The Ottoman Empire in the Late 18th Century

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century

• Population mostly rural, living in the countryside.• Balkans were the most densely populated & urbanized area in the Empire.

• Problem of centralized control over provinces & maintaining law and order

• Internal conflicts, which in turn led to decreasing agricultural production, which in turn led to famine and epidemics.

Decreasing population

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Theoretically, the Ottoman Empire was an Islamic empire based on

Islamic law, the sharia, but in practice, the Ottomans made a distinction between religion and the state.• The application of sharia was confined largely to question of family

law and ownership.• Public law was based largely on the secular rulings of the Sultan (örf).• Ottoman statesmen tried to guarantee the continuation of the

existing social order. Social change was regarded as a deviation.• The Sultan represented absolute authority, but in the 18th century,

his power was challenged by a number of factors.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyIn which ways was the Ottoman Empire different from a modern state?• Limited central control over the provinces.• Undeveloped bureaucracy.• No concept of citizenship. Communal identities superseded individual

citizenship.• The state dealt with communal leaders, instead of citizens.• No equality before the law (Muslim/non-Muslim, urban/rural, etc.)

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyRuling classes• Askerî: representatives of the Sultan’s political power• Ulema: responsible for the maintenance of the moral order; also

education and justice.• Ulema class formulated and applied law and justice through kadıs at

the lowest level. Above kadıs were müftüs. Müftüs could issue fatwas (non-binding religious verdicts). The highest müftü was the Sheikh-al Islam (Şeyhülislam).

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Ruling classes had some privileges (did not pay taxes), but were subordinate

to the Sultan’s will.• Patrimonial system: The Empire was organized as the Sultan’s personal

household.• Reaya: Subject class: Divided into religion-based communities, the millets.• Cultural and social gap between ruling elites and the mostly illiterate

population• Some mystical orders (Mevlevi, Nakşibendi, Bektaşi orders) cut across social

classes.• Merchants and bankers linked common people to the ruling elite through

their commercial activities.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyEthnic and religious make-up of the Ottoman Empire• Millet system: partially self-governing & autonomous ethno-religious groups.• Each group had a distinct legal and educational system• The millets were represented by their religious leaders in their dealings with the

Ottoman state.• Muslim millet, Rum millet, Armenian millet, Jewish millet.• Also Latin Catholic, Protestant, Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, etc.• The power of religious leaders in the capital over their religious brethren across the

Empire was limited.• Regional and local differences within each millet: Religious communities were not

homogeneous, but had different degrees of autonomy in different parts of the Empire.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Status of Non-Muslims and Heterodox Muslims• Dhimmi: ‘’Peoples of the Book,’’ Jews and Christians were allowed to

live in the Ottoman Empire on the condition that they paid a special tax.• Limited opportunities for non-Muslims.• In practice, Muslims and non-Muslims were not very much segregated.• The official ideology of the Ottoman Empire was based on Sunni Islam.• Heteredox Islamic sects such as Alevis, Shiites, did not have an official

status. Considered as part of the Muslim millet. Often, they faced stronger persecution than non-Muslims.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Capitulations: special rights and privileges that foreigners who resided in

the Ottoman Empire enjoyed.• They were exempt from local prosecution and taxation.• Ambassadors and consuls represented their citizens in the Ottoman

Empire.• Started out as voluntary concessions by the Sultan but in time turned into

treaties imposed by Europeans.• Gradually, Ottoman Christians were granted the status of foreign subjects

through the acquisition of a berat from the Ottoman government.• Increasing foreign influence.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyMilitary Weaknesses• Ottoman military power rested on janissaries and Sipahi cavalry.• Both lost their military value by the 18th century.• Janissaries terrorizing the population and threatening political

stability.• The number of Sipahis dropped due to inflation.• Ottoman military technology lagged behind that of Europe.

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyEconomic Weaknesses• Military failures led to decreasing booty and tributes.• Increasing tax burden on the population.• Trade routes shifted away from the Mediterranean.• Strengthening of the local notables (ayans): decreasing revenues for

the central government• Ayans acted as intermediaries between the Ottoman state and local

population; provided tax and troops when needed.• Eg: Ali Pasha of Yanina

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Economy was based on agriculture.• Most lands were owned by the state.• Some were vakıfs, controlled by the ulema. Revenue was used for the upkeep of

public and religious buildings.• With the degeneration of the tımar system, the number of privately owned çiftliks

rose, especially in the Balkans and Western Anatolia.• İltizam & the strengthening of ayans• Non-agricultural production: guilds• Economic disparity between different parts of the Empire: not a single economic unit• Little international trade• Economic growth vs. fiscal crisis

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th Century• Technologically, militarily, economically behind Europe• Military defeats• Austria and Russia as the main rivals• 1774: Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca

Ottoman Government and Society in the Late 18th CenturyReasons of Ottoman Decline• Rise of provincial notables and the weakening of central control• Shift in international trade routes away from the Mediterranean• Rise of foreign economic influence• Military defeats• Technological and economic advancement of Europe

Selim III and Traditionalist Reforms

• Ascended the throne in 1789, the year of the French Revolution.• After the Russian-Ottoman War of 1787-1792, Selim III initiated a

programme of reforms known as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order).• To increase the power of central government vis-a-vis foreign and

domestic threats.• Did not adhere to European values, but made use of European

techniques only to strenghten traditional Ottoman state apparatus.• Acceptance of European supremacy

The Reforms of Selim III

What was Nizam-ı Cedid?• First, started out as the reorganization of existing military structures.• Then, the establishment of a new army alongside the existing military corps.

(starting with 1794)• Foreign, mostly French military advisers to modernize the army• Reorganization of the Naval Engineering College (Mühendishane-i Berr-i Hümâyun)

and the establishment of a College for Army Engineering (Mühendishane-i Bahr-i Hümâyun) in 1795-1796: Predecessors of İstanbul Technical University• Financial deficiency (The establishment of İrad-ı Cedid; new treasury to fund the

new army)• Bureaucratic reforms failed

The Reforms of Selim III• In international arena, the policy of isolation ended.• First permanent embassies in European capitals (London, Vienna,

Paris, Berlin).• New channels of communication with Europe• French Revolution• Little influence of the French Revolution on Muslims• French Revolution & Christian elites• Strengthening of Greek merchants

The End of Selim III’s Reign

• Opposition from the ranks of the military & ulema• Rising taxes to finance the New Army• The rise of provincial notables: provided tax & troops• Notables’ attitudes to reforms• Selim III was deposed in 1807 upon a jannisary riot (led by Kabakçı Mustafa).• Mustafa IV• Alemdar Mustafa Pasha of Rusçuk: Marched on the capital in 1808• Raised Mahmud II to the throne• Charter of Alliance (Sened-i İttifak): attended by major ayans &

representatives of the central government (1808)

Conclusion

• Tension between traditional / reformist groups• Tension between central government / local notables• Penetration of European ideas, methods, albeit slowly• Acceptance of European supremacy• End of international political isolation & gradual integration into

European diplomacy• Chronic fiscal problems• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NmM8c-N4Ynw

Mahmud II and His Reforms

First Nationalist Movements: Serbia and Greece

• Although Mahmud II was generally succesful in reinstating central authority over provinces in Anatolia and Balkans, some territories were lost forever.

• 1804: Serbian Revolt under the leadership of first Kara George, then Milos Obrenovic.

• Suppressed in 1813, but the revolt started again in 1815.• Autonomous Serbian Principality.

First Nationalist Movements: Serbia and Greece

First Nationalist Movements: Serbia and Greece

• Revolt in Greece started in 1821.• Philiki Hetairia (Society of Friends): founded in Odessa in 1814• Cells throughout the Balkans.• Alexander Ipsilantis: leader of the revolt• Ipsilantis wanted to trigger an all-Balkan revolt and invaded Romania,

but the plan failed.• Local uprising in Aegean islands and Greek mainland• 1824: Morean Peninsula and most islands controlled by Greeks.• Ali Pasha of Yanina

Mehmed Ali of Egypt

• 1798: French invasion of Egypt• Mamluks weakened after the

French invasion of Egypt.• Mehmed Ali of Kavala was a

second commander in the voluntary troops sent from Kavala to fight Napoleon’s forces.• Became governor in 1805.• 1811: Cairo Citadel Massacre

Cairo Citadel Massacre

Mehmed Ali of Egypt

• Economic, military, bureaucratic, educational reforms

• Economic reforms more successful than that of Ottomans.• Encouraged agriculture, esp. cotton production• Efficient taxation

•Both example & rival for Ottomans•Campaigns against Wahabis in Hejaz (1811-1818)

The Last Phase of Greek Independence & Mehmed Ali of

Egypt• 1824: Greeks in control of Morean Peninsula.• Mahmud II turned to Mehmed Ali for help.• Foreign intervention: Russia and Britain• Philhellenism in Britain and Russia• Russian, British and French intervention in 1827.• Navarino harbour: 1827• Russian-Ottoman War of 1828-1829• Treaty of Edirne in 1829: Independent Greece

The Combat of the Giaour and Hasan, Eugène Delacroix

Mehmed Ali of Egypt

• Lost his navy in Navarino in 1827, wanted compensation.• Occupation of Syria in 1832 by Mehmed Ali’s son, İbrahim Pasha.• Egyptian armies defeated Ottomans near Konya in Central Anatolia.• Russian support to Ottomans.• Russian forces stationed on the Bosphorus.• Negotiations between the Ottoman government and Mehmed Ali• Mehmed Ali became the governor of Syria• Military superiority of Mehmed Ali over Ottomans

The Eastern Question

• Greek and Egyptian Crises: Weakness of the Ottoman Empire & Involvement of foreign Powers• Eastern Question: Diplomatic, economic, political problems posed by

the decline of the Ottoman Empire.• How to deal with Balkan nationalism and Ottoman decline without

disturbing the balance of power between European Powers?• Eastern Question and European rivalry over the Ottoman Empire

The Eastern Question

• British commercial interests in the Ottoman Empire: most important economic power after the decline of Napoleonic France• Protected by capitulations in the Ottoman Empire

• Mustafa Reşid Pasha and free trade agreements with the British: Treaty of Balta Limanı in 1838• Opened Ottoman market to British trade• Similar agreements with other European powers• Losers: local artisans, producers who could not compete with European goods

Mahmud II and Military Reforms

• Major aim: strengthening central government and building a modern army• Economic, educational and bureaucratic reforms stemmed from this aim.

• 1826: Establishment of Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye (Victorious Soldiers of Muhammad)

• Janissary revolt & suppression• Abolition of Janissary corps: Vaka-i Hayriye (Auspicious Incident)• Ulema lost its military support with janissaries

Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediyye

Mahmud II and His ReformsBureaucratic reforms

• Regular salaries to bureaucrats• Formal system of education• Introduced a hierarchical system of ranks• Establishment of Ministries and Directories: division of labour and

specified tasks in bureaucracy• Establishment of a number of advisory councils , especially in legal

matters• Dress code for civil servants and soldiers: Fes and Feshane

Mahmud II and His Reforms

Bureaucratic reforms

• Appointment of military and civil officials to provinces from the centre to curb the power of local notables (ayan)• These attempts had very limited influence in Mahmud’s reign• First census to calculate tax revenues: started right before 1828-1829

Russian-Ottoman War

Mahmud II and His Reforms

Educational reforms

• Need for bureacrats and soldiers with knowledge of European languages, science, technology• Western-style schools within military• Army medical school was established in 1827: modern biology, medicine,

physics• Military Academy in 1834• Foreign teachers• Knowledge of French language

Mahmud II and His Reforms

Educational reforms

• Students were sent to Europe.• Establishment of the Translation Office (Tercüme Odası) in 1833:

informal educational institution that trained diplomats

Mahmud II and His Reforms

Economic reforms

• A new treasury was created to finance the new army.• In time, this treasury evolved into the Ministry of Finance.• Unsuccessful attempts at creating financial resources: devaluation

and inflation• Widespread corruption in Mahmud II’s reign

Mahmud II and His Reforms

Obstacles for reforms

• Lack of well-trained personnel• Reforms were top-down, not embraced by the wider public• Clientalism in bureaucracy• Dualism in administration• Economic problems and corruption