APPLIED LINGUISTICSDEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE EDUCATIONPOSTGRADUATE PROGRAMGANESHA UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONTO

APPLIED LINGUISTICSRATIONALEConnection of language to many social practices involving an understanding of languageA dynamic interaction in which theories of language will also be illuminated by insights from practical activities Should guarantee eclecticism and openness, and guard against the separation of theory and practice

DEFINITIONWhenever knowledge about language is used to solve a basic language-related problem, one may say that A[pplied] L[inguistics] is being practised. AL is a technology which makes abstract ideas and research findings accessible and relevant to the real world; it mediates between theory and practice. (Kaplan and Widdowson, 1992)GENERALEDUCATIONALApplied Linguistics is an activity which seeks to iddentify, within the disciplines concerned with language and learning, those insights and procedures of enquiry which are relevant for the formulation of pedagogic principles and their effective actualization in practice. (Widdowson, 1990)

THEORETICAL LINGUISTICSTHE ABSTRACT WORLDTHE REAL WORLDAPPLIED LINGUISTICSSELECTIONPROCESSINGACCESSIBLEAPPLICABLETECHNOLOGYPUBLIC CONCERNS (E.g. Language Teaching)

EVALUATION

APPLIED LINGUISTICS IS PROBLEM-DRIVEN INSTEAD OF THEORY-DRIVENIS CONCERNED WITH DECISION-MAKING RATHER THAN JUST DESCRIBING AND EXPLAININGOFFERS SOLUTIONS TO REAL-WORLD PROBLEMS IN WHICH LANGUAGE IS A CENTRAL ISSUE

THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS (Guy Cook, 2003) (1)Language and EducationFirst Language EducationAdditional Language Education (Second Language, Foreign Language)Clinical Linguistics (Speech & Communication Impairments) (Hereditary, developmental, acquired)Language Testing (L1, L2) (Achievement, Proficiency) (General/Specific Purposes)

THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS (Guy Cook, 2003) (2)Language, Work, and LawWorkplace Communication (How L is used in workplace) (Different Types of Work) (Nature and Power Relations)Language Planning (Making Decisions on Status, Use, etc.)Forensic Linguistics (Linguistic Evidence in Legal Investigations)

THE SCOPE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS (Guy Cook, 2003) (3)Language, Information, and EffectLiterary Stylistics (Linguistic choices and their effects in literature)Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) (Linguistic choices and effects in persuasive uses of language) (indoctrinating, manipulating, counteracting) (marketing, politics)Translation and Interpretation (principles underlying perceived equivalence between SL and TL) (practices, written, spoken)Information Design (arrangement and presentation of written language) (typography, layout, medium, non-linguistic tandem) Lexicography (planning and compiling of dictionaries)

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWEREDWHAT DO WE BELIEVE LANGUAGE IS?HOW DO WE BELIEVE PEOPLE LEARN A LANGUAGE?HOW CAN WE HELP PEOPLE TO LEARN A LANGUAGE?APPLIED LINGUISTICSAPPROACHMETHODSYLLABUSMATERIALS, etc.APPLIED LINGUISTICS & LANGUAGE EDUCATION

LINGUISTICSPSYCHOLOGYSOCIOLOGYANTHROPOLOGYCOMUNICATION THEORYPHYSIOLOGYPHILOSOPHYINTERDISCIPLANARY OVERLAPPINGS IN THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

MACROLINGUISTICSPHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, SEMANTICSMICROLINGUISTICSSOCIOLIN-GUISTICSSOCIOLOGYPSYCHOLIN-GUISTICSPSYCHOLOGYETHNOLIN-GUISTICSATHROPO-LOGYACOUSTIC PHONETICSPHYSICSARTICULA-TORY PHONETICSPHYSIOLOGYPHILO-SOPHYPHILO-SOPHY OF LANGUAGECOMPUTER SCIENCECOMPUTER LINGU-ISTICSETC

FORM & MEANINGSPEECH & WRITINGLANGUAGE AS SYSTEMDESCRIPTIVE & PRESCRIPTIVELANGUAGE AS BEHAVIORBASIC CONCEPTS RELATED TO VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGELANGUAGE TEACHING?

THEORY OF LANGUAGESTRUCTURALFUNCTIONALINTERACTIONALPRAGMATICSPhonology, Morphology, SyntaxAL Method (Fries, 1945)L = vehicle for functional expressionSemantic & sociolinguistic approach (Wilkin, 1976; Hymes, 1972) CLT L = vehicle for interpersonal relations & social transactionDA, interaction analysis, conversation analysis, ethnomethodology

LANGUAGE AS BEHAVIORINTENTIONAL

STRATEGIC

AN ACTIVITY THAT INVOLVES VARIOUS VERBAL ACTIONS

OBVIOUS ONLY WHEN OBSERVED IN ACTUAL CONV./COM.

LANGUAGE TEACHINGAnything done by teachers to facilitate or promote language learning Teacher Competencies Curriculum Learning: a conscious process Syllabus Materials Material Development

The CLT Paradigm Shift 1. Role of Learners2. Learning Process3. Social Nature of Learning4. Diversity among Learners5. Internal Focus6. Holistic Learning7. Clear Purpose of Learning8. Whole-to-part Orientation9. Importance of Meaning10. Lifelong Process

1. Focusing greater attention on the role of learners rather than theexternal stimuli learners are receiving from their environment.

The center of attention shifts from the teacher to the student.

This shift is generally known as the move from teacher-centeredinstruction to learner-centered or learning-centered instruction.

2. Focusing greater attention on the learning process rather than onthe products that learners produce.

This shift is known as a movefrom product-oriented instruction to process-oriented instruction.

3. Focusing greater attention on the social nature of learning ratherthan on students as separate, decontextualized individuals.

4. Focusing greater attention on diversity among learners andviewing these differences not as impediments to learning but asresources to be recognized, catered to and appreciated.

This shift is known as the study of individual differences.

5. In research and theory-building, focusing greater attention on the views of those internal to the classroom rather than solely valuing the views of those who come from outside to study classrooms, investigate and evaluate what goes on there, and engage in theorizing about it.

This shift is associated with such innovations as qualitative research, which highlights the subjective and affective, the participants insider views and the uniqueness of each context.

6. Along with this emphasis on context comes the idea of connecting the school with the world beyond as a means of promoting holistic learning.

7. Helping students to understand the purpose of learning and develop their own purposes.

8. A whole-to-part orientation instead of a part-to-whole approach.

This involves such approaches as beginning with meaningful whole text and then helping students understand the various features that enable texts to function, for example, the choice of words and the texts organizational structure.

9. An emphasis on the importance of meaning rather than drills andother forms of rote learning.

10. A view of learning as a lifelong process rather than somethingdone to prepare for an exam.

1. Learner autonomy2. Social nature of learning3. Curricular integration4. Focus on meaning5. Diversity6. Thinking skills7. Alternative assessment8. Teachers as co-learners.

Important Changes Related to the Paradigm Shift in Second Language Education

To be autonomous, learners need to be able to have some choice as to the what and how of the curriculum and they should feel responsible for their own learning.

Learner autonomy involves learners being aware of their own ways of learning, so as to utilize their strengths and work on their weaknesses.

Intrinsic motivation plays a central role in learner autonomy.

The teacher no longer shoulders the entire burden of running the classroom. A form of democratization takes place with students taking on more rights and responsibilities for their own learning.Learner Autonomy

By collaborating with their peers, learners move away from dependence on the teacher. Self-assessment provides yet another way for second language students to develop their autonomy Learner Autonomy (Contd)

The Social Nature of Learning

Students learn via interacting with their environment, and the key features of that environment are the people with whom they come into contact.

These people include not just those such as teachers who are generally more knowledgeable about course content.

Students can also learn from peers, as well as by teaching those who know less than they do.

Indeed, students learn from and teach others all the time, even when they are not in formal teaching settings.

Curricular Integration

When various subject areas are taught jointly, learners have more opportunities to see the links between subject areas.

By appreciating these links, students develop a stronger grasp of subject matter, a deeper purpose for learning and a greater ability to analyze situations in a holistic manner.

This is the concept of going from whole to part rather than from part to whole. With this comes the understanding of context.

We connect and store information in meaningful chunks. In communicative language teaching, the focus lies in using language, not in language usage. Students focus on the meaning of the language they are using.CLT derives from the view that language is a system for the expression of meaning.Focus on Meaning

Diversity

Different students attach different connotations to the same event or information. Differing backgrounds: ethnic, religious, social class, first language, sex, achievement levels, learning styles, intelligences and learning strategies.

Each learner is different and that effective teaching needs to take these differences into account. It is not a one-size-fits-all learning environment. The concept of multiple intelligences as applied to second language education highlights one form of diversity among students.

Thinking Skills

Among the strategies that learners need toacquire and use are those that involve going beyond the information given and utilizing and building their higher-order thinking skills, also known as critical and creative thinking skills. Assessment instruments require the use of higher-order thinking, with questions that have more than one possible correct answer. Also, projects and other complex tasks are being used for assessment purposes.

Alternative Assessment

New assessment instruments have been developedto complement or replace traditional instruments that use multiple choice, true-false and fill-in-the-blank items and focus on accuracy, grammar, and lower-order thinking These assessment instruments attempt to mirror more closely real-life conditions and involve thinking skills (Drawbacks: time-consuming, costly, andless reliable in terms of consistency of scoring) (eg. Portfolio Assessment).

Teachers as Co-learners

The concept of teachers as co-learners involves teachers learning along with students. As the world is complex and constantly changing, lifelong learning is necessary. Teachers must take part in a never-ending quest and model this process for their students. Teachers learn more about their subject areas as they teach. They also learn more about how to teach. LERNING WITH, FROM, AND FOR THE STUDENTS

TEACHER SHOULD HAVEAREAS OF TEACHER COMPETENCIESTHEORETICALKNOWLEDGE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SUBJECT MATTERATTITUDES THAT FOSTER HUMAN RELATIONSA REPERTOIRE OF TEACHING SKILLS

EFFECTIVE LEARNING Learning EnvironmentStress-freeMeaningfulEmotion-involvingInvolving all senses (left and right brain) Exploring with all relevant intelligences Consolidating the already learned

TEACHER COMPETENCESPROFESSIONALPEDAGOGICALSOCIALPERSONAL

Possessing in-depth mastery of the subject matterAbility to develop a conceptual model or framework of science, technology and/or art relevant to his/her professionAbility to adapt the disciplinary materials to student development and availability of learning timeAbility to design learning activities for students and to guide them through the related tasksPROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE

Understanding learnersAbility to design a learner-centered and goal-oriented teaching and learningAbility to carry out conducive teaching and learning activitiesAbility to assess teaching and learning process and outcomeAbility to guide students in all aspects of developmentPEDAGOGICAL COMPETENCE

Ability to effectively communicate with students, colleagues and students parentsAbility to effectively communicate to and in the communityAbility to develop and maintain effective social relationship with other peopleAbility to effectively cooperate with students, colleagues, students parents, and members of the community (stake holders)

SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Possessing stable and established personalityPossessing wisdom and practicing it in all actionsSubmitting to good ethical values and conducts in all actions to be taken as a good model for studentsPERSONAL COMPETENCE

A LANGUAGE TEACHER NEEDS THREE KINDS OF SKILLSUSERHAVING THE PROFICIENCY REQUIRED TO FULFILL THE TEACHING ROLETEACHERHAVING KNOWLEDGE OF HOW TO USE AND PRESENT LANGUAGE IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE APPROPRIATE METHODOLOGYANALYSTUNDERSTANDING HOW THE LANGUAGE WORKSLANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

CURRICULUMCompetency-Based CurriculumSchool-Based CurriculumSchool AutonomyStudent Centered: potential, development, needs Varied, integrated: core, local, and self development substances; interconnection of theseLearning experience responsive to the development of sciences, technology, and artsReal-life needs: various skills (personal, thinking, social, academic, vocational)Systematic and sustainableLifelong educationBalanced national and local interestThe 2013 Curriculum

MATERIALSHave impact on the students; students curiosity, attention, and interestProvide exposure to and experience in real language useCater for different learning styles and intelligencesGuide students toward autonomy and independence

Gardners Multiple IntelligencesVerbal -LinguisticLogical -MathematicalVisual-SpatialMusical -RhythmicBodily -KinaestheticInterpersonalIntrapersonalNaturalistic

Verbal Linguistic IntelligenceLogical-mathematicalVisual-SpatialMusical-rhythmicBodily-kinaestheticInterpersonalIntrapersonalNaturalisticThe Verbal-linguistic intelligence is supported by other intelligences in EFL learning

THE MUSICAL-RHYTHMIC INTELLIGENCEAbility to perceive and appreciate rhythm, pitch and melody (pauses, tones, contour, etc.).Research: frequent exposures to music improved academic results.Music in SL classroom: 1. helps students to concentrate and connect to their inner self; 2. stimulates creative process; 3. cuts out the black noise (distracting sounds from in or outside the classroom); and 4. (above all) fosters a relaxed but motivating and productive classroom atmosphere.

THE VISUAL-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCEAbility to perceive the elements (form, shape, line, space, color, etc.) necessary to create a mental image (visualization) of something.Meaning is better obtained through visualization and imagery has better impact on affect (interest, appreciation, response, etc.) as affective reactions are non-verbal.Knowledge of the non-linguistic system is accessed through imagery.Visualizing while trying to understand a text is crucial for meaning making.

THE LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCEAbility to reason and to understand the principles underlying logical relation such as in the causal system; also to use numbers.Reasoning strategies can be taught in the classroom through various paths of problem solving activities: finding analogies, separating parts of a problem, evaluating alternative solutions to a problem, synthesizing, generalizing, specializing, anticipating, hypothesizing, etc.Problem solving tasks in SL classroom are especially effective when learners focus on meaning.

THE BODILY-KINAESTHETIC INTELLIGENCEAbility to use the body to express oneself; to handle physical objects dexterously.This ability is to be adequately activated to meet the human need for movement. Human beings live to move in various kinds of actions, including in communicating, in which not only verbal but also non-verbal actions are crucial.The arts of movement are very important for the expression and perception of human meaning.Activities related to group dynamics (role plays, drama, project work, etc.) directly address this intelligence.

THE INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCEAbility to understand other people, to work cooperatively and to communicate effectively; strongly related to learning a second language.Communicative competence in a SL is acquired through a social process.Social constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978): learning is mediated, shaped and influenced by social interaction.Learning happens intermentally (between minds in interaction) first, and later intramentally.Cooperative learning and scaffolding are among the important activities that address this intelligence.

THE INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCEAbility to understand the internal aspects of the self and to practice self-discipline; related to metacognitive awareness (ones personality, feelings, motivation, attitudes, preferences, etc), which affects the use of cognitive process.Self-discipline is based on three meta-cognitive abilities: perception of personal emotions, the ability to control them, and the talent for motivating the self; important for generating intrinsic motivation and responsibility in learning. Learners need time to be alone for self consolidation during which newly acquired knowledge is organized within the already established knowledge; this is also the time for self talk.

THE NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCEAbility to discriminate among numerous species of flora and fauna; related to the enjoyment of the natural world and ecological sensitivity.The urge to be close to nature, the feeling to be part of nature and the relieving effect of nature to the mind indicate some of the ways in which this intelligence works in human beings.The physical design of the classroom, the design of language tasks and the artifacts used to aid learning should conform to the activation of this intelligence.

CLTALMOST FOUR DECADES OFSince Van Ek, 1975 (Threshold Level for English) and Wilkin, 1976 (The Notional Syllabus)SOCIAL SCIENCESHUMANITIESLANGUAGE PEDAGOGY

THE HUMAN SCIENCE VIEW OF LANGUAGEWHAT IS LANGUAGE FOR?WHAT DO PEOPLE DO WITH LANGUAGE?A FUNCTIONAL RATHER THAN A FORMAL ORIENTATIONLANGUAGE IS SEEN AS AN OPEN SYSTEM INTERACTING WITH, CHANGED BY, AND CHANGING ITS ENVIRONMENTTHE MOST NECESSARY AND COMPLEX OF ALL SOCIAL SKILLS

A HUMAN SCIENCE MODEL OF LANGUAGENEEDSSOCIAL SKILLSLINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGECOMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCECOMMUNICATIVE ACTS

SLAKRASHENS HYPOTHESESTHE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESISTHE ACQUISITION/LEARNING HYPOTHESISTHE MONITOR HYPOTHESISTHE INPUT HYPOTHESISTHE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESISRULES OF LANGUAGE ARE ACQUIRED IN A PREDICTABLE ORDERTWO WAYS OF DEVELOPING ADULTS L2 COMPETENCES: ACQUISITION & LEARNINGCONSCIOUS LEARNING CAN ONLY BE USED AS A MONITOR OR AN EDITORLANGUAGE IS AQUIRED BY UNDERSTANDING MESSAGES OR BY RECEIVING COMPREHENSIBLE INPUTA MENTAL BLOCK, CAUSED BY AFFECTIVE FACTORS,THAT PREVENTS INPUT FROM REACHING THE LAD

ACQUISITION VS. LEARNINGIMPLICIT, SUBCONSCIOUSINFORMAL SITUATIONSUSES GRAMMATICAL FEELDEPENDS ON ATTITUDESTABLE ORDER OF ACQUISITIONEXPLICIT, CONSCIOUSFORMAL SITUATIONSUSES GRAMMATICAL RULESDEPENDS ON APTITUDESIMPLE TO COMPLEX ORDER OF LEARNING

PRAGMATICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHINGTARGETED PRAGMATIC FEATUREINTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICSLEARNERS USE AND ACQUISITION OF L2 PRAGMATIC ABILITYACCESS TO TARGET LANGUAGE INPUTPRODUCTIVE L2 USE OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOMINTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATIC RESEARCHLEARNERS PRAGMATIC ABILITY AT A PARTICULAR POINT IN TIME WITHOUT RELATING IT SYSTEMATICALLY TO THEIR LEARNING EXPERIENCE IN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS.

PRAGMATICS & LANGUAGE TEACHINGTHREE QUESTIONSWHAT OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPING L2 PRAGMATIC ABILITY ARE OFFERED IN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS?WHETHER PRAGMATIC ABILITY DEVELOPS IN A CLASSROOM SETTING WITHOUT INSTRUCTION IN PRAGMATICS?WHAT EFFECTS VARIOUS APPROACHES TO INSTRUCTION HAVE ON PRAGMATIC DEVELOPMENT?EXPERIENCE IN L1 (SOME PRAGMATIC KNOWLEDGE IS UNIVERSAL).RESEARCH123

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCEGRAMMATICAL COMPETENCESOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCEDISCOURSE COMPETENCESTRATEGIC COMPETENCETHE KNOWLEDGE OF LINGUISTIC CODE FEATURES: MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PHONOLOGY.THE KNOWLEDGE OF CONTEXTUALLY APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE USE.THE KNOWLEDGE OF ACHIEVING COHERENCE AND COHESION IN SPOKEN OR WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONTHE KNOWLEDGE OF HOW TO USE COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES TO HANDLE BREAKDOWNS IN COMMUNICATION AND MAKE COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE.Canale & Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983.

LANGUAGE PLANNING LEVELS, AGENCIES AND ISSUES

LEVELAGENCYISSUESOUTPUT PoliticalGovernmentWhether, what language and whom to teachReports, etc. on educationLinguistica. Pure Linguist

b. Applied Linguist

c. SociolinguistWhat models of language there areWhich model(s) to choose.

What, when, how much to teach

What groups have what language needsScientific grammars

Pedagogic grammars

Sociolinguistic surveys

Psychologicala. Psychologist

b. PsycholinguistWhat models of learning there are

Which model(s) of learning to choose. How to reflect such models in the syllabusTheories of learning

Surveys of learning styles Pedagogicala. Professional Educationist

b. Classroom TeacherHow to combine or balance all the above

How to teachSyllabuses, programs, textbooks, etc.

Modifications of textbook material

TEACHING PROFESSIONCentrality of TeacherMISSIONDevelopment of Personal DimensionsCompatibility:1. Professionalism 2. Attitudes 3. Academic QualificationAbility to perform tasks, responsibility, creativityAbility to function in any teaching/ learning situationPROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENTEFL TEACHER EDUCATION

Knowles (in Horwitz, 1988):Adult learners must feel freedom from discouragement, the expectation of failure or threats to physical, emotional or intellectual well being.Emotional security of adult learners in language learning situation depends a great deal upon their previous experiences in language learning.Adults, as the result of their life experiences, have developed their own theories about the nature of language learning.ADULT LEARNERS OF L2

When adult learners encounter teaching practices inconsistent with their preconceived notions about language learning, they become uncomfortable and fear a loss of control over their learning. ADULT LEARNERS OF L2 (CONTD)Even the most self-confident individual can find second language communication frustrating and anxiety-provoking.The difficulty in speaking spontaneously in class is probably the most frequently cited concern of anxious foreign language learners.

ANXIETY IN L2 LEARNERSGardner et al. (1976): The more anxious learners are, the less likely they are to do well at speech skills.One possibility, at least wherever methods are used that rely on banishing the learners first language from the classroom , is that language teaching deprives learners of their normal means of communication and so of the ability to behave fully as normal people. Certainly it takes away from their humanness.This sort of deprivation seems apt to breed anxiety about communicating with others and just the sort of anxiety that will get in the way of doing well in class and out of it

TRANSFERLittlewood (1984): It is economical and productive for L2 learners to transfer their previous knowledge of language (including their L1) to the new task. It means that they do not have to discover everything from zero.

WHAT IS SLA?The process by which people learn languages in addition to their native language(s).Language acquisition vs. language learning ( SLA)Naturalistic acquisition vs. formal training

SLA researchers

Seek to better understand language learning without recourse to factors outside learner language.Adopt an interlanguage perspective, exploring learner language as a linguistic system.May study how learner language compares to the target language.Center their research on the question: What are the unique characteristics of learner language?

ERROR ANALYSISBackground: an alternative to CA (e.g. Robert Lado, 1964); CA was unable to predict a great majority of errors made by L2 learners First developed by Corder, 1970sDistinction between errors (systematic) and mistakes (unsystematic)Developing a typology of learner errorsDrawbacks (errors cannot be judged from linguistic data alone; learner reception; learner communicative strategies, etc.)

ERROR ANALYSIS is abandoned due to the following:1. Methodological problems. The error typology is problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making.2. Error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production and not with learner reception.3. Error analysis cannot control for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable.

INTERLANGUAGEInterlanguage scholarship seeks to understand learner language on its own terms, as a natural language with its own consistent set of rules.Interlanguage scholars rejects the view of learner language as merely an imperfect version of the target language.Interlanguage is best viewed as an attitude toward language acquisition, and not a distinct discipline. It can, therefore, be seen as a vibrant microcosm of linguistics.It is possible to apply an interlanguage perspective to learners knowledge of L2 sound systems (interlanguage phonology), and language-use norms found among learners (interlanguage pragmatics).

DESCRIBING LEARNER LANGUAGESLA researchThe interlanguage perspectiveL2 learner as L2 userExploring learner language as a linguistic systemComparing learner language to the target languageUnique characteristics of learner languageThe Role of L1

SLA ResearchPedagogic Relevance?1. What has SLA discovered that is significant to practitioners?2. How can the information made available by SLA be exploited in language pedagogy?How L2 learners acquire a second language

SLA ResearchUsed or not used by practitioners/teachers?Four Perspectives (Ellis, 1997)SLA Researchers PerspectiveEducational PerspectiveInnovationist PerspectiveApplied Linguistics Perspective

SLA RESEARCHDECISION-DRIVEN MODEL?KNOWLEDGE-DRIVEN MODEL?Starting point: some practical issue of direct concern to teachers.Intended to contribute to a specific discipline. Primary goal: to advance the knowledge base of the discipline.

DEVELOPMENT OF SLA RESEARCH1960s. The Beginning: Grammar- translation (language learning as an intellectual process), audiolingual approach (language learning as habit formation), error analysis, case studies of individual learners. The Universal Grammar Hypothesis: Innate knowledge ( LAD), UG-based SLA, investigating whether and how the innate capacity operates in L2 acquisition.SLA comprising strong links with language pedagogy: the role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition ( classroom research), form-focused instruction (e.g. grammar teaching).Goal of SLA: to contribute to technical knowledge? (University-based researchers, theory-oriented studies).

SLA RESEARCH & THEORYPRACTITIONERS1. Familiarizing teachers with technical knowledge obtained from research and making it meaningful to them.2. Encouraging teachers to become researchers in their own right.CARTHREE KINDSTechnicalPracticalCritical

CRITICS TO CAR1. Teachers do not always find it easy to undertake research (e.g., because teachers are not used to observing each other teach, they may find collaboration difficult).2. There are doubtd about the quality of research carried out by teachers (i.e. many teachers will not be able to achieve the standards professional researchers deem necessary).Lack of knowledge in research methods, etc.Validity, reliability, trustworthi-ness, etc.

SLA RESEARCHCONFIRMATORYINTERPRETIVEINTERVENTIONISTCarefully designed experiments ( Sampling, Experimental & Control Groups, variables, control of extraneous variables, etc.)CAUSENON-INTERVENTIONISTDeveloping an understanding of the social rules that underlie a particular activity by examining the meaning that the social actors involved put on it.REASON

INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH ON SLACASE STUDIES (OF LEARNERS, OF TEACHERS, PARTICULAR CLASSROOMS, ETC.)ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES (OF L2 CLASSROOMS TO DESCRIBE THE KINDS OF DISCOURSE IN WHICH LEARNERS ENGAGE AND HOW THESE INFLUENCE THEIR L2 DEVELOPMENT).

INTERPRETIVE RESEARCH ON SLA (CONTD)EMIC PRINCIPLETo understand how a social context works through the perspectives of the participants (the insider view).HOLISTIC PRINCIPLETo understand something in terms of its natural surroundings.VALIDITYValidity is achieved when it passes the test of participant confirmation (member checks). In this case, the beliefs, values , and perceptions of teachers are fully taken into account and given a constitutive place in the research.TRAFFIC OF IDEASTwo way between researcher and teacher.

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCEGRAMMATICAL COMPETENCESOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCEDISCOURSE COMPETENCESTRATEGIC COMPETENCETHE KNOWLEDGE OF LINGUISTIC CODE FEATURES: MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, SEMANTICS, PHONOLOGY.THE KNOWLEDGE OF CONTEXTUALLY APPROPRIATE LANGUAGE USE.THE KNOWLEDGE OF ACHIEVING COHERENCE AND COHESION IN SPOKEN OR WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONTHE KNOWLEDGE OF HOW TO USE COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES TO HANDLE BREAKDOWNS IN COMMUNICATION AND MAKE COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVE.Canale & Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983.

INTERLANGUAGEUnderstanding learner language on its own terms as a natural language with its own consistent set of rulesIt is not merely an imperfect version of TLA microcosm of linguistics (e.g. interlanguage phonology, interlanguage syntax, interlanguage pragmatics, etc.)

LEARNER-EXTERNAL FACTORSHow do learners get information about the target language?THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF INPUTTHE IMPACT OF SOCIAL CONTEXT

SOCIAL EFFECTSAttitudes from the surrounding societyCommunity attitudes toward TLThe attitude of parents The nature of group dynamicsMOTIVATION AND FACILITY WITH LANGUAGE AND WITH EARLY EXPOSURE TO TL

INPUT AND INTAKEDIRECT CONTACTTHE TARGET LANGUAGEINPUTPROCESSABLE DATAINTAKE

THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS (Krashen, 1985)The amount of input learners take in is one of the most important factors affecting their learning provided that it is at a level comprehensible to them.Language input should be at the i+1 level (just beyond what the learner can fully understand).However, it is still largely debatable as to how the input as such turns into intake. Factors other than structural difficulty are seen as crucial as well (e.g. motivation).

THE INTERACTION HYPOTHESIS (Long, 1990)Language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of TL in interaction.Interaction provides negotiation of meaning which contributes greatly to the acquisition of the TL, particularly its vocabulary.Meaning negotiation relates to the generative use of words: the use of words in new contexts which stimulate a deeper understanding of their meaning.

PEDAGOGICAL EFFECTSARE LANGUAGE TEACHING PRACTICES EFFECIENT?STUDIES ON VARIOUS TEACHING METHODOLOGIESSTUDIES ON VARIOUS LEVELS OF LANGUAGE APPLICABLE TO PEDAGOGICAL PRACTICESIS EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION EFFECTIVE?Research: strong effects of explicit instruction on higher-level aspects of language (e.g. sociopragmatic and discourse competence).

Motivation and L2 learning

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

Both integrative and instrumental motivations may lead to success, but lack of either causes problems. Motivation in this sense has great inertia. Short-term motivation towards the day-to-day activities in the classroom and general motivations for classroom learning are also important.

Differences between L1 and L2 acquisition

FeatureL1 acquisition L2 (foreign language) acquisitionOverall success children normally achieve perfect L1 masteryadult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 masteryGeneral failuresuccess guaranteed complete success rareVariationlittle variation in degree of success or route L2 learners vary in overall success and routeGoalstarget language competence L2 learners may be content with less than target language competence or more concerned with fluency than accuracyFossilisation unknown common, plus backsliding (i.e. return to earlier stages of developmentIntuitions children develop clear intuitions about correctness L2 learners are often unable to form clear grammaticality judgmentsInstructionnot neededhelpful or necessaryNegative evidence correction not found and not necessarycorrection generally helpful or necessaryAffective factors not involved play a major role determining success

1. The childs language is a system in its own right rather than being a small fragment of the adult system.2. The learning of a first language has many sides and is not simply a matter of learning syntax and vocabulary.3. The use of the first language goes hand in hand with the childs needs and interests.4. Wherever there is a relationship between cognition and language development, language depends on cognition.5. The childs use and learning of language is partly determined by mental capacity.6. There are particular stages of development through which all children progress, even if the rate of progression varies.7. The child learns to adapt its language use to particular situations.8. Adults adapt their speech in systematic ways when talking to Children.CHILD LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Acquisition Learningimplicit, subconscious explicit, consciousinformal situationsformal situationsuses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rulesdepends on attitudedepends on aptitudestable order of acquisition simple to complex order of learning

Evidence for the Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985)

i) people speak to children acquiring their first language in special waysii) people speak to L2 learners in special waysiii) L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Periodiv) the comparative success of younger and older learners reflects provision of comprehensible inputv)the more comprehensible input the greater the L2 proficiencyvi)lack of comprehensible input delays language acquisitionvii) teaching methods work according to the extent that they use comprehensible inputviii) immersion teaching is successful because it provides comprehensible inputix) bilingual programs succeed to the extent they provide comprehensible input

How do learners gain Competence in the target language? Learner-internal factorsGiven effective input and instruction, with what internal resources do learners process this input to produce a rule-governed interlanguage?The critical period research Although evidence for L2 learning ability declining with age is controversial, a common notion is that children learn L2s easily, whilst older learners rarely achieve fluency. (Lennibergs (1967) Critical Period)The brain loses plasticity after a certain age.

The importance of naturalistic experience in L2, promoting listening and reading practice and stressing involvement in life-like conversations. Listening as central in language learning: listening precedes, and generates a readiness for, speaking. Acquisition of L2 semantic functions vs. syntactic aspects.RESEARCH IN THE CLASSROOM

COGNITIVE APPROACHLanguage transfer

The learner's trying to apply rules and forms of the first language into the second language CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS LADLinguistic universals UG

Cook, V. 2002. Basing teaching on the L2 user. A paper published online.

This paper argues that the starting-point for language teaching should be the recognition that the second language user is a particular kind of person in his/her own right with his/her own knowledge of the first language (L1) and the second language (L2), rather than a monolingual with an added L2. An L2 user is a person who uses another language for any purpose at whatever level. Some L2 users acquired their second language through practical living, others after long study in the classroom; some need it for survival in everyday existence, others for amusement, pleasure or education. In short L2 users are as diverse as the rest of humanity.

The L2 user concept and multi-competenceThe L2 user concept is based on the multi-competence view of second language acquisition; multi-competence means the knowledge of two or more languages in one mind. It treats the mind of the L2 user as a whole rather than as having separate L1 and interlanguage components. It argues that studying second language acquisition means accepting this totality, not just the interlanguage component.The main question for multi-competence research is how the two languages relate in the same mind.

The native speaker concept in second language acquisition and language teaching A crucial relationship that has been changed in the multi-competence perspective is then that between the native speaker and the person acquiring or using a second language. The concept of multi-competence should be differentiated from that of interlanguage which is used to describe the independent language of the L2 learner. The aim was to describe learners in their own right, to look at their grammar, their phonology and their vocabulary as things of their own. But the research methods employed consistently involved measuring the L2 learner against the native speaker; the model against which the learner was measured was how a native speaker performed.

Is the native speaker target in fact attainable? By this definition it is impossible for any L2 learner ever to become a native speaker Using the native speaker target commits one to comparing the two groups of native speakers and L2 users as if one were intrinsically trying to become the other.

The nature of the L2 user 1) the L2 user's knowledge of the second language is typically not identical to that of a native speaker. Given that multi-competence means having two languages present in the same mind, it is hardly surprising that the knowledge of the second language is not like that of a monolingual. The L2 learner has had the first language always present while acquiring the language; the L2 user still has it somewhere in their mind whichever language they happen to be functioning in. The language of L2 users may be a perfectly normal language system of its own type.

2) the L2 user has other uses for language than the monolingual. There are uses of language which involve both languages more or less simultaneously such as translation and code-switching. Some see these as extensions to the monolingual's ability to paraphrase and change style; others see the monolingual uses as limited versions of the full range available to L2 users. Everything the speaker does is informed by the second language, whichever language they are using. The L2 user never gets to function in exactly the same situation as the L1 user; the very presence of an L2 user changes the perceptions of the participants.

3) the L2 user's knowledge of their first language is in some respects not the same as that of a monolingual. The speaker's knowledge of their first language is influenced by the other languages they learn (in syntax, lexicon, stylistic complexity, pragmatics, and phonology). The language processing of people who know another language is no longer the same as monolinguals, even in their first language. The relationship between the two languages in the mind of the L2 user goes in both directions, not just one.

4) L2 users have different minds from monolinguals. The effects of the more complex system of multi-competence extend outside the area of language. Children who have learnt a second language have a sharper view of language if they speak a second language, learn to read more quickly in their first language, and have better 'conceptual development', 'creativity' and 'analogical reasoning'.L2 users have different language abilities and knowledge and different ways of thinking from monolingual native speakers. Rather than encouraging the students to approximate the native speaker as much as possible, teaching should in principle try to make them independent L2 users who can function across two languages, with mental abilities that the monolingual native speaker cannot emulate.

Implications for language teaching1) the language user and the native speakerAn implicit goal of language teaching has often been to get as close to the native speaker as possible, recognizing the native speaker as having the only acceptable form of the language. But this is misleading as native speaker ability is neither achievable nor necessary. A more achievable goal is to make students into successful L2 users. What is required is a proper description of L2 users to form the basis for teaching, and this is the heart of the problem since the goal of teaching varies according to the different needs of L2 use. The description of contact situations of L2 use can be a valuable part of the syllabus.The teaching must be designed and directed toward a specialized goal.

2) external and internal goals of language teaching External goals relate to the students' present or future use of the second language outside the classroom, while internal goals relate to the students mental development as individuals.Getting rid of the native speaker target changes the external goals of language teaching. The students' goal is to be able to use both the L2 and the L1 in the appropriate situations and for the appropriate uses. Language teaching has for so long been dominated by orientation to external goals, while the internal goals are not much taken care of.Internal goals can be to understand and appreciate different countries, to appreciate literature and culture which addresses the importance of fostering understanding and developing sensitivity to people of various cultural backgrounds, to cultivate love for the language and to have a better understanding of the way of life in the country or countries where it is spoken.

The consequence of an L2 user approach for the goals of language teaching means on the one hand basing the target on the external needs of L2 users, on the other focusing on desirable internal changes in the student's mind. GOALS OF TEACHING

3) native speaker teachersStudents are not necessarily as impressed by native speaker teachers as one might suppose. Non-native speaker teachers provide models of proficient L2 users in action in the classroom. Non-native speaker teachers present examples of people who have become successful L2 users. Non-native speaker teachers often have more appropriate training and background. Non-native speaker teachers may have the disadvantage of lesser fluency etc.

4) the first language in the classroomThe first language is always part of the L2 user's multi-competence, and so its role in language teaching must be re-examined.As the L2 user has two languages available in the same mind, teaching should make systematic, deliberate use of the first language, partly by developing methods that incorporate both languages, partly by evaluating when the L1 can be used effectively within the L2 classroom, both as part of a true L2 user situation and to help the students' learning. The use of L1 can be: as a way of conveying L2 meaning, as a short-cut for explaining tasks, tests etc., as a way of explaining grammar, and for practising L2 uses such as code-switching.

Clearly the use of the first language in the classroom should not be taken to an extreme. The teacher has a duty to provide as much input in the second language as possible since the class may be the only time when the students encounter it, particularly when it is actually being used for real classroom and social functions. But it is wrong to try to impose a total ban on the first language in the classroom, partly as this makes teachers feel guilty in not observing it, partly because it ignores the very real ways in which the first language can be used, partly because it does not take account of the classroom as an authentic situation of L2 use, rather than of pseudo-native speaker use.TO USE L1, YES! BUT HOW MUCH?

Authentic AssessmentBased on activities that represent classroom and real-life settings

Multiple forms of assessment, consistent with classroom goals, curricula and instruction

Criterion referenced

Uses of Assessment in L2 SettingScreening and Identification (eligibility, etc.)Placement (appropriateness to certain educational program)Reclassification or exit (to determine if students have gained the competencies)Monitoring student progress (to review student learning in the classroom)Program evaluation (to determine the effects of the instructional programs)Accountability (to guarantee that students attain expected educational goals and standards)

Definition of Authentic AssessmentThe multiple forms of assessment that reflect student learning, achievement, motivation, and attitudes on instructionally-relevant classroom activities.Authentic assessment includes performance assessment, portfolios, and student self-assessment.

Performance AssessmentAny form of assessment in which the student constructs a response orally or in writing.

The student response may be elicited in formal or informal contexts, or may be observed during classroom instructional or non-instructional setting.

It requires students to accomplish a certain task or tasks based on their prior knowledge, recent learning, and relevant skills, which they use to solve realistic/authentic problems.

Examples: oral reports, writing samples, individual and group projects, exhibitions, demonstrations, etc.

Characteristics of Performance AssessmentConstructed Response (expanded response, performance, product)High-order Thinking (constructing response to open-ended questions)Authenticity (meaningful, challenging, and engaging activities that mirror real-world contexts where the student is expected to perform)Integrative (the task calls for integration of language skills as well as integration of knowledge and skills across content areas)

Characteristics of Performance Assessment (Contd)

Process and Product (procedures and strategies for deriving the correct response or for exploring multiple solutions to complex tasks)Depth vs. Breadth (in-depth information about a students skills or mastery as contrasted with the breadth of coverage)Rubric (aid for teacher judgment of student responses, in which the criteria for each performance is precisely defined in terms of what the student actually does to demonstrate skill or proficiency on a certain performance level)

Portfolio AssessmentA systematic collection of student work that is analyzed to show progress over time with regard to instructional objectives.

Portfolio entries cover writing samples, reading logs, drawings, audio/videotapes, photographs, artifacts, and teacher and student comments on progress made by the student.

One of the defining features of portfolio assessment is the involvement of students in selecting samples of their own work to show growth or learning over time.

Student Self AssessmentA key element in authentic assessment and in self-regulated learning; the motivated and strategic efforts of students to accomplish specific purposes.

Promoting direct involvement in learning and the integration of cognitive abilities with motivation and attitude toward learning.

In becoming self-regulated learners, students make choices, select learning activities, and plan how to use their time and resources.

They have the freedom to choose challenging activities, take risks, advance their own learning, and accomplish desired goals.

Student Self Assessment (Contd)Students have control over their learning; they can decide how to use the resources available to them within or outside the classroom.

Students collaborate with other students in exchanging ideas, eliciting assistance when needed, and providing support to their peers.

Students construct meaning, revise their understandings, and share meaning with others.

Students take pride in their efforts and in the new meanings they construct; they see the connection between their efforts and learning success.

Students monitor their own performance and evaluate their progress and accomplishments.

Instruction and AssessmentAssessment is inextricably tied to instruction.

The use of authentic assessment implies changes in instruction; the philosophy of teaching and learning must be geared to student-centered classroom.

Student input and ownership are defining elements in portfolios and in authentic assessment in general.

In learner-centered classrooms, students have input not only into what they learn but also into how they will be assessed.

Some Types of Authentic AssessmentOral InterviewsStory or Text RetellingWriting SamplesProjects/ExhibitionsExperiments/DemonstrationsConstructed-Response ItemsTeacher ObservationsPortfolios

Assessment DescriptionAdvantagesOral InterviewsTeacher asks student questions about personal background, activities, readings, and interestsInformal and relaxed contextConducted over successive days with each studentsRecord observation on an interview guide

Story or Text RetellingStudents retell main ideas or selected details of text experienced through listening or reading Student produces oral reportCan be scored on content or language componentsScored with rubric or rating scaleCan determine reading comprehension, reading strategies, and language developmentWriting SamplesStudents generate narrative, expository, persuasive, or reference paper Student produces written documentCan be scored on content or language componentsScored with rubric or rating scaleCan determine writing processes

Assessment DescriptionAdvantagesProject or ExhibitionsStudents complete project in content area, working individually or in pairsStudents make formal presentation, written report, or bothCan observe oral and written products and thinking skillsScored with rubric or rating scaleExperiments or Demonstrations Students complete experiment or demonstrate use of materialsStudents make oral presentation, written report, or bothCan observe oral and written products and thinking skillsScored with rubric and rating scale

Constructed-Response ItemsStudents respond in writing to open-ended questionsStudent produces written reportUsually scored on substantive information and thinking skillsScored with rubric and rating scale

Assessment DescriptionAdvantagesTeacher ObservationsTeacher observes student attention, response to instructional materials, or interaction with other students Setting is classroom environmentTakes little timeRecord observation with anecdotal notes or reading scale PortfoliosFocused collection of student work to show progress over timeIntegrates information from a number of sourcesGives overall picture performance and leaningStrong student involvement and commitmentCalls for student sell assessment

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