PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 1

Skill Acquisition

Pack 3

Theories of Learning

Name ______________

Group ______________

Lesson ______________

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 2

Learning & Performance

Learning can be defined as a more or less permanent change in behavior/performance.

Stages of Learning

The psychologists Fitts and Posner classify learning into three distinct stages of learning:

Cognitive This is the beginner level where the performer first understands what needs to

be done and forms a mental image of the motor programme. The performer

sees the subroutines for the first time and needs to think about the sequence

and timing of them. This is learnt through observation/Social Learning.

Associative This is the practice stage where the performer tries to refine the sequence and

timing of the subroutines which need to be performed more consistently. The

performer models their performance upon the correct technique; indeed they

may never leave this lengthy stage.

Autonomous This is when the performer is at an advanced level of learning and can produce

the movement without thinking. They can perform the skills automatically

which allows the performer to concentrate on finer aspects of the skill, or adapt

their motor programme as required. A performer may never reach this stage,

and in fact will not remain in this stage if they stop practicing.

Task 1 – Watch the clip of the tumble turn and decide which stage of learning you are in for this

motor programme. Explain to your partner why you think this.

My stage of learning in a tumble turn:

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Explanation:

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PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 3

Types of Feedback

There are six types of feedback (notice they are opposites) a coach can give a performer.

Task 2 - Using the ‘Matching & Ranking’ cards complete the table below:

Type of Feedback Description

Intrinsic Feedback

Extrinsic Feedback

Positive Feedback

Negative Feedback

Knowledge of Performance

Knowledge of Results

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 4

As a sports coach it is important to give appropriate feedback to performers. This clearly depends on

the performer’s stage of learning:

Task 3 – Looking at the two pictures below, which type of feedback is appropriate for these stages of

learning? Justify your answer.

Extension discussion: What are the advantages and disadvantages of Extrinsic Feedback?

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 5

Homework – Exam Questions

As a tennis player moves from the early ‘stage of learning’ through to the final stage of learning, the type of feedback they use will change. 1) Name the early and the final stages of learning, and describe the characteristics of

each. (3 marks)

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...................................................................................................................................... 2) Describe how the ‘feedback’ that a tennis player uses will change between these

two stages of learning. (3marks)

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PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 6

3) Figure 3 shows rate of two badminton players, during a number of trials, performing a serve into

a target area. Using Figure 3, identify the stage of learning of player B and state two

characteristics of a performer in this stage of learning. [3 marks]

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...................................................................................................................................... 4) Which one of the following statements accurately describes the types of feedback most

appropriate for autonomous stage learners? [1 mark]

A Intrinsic, Positive, Knowledge of Result

B Intrinsic , Negative, Knowledge of Result

C Intrinsic, Negative, Knowledge of Performance

D Extrinsic, Negative, Knowledge of Performance

O

O

O

O

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 7

Learning plateau.

When learning sports skills the level of successful performance changes over time, thus learning can be

represented graphically.

Task 4 – In small groups record the success of a group member performing a novel task 20 times. Plot

the results to show their Learning Curve.

Graph to illustrate ________________ performing juggling.

Describe the shape of the graph:

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Low

Succ

ess

rate

H

igh

Time/Trials

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 8

Compare your learning curve to the one above. It should fit the description below:

Description of the learning curve:

“initial low level of performance”

”followed by a rapid improvement in performance”

“ until the plateau in performance”

Reasons for plateau:

No more improvement in performance takes place because of a number of reasons:

• Targets set too low/lack challenge or too high

• Fatigue/lack of fitness/lack of rest periods/reached physical capability

• Lack of variety of practice methods

• Lack of motivation/interest/boredom/low level of aspiration/confidence/self-belief

• Mastered task

• Limit of coach’s knowledge

Definition of a plateau:

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 9

• Fatigued/ lack of

fitness/ reached

physical capability

• Lost interest/ lack of

motivation

• Mastered task/

target set too low/

lack of challenge

• Targets set too high

• Limit of coach’s

knowledge/ poor

coaching

Ways to overcome

plateau

• Distribute practice/ allow rest

periods/ improve performer’s

fitness

• Offer rewards/ encouragement/

praise

• Vary practices / make more

interesting

• Resetting of goals/ make tasks

more challenging/ more

attainable

• Provide feedback

• Better quality coaching/ get a

new coach

External

reasons

Cognitive

reasons

Physical

reasons

Possible causes of

plateau

Coaches need to be able to help performers overcome the plateau and continue to make progress in

their learning. There are several strategies to overcome plateau:

Strategies to solve plateau:

• Reset goals/make tasks more challenging/break skill down into parts

• Distribute practice/allow rest periods

• Use Mental Rehearsal

• Make performer fitter

• Vary practices/ make more interesting/change role /responsibility

• Offer extrinsic rewards/encouragement/praise/positive reinforcement

• Make competitive

• Discuss the lack of progress/explain the plateau effect

• Better quality coaching/new coach

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 10

Typical exam question

1) Games players may find that their skill performance reaches a plateau. Suggest possible

solutions that a coach could use to minimise a learning plateau. (4 marks)

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Marking principles

___________________ underlined incorrect ↑ key word missing

CognitiveTheory

Insight Learning (Gestalt)

Gestalt theorists came up with the notion of Insight Learning. It is based on the performer having a go at

the whole task to promote the performer’s own understanding of the process required to achieve the

result. For instance understanding the relationship between different factors that may influence the

whole problem rather than learning specific movement patterns. Practices will involve thinking

(cognitive process) which allows the performer’s to develop their own tactics/ strategies/

understanding in a situation. This enables the performer to modify their actions without the need for

specific input from the coach since they are able to apply their own tactics rather than rely on a coach. It

also helps them to identify their own role in a game or activity. Finally a major benefit of this type of

learning is that it is better than always being told what to do by the coach, so the performer learns to

think for themselves to solve future problems. However, the performer/team must have the

skill/experience of thinking for themselves to develop a solution, also Insight Learning is a time

consuming tool for learning.

Creditworthy

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 11

Typical exam question

Explain the term ‘insight learning’ and suggest how this approach could have a positive effect on

learning to long jump. (3 marks)

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Behaviourism

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

Operant conditioning is defined as “the use of reinforcement to ensure actions are repeated.”

Operant conditioning is based on trial and error learning, where behaviour is shaped by receiving

consequences to performer’s responses. Learning is based on strengthening the relationship between

the stimulus and the response/ S-R Bond.

Reinforcement and punishment may be given:

• Positive Reinforcement – when a pleasant consequence is given following a desired response

to increase the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. a player receiving praise for making a good

pass.

• Negative Reinforcement – when an unpleasant consequence is taken away following a desired

response to increase the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. when a coach stops criticising the

player when the player eventually makes the right pass.

• Punishment - when an unpleasant consequence is given following an undesired response to

decrease the likelihood of it being repeated. E.g. a coach makes the performer do press ups for

making the wrong pass.

Task 5 – In pairs explain each of these terms with reference to the basketball lay-up drill you

have just done.

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 12

Task 6 – Play ‘Reinforcement Referee’!

Reinforcement Referee

Consider the example and raise your card

Green card for strengthening the SR bond Red card for weakening the SR bond

A coach could use operant conditioning to shape behaviour. A basketball coach could:

• Manipulate the environment – use cones to highlight the required responses, and then

reinforce as behaviour approaches the response. E.g. circles to indicate footwork for a lay-up

drill in basketball.

• Use conditioned games – enforce rules in mini games to encourage certain behaviour. E.g.

stipulate ‘no dribbling’ rule in 3 on 3 basketball game to reinforce preference for shooting or

passing.

• Make tasks easier- lower the baskets to give success.

Manipulate the Environment

Highlight target areas:

Mark out the correct footwork

for the lay up approach

Play conditioned games:

Enforce a ‘no dribbling’ rule in

a 3 on 3 basketball game

Use operant conditioning

to reinforce the response

Coaches can alter the practice environment so

that performers can produce a desired response

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 13

Task 7 - Complete the ‘missing words’ worksheet below using all the words once only.

--------------------- can be encouraged and desired responses strengthened via positive and negative

reinforcement. Behaviour can also be discouraged and inappropriate responses --------------------- via

punishment.

Positive reinforcement is the presentation of a ------------------------ following a desired response in order to

increase the likelihood of future repetition. An example of this is the performer receiving a -------------- when

he or she reaches the required level in swimming or being praised by the coach for a successful

performance.

---------------- reinforcement should not be confused with punishment, as it is removal of an --------------

stimulus once the correct performance is achieved. For example, a coach ------------------ shouting at the

performer when he or she performs the skill correctly. This increases the -------------------------- that the

desired response will be repeated.

Punishment is used to reduce or ------------------------------------- undesirable behavior. For example, in a game

of football a penalty is given for a foul within the penalty area, or an athlete may be given -----------------

each time he or she makes errors in a training drill.

Badge press-ups stops unpleasant satisfier behavior

eliminate weakened negative likelihood

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 14

Typical exam question

Define the term operant conditioning and explain how a coach can use operant conditioning to develop a performer’s skills. ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................(4 marks)

Social Learning

Observational Learning (Bandura)

This social learning theory relates to Bandura’s ‘four stage’ model:

Attention

• the performer must be attracted to the demonstration in order to copy the behaviour

Retention

• the performer must remember the demonstration /have a mental image

Motor Production

• the performer must be physically capable to copy the demonstration/ have the opportunity to try it

Motivation

• the performer must want to copy the demonstration/receive reinforcement

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 15

A

R

M

M

Attention demonstrations should highlight the key areas of the skill and be attractive to the learner

Retention the performer must remember the information to reproduce it/ create a mental image

Motor production the performer must be physically capable of reproducing the skill and have an opportunity to practice

Motivation the performer must be willing to reproduce the skill drive/rewards can be used

Bandura's model theory of

observational learning

Effective Demonstrations are …

Attractive

Accurate

Visually powerful

Done by a

significant other/

role model

Can be clearly seen

by the performer

Relevant

Memorable

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 16

Typical exam question

Explain the factors that can influence the effectiveness of attention, retention and motor production in

observational learning.

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(4marks)

Constructivism

Constructivism suggests that the athlete works with a coach or MKO to build their learning. It is based

on the concept that interaction with others plays a vital role in learning.

Social Development Theory - Vygotsky

Social learning tends to precede (i.e. come before) Social development. For Vygotsky, the environment

in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about.

During an athlete’s early development, skills are learned from the coach/MKO by a process called inter-

psychological learning, where the athlete is influenced by the external advice and feedback they are

given.

As development continues, learning from within occurs whereby the athlete thinks about and

constructs actions based on what they have learnt. This is known as intra-psychological learning.

Task 8- Use the lego pieces provided to ‘model’ Vygotsky’s theory. Explain the key terms to your

partner.

MKO - More Knowledgeable Other

To be effective the MKO needs to be

experienced and offer the correct

advice.

The MKO exhibits values so these

should be acceptable sporting

behavior.

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 17

Zone of Proximal Development

This model suggests the athlete and their coach co-construct knowledge to develop skills based on what

they need to do next. The range of skill that can be developed with collaboration exceeds what can be

attained alone.

Task 9- Use the lego pieces provided to ‘model’ the Zone of Proximal Development. Explain the

key terms to your partner.

Stage 1

What can I do?

Stage 2

What can I do with help?

Stage 3

What can I yet do?

What next??

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 18

Task 10 - Sketch your model below!

A model to illustrate Constructivism

PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF LEARNING & PERFORMANCE – ASSESSED ON PAPER ONE 19

Typical exam questions

1) Vygotsky suggested that a performer learns skills via a process called Constructivism. Describe

the three stages the performer might use to build their learning using the Zone of Proximal

Development.

(3 marks)

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2) Evaluate how effective Vygotsky’s process of Constructivism might be in helping a performer to

learn skills. (3 marks)

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Homework task - Revise for a topic test on the principles and theories of learning and

performance.