tired of seeing the same

enactment of 'Mudiyettu through five or six days, because there

is the devotional elements in them (A1 2-71. Had it been a

theatre-event, they would have become bored. The actors and the

audience are in an environmental theatre as M-iyestu is often

performed in 'Sacred groves (K~IVU) or in temple premises. The

vast expanse is taken as the venue of the performance-place.

4.7.1 Audience-Status

The main section of the audience will be Hindus as they alone

are. allowed to enter these '~avus' or temple premises. Amony the

~indus, the upper class will fo.cm the majority. There would be

three types of audience, t:le managers and the family members at

the front, Nayars and upper class people just behind them, and

the workers who remain as mere spectators at the back.

4.7.2Audience belief.

Obviously, the spectators here have come not for theatrical

experiences, they have come here to share the metaphysical

experience of devotion* But they unknowingly enjoy the

theatrical aspects in it. They enjoy the spectacles of rituals

like 'Thalappoli', 'Kalamezhuthu', 'Kalampattu', 'Ezhunnellippu'

and 'Mudiyettu' as in a theatre. But,for them it is not an

entertainment, but a worship- It is performed often as an

offering for begetting children, employment, for the cure of . illness etc. The audience here is 'static' in the sense that

they repeatedly like to witness the ritual of 'Mudiyettu'.

As in environmental theatre, t.here is the actor audience

communication taking place in Mudiyettu. - After the killing Of

Darika, Kali whirls her torch ipandam;) around the audience. This

is the symbol, that all the bad elements due to the rule of

Darika is exorcised. In the refrains of the battle scenes also,

. Kali does this performance* Then she receives 'Dhakshina',

sitting on the peedom. In the fifth scene 'Vedala' with a torch

in his hand approaches the audience and asks for 'Kaineettom'

(offering of money) from the audience. This is done as a comic

enactment. This communication is heightened more by the

theatrical arrangement of performance. The different exist and

entry passages, different levels the divine location etc. are

skilgully made use of by the performers. The interpolation of

comic episodes and such situations in the course of the ritual

heightens dramatxc intensity.. This provides amusement to the -

mundane section of the spectators, The lingos used in the

dialogues give amusement to the spectators. There will be

punning upon words, spoonarisum, ob~scene comments etc. Sexual

relationship between man and woman is blantantly referred to

colloquial slangs, which provide. a hilarious atmosphere. The

comic effect is heightened in the scene of coming of a man into a new

locality without knowing the colloquial language there and tries

to communicate. Thus, through riitual and through theatre the

actor-audience relationship is established in ~udiyeftu .

4.7.4. Audience participation* Influence of Myth

The myths contained in tlhe ritual art - form usually

influence the participation of the audience still further.

'~arika ~ a d h d (killing of Darika) is a myth that forms popular

ritualistic art-forms in Kerala. The myth is very popular in

Kerala because of the innumerable goddess- temples and 'Kavu'

(sacred groves ). when it is enacted in Mudiyettu the emotional

involvement is heightended, as the audience is already familiar

with the myth.

4.8.1. Costumes -in 'Mudiyettu' - Theatre functions.

The dramatic appeal of Mudiyettu' is by far augmented by a

convincing transformation of men i.n to Devas and Asuras by the

ingeni.ous use of costumes. This: is evident from the visual

level masks, make-up, costume and choreographic patterns- Darika

puts on a costume reminding the 'Kathiveksha' of Dhuryodhana or

Ravana. The head-gear and face-palinting is almost the same. He

adorns himself with 'uttariyam', the shawl which is pure white

cloth, rings and bangles are used as ornaments. 'Thechi' flowers

will be used as a ring in the left hand. The back portion of the

costume is that of the '~hak~ar'. White cloth is folded many times

to make up elevated buttocks. Another white cloth is used as a

long under garments '~hurukas', tridents are held in both hands.

Kal i w i l l be p u t t i n g on t h e costume nex t . The f a c e w i l l be

, completely darkened w i t h ' K a r i ' . A p a s t e made of r i c e powder and

lime i s used t o g i v e shape t o t h e f a c e what i s c a l l e d

' C h u t t i k u t h a l ' . Turmeric powder and l i m e mix ture l i n e s a r e g iven

on t h e f a c e i n between numerous wh i t e d o t e s t o resemble smal l

p o x - p i t s o r pox marks. Curved long t e e t h i s drawn on e i t h e r s i d e

over t h e r e d l i p s . 'Thechi ' f l ower i s r ipped and a f f i x e d on t h e

forehead , t h r e e of them, on t h e neck, on t h e nose , and jaw wi th

t h e he lp of ' a r imavu ' , ( r i c e f l o u r ) . The appearance w i l l be

f i e r c e . The headgear w i l l be a lmos t l i k e an a r c h decora ted wi th

'Kuruthola ' ( t e n d e r coconut l e a v e s ) . The ' udu thuke t tu ' would be

l i k e t h a t of 'Darika; Then t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s l i k e S i v a ,

' ~ a r a d a ; bhanava ; ~ o i r n ~ i d a r ' , 've thala ' and ' ~ o o l i ' w i l l be costumed.

The costume of ' ~ a n a v e e r a ' o r '~anavendra ' , t h e e l d e r b r o t h e r of

Dharika i s green i n c o l o u r . The w a i s t - d r e s s i s l i k e t h a t of

fo lded costume o f ' ~ a r i k a ' . Red i s used f o r 'Danavendra'on t h e f a c e

a s h e i s a demon.

The costume of ' ~ a r a d a ' i s very s imple wh i t e c l o t h i s h i s

d r e s s . Hai r d r e s s i s t h e same a s used i n ' W h a k a l i ' . Beard

i s whi te , t h e r e would be a palm-leaf 'Gran tha ' i n h i s hands. For

S i v a and ' ~ o i m ~ i d a n a ~ a ; , t h e f a c e would be of ' ~ i n u k k u ' ~eksham'.

Hai r d r e s s i s t h a t of ' U t h a k a l i ' . Costume o f V e l a k a l i i s used

> f o r Koimpatanayar, s h i e l d i n l e f t hand and s h a r p po in t ed smal l

sword i n r i g h t hand and t u r b a n on t h e head.

The ' ~ o o l i e s ' w i l l have on ly b lack costumes. Black i s app l i ed

on the face. The dreiss is made up of dried plantain-leaf etc.

Breasts are' moulded by fixing coconut shell-halves on

the chest. Face will be blackened first and multi-coloured dots

will be marked on it. Tender coconut leaves, garlands and twigs

of plants adorn the waist -dress. Many neck ornaments,

multicoloured jackets on the breast, tender coconut leaves

around neck, flower garlands, bunches of flowers made in to

garlands over the breasts. 'vethala.' enters with a long pointed

stick and branches of tress in his hands.

The costume of Mudivettu reminds us of the costume of

Kathakali above the waist and those of Chakyarkoothu below

the waist. Kathakali might have adopted these costumes from

'Mudiyettu . The influence of the ancient theatrical art-form of m o t ivattom and Chakyar Koosu can be traced in the presentation

4 .8 .2 Chuttikkaran (make-up _man!

>

All the costumes in Mudi~ettu are done by the Chuttikkaran

(make-up artistlwho is an expert in the field. He must know about

the different aspect:; of Aharyabhinaya. The style of costume

would be to give the impression of the unworldliness. The

'Chuttikkaran' creates the dramatic concept of 'Mudiyettu'

through his costume design. It is he who selects the dress, the

ornaments and coloura of the characters in Mudivett_u . He is

the artist as well as the craftsman who designs the theatre of

;i4udiyettu .

4.8.3Properties used a7 the staae.

In the texture of ritual arts of Kerala, the place of

certain articles like 'Yavanika' '1?eedom1 and 'Nilavilakku' have

significant theatrical functions. These three stage props have

been taken here for special study because they have great

bearings upon the Modern Malayalam Theatre.

The use of 'Yavanika' has got a great theatrical function

in 'uudiyettu'. Pazha'or says that during early days it was pure

white cloth with no border or any other decoration that was used

as the 'Thirassila' then. But now-a-days 'the '~hirassila' has

undergone many modifications and has been made as attractive as

that of Kadhakali . Those who hold 'Thirassila' should also

shout cheers and shoilld sprinkle rice powder, 'Thellippodi' for ?

the entrance of '~alj.. Chummar opines that '~hirassili was not

used formerly in 'rnliyettu' (1950: 214). Now, for the entrances t I r

of important characters like '~ali' and Darika, ~hirassila' is

used. In traditional theatre-forms of Kerala, there had never

been the habit of separating the performer from the audience.

This may be because of the infrluence of Koodiyattgm and

yrishnanattom.

4.8.5Theatrical function of 'Yavanika'

The different episodes of the story to be enacted might

have been happening in different places. The intimation of these

different places and the sequence of events should be conveyed

to the audience. In the traditional art-forms this is done not

in the realistic way. Here the use of 'Thirassila' is pertinent.

The first scene in Mudiyettu happens in 'Kailasam'. Siva is on -

his carriage Nandikesan and Narada complaints to Siva reading a

'Varola'. An ingenious, use of 'Yavanika' is seen here. It is

held almost up to the waist of Sivau Above it Siva will be

holding the head of a wooden ox. The second scene is presenting

Darika conquest. Behind theryavanika Kali will be standing, the

back at the audience, replying to the challenges of'~arika'. It

is supposed that '~arikai is challenging Kali from above 'the

udayaparvatham', and 'the asthamayaparvatham' and the distant

'Yamakoodaparvatham'. The 'Yavanika' gives us the hint that Kali

is somewhere there.

Another function of 'Yavanika' is to project the entrance

of important characters. As the stage is very vast, the

entrances are very important. In the first scene of Mudiyettu

Siva and Narada are appearing. In the hands of Siva, there would

be the wooden head of an ox. He will be moving this on the edge

Of 'Thirassila' from right to left, forward and backward. First

Siva would show his head above it, and then both characters come

t o t h e f r o n t . Thus t h e importance of t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i s

shown through 'Yavanika ' . S i m i l a r l y , f o r t h e f i r s t e n t r a n c e of

'Darika' and 'Danavendra', ' ~ a v a n i k a ' i s : used. I t must be s a i d h e r e

t h a t f o r t h e e n t r a n c e of 'Koimpidanayar: 'Yavanika' i s n o t used,

a s h e i s n o t an innportant c h a r a c t e r . For t h e e n t r a n c e o f

'Kool i ' , t h i s i s used. Thus i n t h e v a s t a r e a . of t h e s t a g e , a

p o r t i o n of it i s p r o j e c t e d th rough t h e use of 'Yavanika ' .

4 .8 .6 'Yavanika' a s a [ ) a r t of a c t i o n .

'Yavanika' i s u:jed a s a p a r t of a c t i o n sometimes. For eg.

it i s provid ing a r o y a l s t a t u r e t o t h e c h a r a c t e r s ' ~ a r i k a ' and 1 Danava' a t t h e t i m e of t h e i r e n t r a n c e s . I t is i n t h e movements

'Yavanika' such a f u n c t i o n is g iven (Note 2 5 ) .

How ' ~ a v a n i k a ' becomes a p a r t of a c t i o n i s seen a t t h e

meeting p o i n t of b a r i k a ' and ' ~ a l i . Here lowing t h e 'Yavanika'

'Darika' views ' ~ a l i ' . Then 'Kal i ' s t r i k e s a t 'Darika ' who d i s a p p e a r s

behind t h e c u r t a i n . T h i s i s r epea t ed b Thus i n t h e a c t i o n

sequence 'Yavanika' becomes a part.. I n t h e changing t h e a t r e

c o n t e x t of today , t h e concept of 'Natyadharmi' i s given much

importance. Now, symbols p r o j e c t i n g a c t i o n s evolved. Even an

empty space becomes p a r t o f t h e s t a g e . 'Yavanika' i n t h e modern

t h e a t r i c a l c o n t e x t s , does n o t have 3 r e a l i s t i c f u n c t i o n on t h e

s t a g e . I t does t h e symbolic f u n c t i o n on t h e s t a g e i n most ca ses .

I n t h e s p e c t a c u l a r and s t y l i s e d r i t u a l a r t - f o r m s , t h e u s e of

'Yavanika' was i n a s t y l i s e d manner, t h e r e f o r e , i n t h e modern

theatrical contexts, it does nothavea realistic function on the

stalge. It does the ~iymbolic function on the stage on most cases.

In the spectacular (and stylised ritual art-forms, the use of

'Yavanika' had a stylised function, therefore, in the modern

concept of 'Natyadharmi' theatre the role of 'Yavanika' is great*

It is in the simplicity of its use and its functions on the

stage the importance of 'Yavanikat lies. Pazhoor also stresses the

theatrical function* of 'Yavanika' more than its ritual

functions. (AI-2-10).

4.8.7 Peedom

The theatrical function of 'Peedom' in 'pudiyettu' is very

significant. It contributes to the dramatic elements of the

performance. In 'Mudiyettu , it is firstly used to project the

characters on the stage. In the challenging scene of barika' with

'~ali; we see its skilful use. Standing ~n this peedom, '~arika

challenges Kali'. 11; symbolises sometimes hills and mountains.

It may be used for the temporary retreat of characters. In

Kathakali and Koodiyatt-om , the more ingenious and theatrical

use of peedom can be seen. It becomes sometimes a throne, a

garden bench etc. The symbolic use of this 'peedomt is carried

on to the modern Malayalam Theatre, many a time, as refined

planes.

4.8.8 Nilayilakku' -. theatre- f unctions.

'~ilavilakku' or kalivilakk; is used not only for the mere

function of illuminating the stage. It has a ritualistic or holy

meaning on the stage. The theatrical function of focusing the

attention of the audience on the subtle variations of emotions

on the faces of the characters, is also achieved by 'Kalivilakku'.

The aesthetic effect it provides to the flesh-painting, the

elaborate and splendi,d costume of the characters is very high.

Its metaphysical effect is shared by the audience, as they have

a holy conception of it. Pazhoor points out that the holy lamp

in Mudivettu symbolises the All mighty God 'Siva' and not

Ganapathi as in other ritual arts. (Note 26) (A1 - 2-10).

4.8.9 The lighting in "~udiyettu'

The natural lighting pattern in Mudiyet&u provides a

wonderful effect to its performance. The darkness as well as

light can contribute to the conveyance of emotion. 'Torches '

and five-wicked torches are used to give light and shade of the

performance of Cudiyettu . The performance space of

Mudiyettu is the whole temple premises or sacred grove.

During the fighting scene, Darika takes to his heel, Kali

follows- him through this space. The torch-bearers have to rush

after them with burning torches. The intensity of the

fierceness of the whole sequence is heightened by throwing

'Thellippodi' on the burning torches, K.P. Narayana ~isharadi

in his translation of Natyasastra tells us that by throwing

'Thellippodi' on the burning torches sound should be produced.

(N. 27)

4.8.10 Music in Mudiyettu

Music is given great importance in 'Mudivettu . Evenbefore

the recitation of 'Aranguvazhthal', the 'ragas of 'Natta',

'savari', 'Sankarabharkamt will be sung, In the dialogue between

Siva and Narada, and Kali and Darika, there would be particular

I ragas' used. The first challenging call of Darika would be in

'Anandabhairavi', the second in 'Puraneevu' (because it is in

the early morning) a 'rag; similar to ('Bhupala'). The musical I

instruments used are 'Chenda', 'Elathalam', 'Kompu', 'Sanku',

'Kurumkuzhal' etc.inthe rituals. During 'Kalampooja' and

'Thiriuzhichil', the instruments 'Kompu', 'Kurumkuzhal', 'Sanku',

Elathalam' , and 'Chenda' are used. During 'Kalampattu' only

' Chenda' and 'Elathalam' are used. During erasement of 'Kalam'

'Sanku' and 'Veekanchenda' are used. In '~rangukeli' 'Chenda',

'Madhalam' , 'Elathalam' are used. In 'aranguvazhthal ' , Dialogue of

Siva and '~aradha), 'Entrance of '~arika: 'Urukkuchenda',

'Veekkanchenda' , and '~lathalam' are used. During the challenge

scenes, killing of '~arika', the blessing of Kali ' urukkuchenda ' ,

'Veekkanchenda' and 'Elathalam' are used. There are no separate

singers for '~udivettu'. The 'vaddyakkars''sing and some times

even the actors sing. An analysis of the application of music in

u shows that along with ritual elements, it

intensifies the theatrical quality of the performance.

4.9.0 The changing - - phases . .... of 'Mudiyettu', today.

Pazhoor believes that '-$..' cannot remain only as a

spectacle as all ritual arts are (AI.2.12). It can withstand the

onslaught of time only with the ritualistic elements in it.(~.28).Even

if it is taken out of the temple premises, it can be presented

only with a ritualistic atmosphere. The improvements in

Mudiyettu cannot be done with the erosion of rituals in it.

Today there are three families conducting -MudiyetW'- (1) In

Muvattupuzha (2) Pazhoor and ( 3 ) Koratti. But they cannot depend on

the ritual art-formfortheir livelihood, as it is only seasonal.

Now it is taught in Shektra Kala Peedom, Vaikom under the

Travancore Devaswom Board- Pazhoor suggests that all the groups

which are conducting Mudiyet.' should come together, to

re novate it and project. it to the outside world. (AI-2-11].

4.9.1Theatre lessons from 'Mudiyettut- ~nalysis.

Pazhoor, admitting that he is not familiar with modern

trends of Malayalam Drama opines that, the dramatic elements and

spectacular aspects in u can provide immense knowlege

to the modern theatre-worker. Through an intimate acquaintance

with the ritual art, he can develop a new Theatre-culture. Ritual

arts, in general, provide us with an awareness connected with

the life of man in its totality, his aspiration, fears, wishes

and disappointments. The concept of time and space involved in

the ritual arts can be a model for the theatre-worker of today. The

motif of the costume is based on imaginative visiona Within the

codified acting style (score), the performer enjoys immense

freedom. The modern director has to express the emotional as

well as the inner meaning of the play. For this he can draw

inspiration from the scenic design, action, rhythm, costume etc.

of the ritual arts. How the 'Lokhadharmi' and 'Natyadharmi' be

mixed for the effective theatrical presentation is the powerful

core of the ritual art$#