Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
10/10/2012
1
SOAS: ADD
Essay Writing for
Postgraduate University Study
Tony Corballis
Writing essays
• Fundamental to expression
• Fundamental to assessment
• Academic English – like a ‘language’
• Means to an end – universal intelligibility
• Understand the essay genre
10/10/2012
2
Difficulties?
• Differences between essays, reports, media
articles? Structure?
• How formal? How personal? My voice?
• Essay titles make my mind go blank!
• New paragraph?
• So much ‘academic’ vocabulary?
• Avoiding plagiarism?
• Time needed?
Issues?
CHALLENGES POSSIBLE SOUTIONS
10/10/2012
3
Common lecturer complaint:
• It’s too descriptive. It just outlines/waffles.
• It’s not critical enough!
• What’s the student’s view?
• What are they trying to prove – and conclude?
The Iceberg of Culture (Moran 2001)
6
10/10/2012
4
• Everyone has (co-)cultural background.• Traditionally associated with national
boundaries • but (sub)cultures cut across these
• Academic culture too• e.g. Academic papers: many Chinese papers lack an
introduction as it’s assumed the academic audience will know the context and related research. To cite it would be to patronise.
7
Discourse Communities (Swales 1990)Each community has implicit set of rules of behaviour that are ‘appropriate’.
This affects how we manage, or manipulate, disciplinary knowledge.
Influence of discourse communities
• Nature of evidence • What is ‘good’ writing• Theory-practice balance/arrangement• Counter-argument• Problem-solution• Referencing style• Referencing convention
8
10/10/2012
5
Conceptual writing Empirical writing1. Logical consistency (contradictions)
2. Coherence (reasoning -balanced views)
3. Substance (important issues)
4. Contribution to field made (usefulness)
1.Theoretical grounding (existing literature)
2. Design (logical research strategy)
3. Measurement (consistent)
4. Analysis (description & presentation)
5. Discussion & conclusion (consistent with aims, logical claims)
9
Assignment tasks test your ability to:
• understand specific complex information
• analyse, evaluate, and organise different ideas
• understand relevant theories and apply them
• generate ideas, exercise judgement
• take responsibility for own outcomes
• develop your own viewpoint on issues
• argue a viewpoint persuasively/critically
• exhibit ability to problem-solve and research
10/10/2012
6
So, what is writing effectively at PG level?
1. Less description and more analysis and reflection
2. Critical evaluation of the issues being analysed
3. Argumentation instead of description
4. Evidence-based discussions
5. Recommendations for local/national policy guidelines
6. Referencing becomes integral part of writing in support of
argumentation and as proof of breadth of appropriate reading
7. References expected to show an effective combination of sources
8. Textual structure becomes central to support arguments presented
9. Accurate grammar and referencing essential
10. Developing of writer’s voice and stance
11
Today’s outline
1. Analysing questions, researching, argumentation,
essay planning
2. Expressing and controlling ideas: paragraphing
and using sources (and referencing), and staging
introductions and conclusions
3. Academic writing style
10/10/2012
7
The assignment writing process
• Consider process: preparing v writing?
20-80%? 50-50%? 10-90% ?
• For an exam essay? �
• For an assignment essay �
• For a research report �
Plan your essay
Take a position, write a thesis
From brainstorm/research select arguments
Prioritise and order arguments and select counter arguments. Find support
Build the foundations
Brainstorm collaboratively
/ take a preliminary positionResearch: survey skills
Analyse the question: reword, break into sub-questions, say aloud
Identify direction wordsKey terms/conceptsand their relations
10/10/2012
8
Approaching an essay question
• Analysing the essay question’s keywords
• Analysing the essay question’s direction
– Illustrate, summarise, define, state, describe,
outline, compare/contrast
– Criticise, discuss, critically evaluate, assess, justify,
account for, argue, interpret
• Breaking the question into parts
• Re-writing it in your own words
Approaching an essay question
‘Globalisation is nothing new; it is not global,
and it has not produced the benefits for
developing economies that its proponents
have predicted.’ Discuss.
10/10/2012
9
Approaching an essay question
Re-framing it: The question could be rephrased as
• To what extent does economic globalisation have a
history?
• Does economic globalisation affect all economies
equally?
• Have developing economies benefited less developed
economies?
• In theory, were developing economies expected to
benefit more than they have in reality?
Approaching an essay question
• Saying the question aloud a few times
• Thinking about the question
• Brainstorming generally with others
• Mindmapping
10/10/2012
10
Research
Researching for your essay
• Time-management: start early
• Exploit e-catalogues, e-journals, media archives
• Peer reviewed ... Full text (pdf)
• Scanning titles & abstracts for relevance: prioritise
• Copy/save chapters/articles categorised
• Avoid “lightweight” material
– institutional output
– news articles
10/10/2012
11
Effective Reading for Study
survey � ask � read & record � recall � review
SURVEY � ask � read & record � recall � review
Look over (scan) the:
• Title, contents, (sub)headings, sections, blurb
• Intro, conclusions, first/last lines
• Diagrams, inserts, supplements, appendices
• How is it organised?
10/10/2012
12
survey� ASK � read & record � recall � review
Question & predict
• Ask yourself about the content to come
• Raise your interest
• Helps you predict (predicting helps comprehension)
• Try and fit with what you already know
• Try and fit with other sources including both inside and outside university
• Is it useful to me? (select or abandon)
survey� ask � READ & RECORD � recall � review
• Section by section
• Identify main points – extract essence
• Scan topic sentences, link/concluding
sentences, transition paragraphs
• Take notes: brief, selective, clear
• Margin? Paper? Notebook? Preference
10/10/2012
13
Scanning, Skimming, RFD, reading critically:
It’s all about varying speed
• Practise
• Like a muscle: you don’t use it, you lose it
• Eyes swim through: keeping velocity
• Absorb chunks of words in nano-second
• Danger: Tunnel vision
• Short-term memory v paragraph development
• So speed can increase comprehension
survey� ask � read & record� RECALL � review
• Close the text
• By chapter, article, page?
• Test yourself
• Test others (social activity)
10/10/2012
14
survey� ask � read & record� recall � REVIEW
• Four days’ time (optimal) - refresh
• Go through notes
• Skim text (if necessary)
• Make it productive
(speaking/writing/social)
Reading
critically
(subtext)
PARADIGM
-The latest thinking
-Author’s perspective
-Assumptions made?
RHETORIC
-How the text is
crafted by author
-Agendas
-Implicit/explicit
objectives
-Bias
-Intended audience
-Analogy
LOGIC
Well reasoned?
Poorly reasoned?
Evidence sufficient?
Evidence current?
Evidence misused?
Sources credible?
Logic follows?
Over-focused?
Counter-arguments
discredited?
Over-generalised?
Arguing against the
person?
Appeals to anonymous
or false authorities?
Circular or repeated
logic?
Excluding middle
ground?
Emotive/clever appeals?
10/10/2012
15
Researching for your essay
• Be critical of texts
• Discern appropriate sources & quality
• Discern what supports what: the order
• Read ‘critically’
• Begin to craft your ‘argument’ as you read
Pre-reading:
why am I
reading this?
Reading for
understanding
What do I
think?
What is the specific
purpose of the article?
What kind of
evidence is cited?
How do the authors
report the results?
Focus on language
choices & metaphor
Post-reading: What
have I learnt?
Post-reading: have
my views been
altered or been
reinforced?
1. Critical reading of Julian et al. (2011)
Reading the article You may need to skim it several times.
10/10/2012
16
What does critical mean?
CRITICAL
Unpacking reasons or causes, and
effects
• Speculating on what
underpins
• Speculating or observing implications of consequences
Using relevant evidence
• Stick to facts, data, stats
• Less emotive
• Detailed but well ordered, grouping points and signposting argument
• No waffle
Comparing arguments
or approaches
• Weighing up conflicting
evidence
• Forming judgments based on evidence
Question or challenge everything
Recognise assumptions
Independent position
CRITICAL
‘An argument involves putting forward reasons to influence
someone’s belief that what you are proposing is the case’
(Hart, 1998, p.80).
‘…giving reasons for some conclusion: the reasons are put
forward in order to establish, support, justify, prove or
demonstrate the conclusion’ (Fisher 1993, p.140).
10/10/2012
17
Descriptive ���� Critical
More descriptive More critical
Paraphrasing other people’s arguments Identifying other people’s positions,
arguments and conclusions
Stating evidence or support Evaluating the evidence provided
Showing similar or different arguments Paraphrasing other people’s arguments
Saying what has been done in the field Showing gaps in the field and explaining
Retelling what has happened Analysing what has happened, why and
showing alternatives
Listing elements or viewpoints Presenting arguments in an ordered,
structured, clear, and well-reasoned way
Essay planning
• From your research:
Flesh out your basic plan
• Formulate a thesis
• Add sub-headings: counter-arguments, examples
• Talk about your plan, check logic with others
10/10/2012
18
Essay planning
• Show introduction, body, conclusion
• Main parts of the body
– Depend on your essay ‘direction’ and topic
– More descriptive sections earlier: definitions,
descriptions, illustrations, outlines, contrast
– More critical sections could be later: argument,
counter-argument, refuting counter-argument,
critical analysis, evaluation, speculation
Planning: What is an ‘argument’?
Argumentation means:
• Giving reasons for a point of view
• Building up a body of evidence (or data) to support it
• Showing an understanding of others
(which are also supported by evidence)
• Being precise, logical and objective
10/10/2012
19
What is argument? What to avoid!
• Insufficient evidence
• Out of date evidence
• Misused evidence
• Non-credible sources
• Over-focus on single instance
• One sided arguments
• Over-generalising
• Arguing against the person
• Appeals to anonymous
authorities
• Appeals to false authorities
• Circular or repeated logic
• Excluding middle ground
• Emotive language as
argument
Counter-argument
• Essential to critical essay writing
• Take opposite arguments
• Discredit them
10/10/2012
20
Organising them: Block or Chain
• ARG
• ARG
• CA
• Ref
• CA
• Ref
• CA
• Ref
• ARG
• ARG
• CA
• CA
• CA
• REF
• REF
• REF
Essay planning
• Notes may represent paragraphs (not rigid)
• Brief phrases, not sentences
• Relationships: use arrows, diagrams, lines,
numbering, bullet points or indentation
• List sources
10/10/2012
21
Essay planning
Discussion: plans you’ve written before
• When did you last plan an assignment?
• Which of these points did you do well?
• Which could you have improved on?
Writing from your plan
• Plans can and will change!
• Free write first draft: consider reader/aims
• Second draft: rehashing, checking plan
• Third draft: editing for academic style
• Fourth draft: editing for accuracy
• Fifth draft: editing for surface look
10/10/2012
22
Writing the essay
Making it look like an essay
• Check paragraphing is clear
• Descriptive first, evaluative later
• Counter-argument?
• Write a conclusion
• Write an introduction
Paragraphing
Regulation is a theme that has re-entered political discussion, and not without good cause.
The stimulus packages and an array of interventionist approaches have halted what might
have been a deep recession. Stigler reports that “regulation may be actively sought by an
industry or it may be trust upon it” un-solicited (1971). In this case, it is largely the latter. Yet
it seems to be true that government intervention in markets, through price control, taxation,
subsidies and regulation, makes their operation more efficient. Price control, for example,
can be one of important tool. Darlenstein & Boxer (2002, in Hall et al 2007) suggest that
markets can be guided through price mechanism. Governments can set a minimum price, and
not allow price to fall below the equilibrium level. This can protect the producers’ incomes.
In the case of agriculture in the UK, as consumers become richer, the tendency for them to
purchase basic foodstuffs, like bread and potatoes may decline. This may influence farmers
who might suffer very low revenues. The government sets up a minimum price as subsidies
to protect producers’ benefits, making their earnings stable. In other words, revenue stability
can be supported by government intervention (ibid, p.76).
10/10/2012
23
Paragraphing
Regulation is a theme that has re-entered political discussion, and not without good cause.
The stimulus packages and an array of interventionist approaches have halted what might
have been a deep recession. Stigler reports that “regulation may be actively sought by an
industry or it may be trust upon it” un-solicited (1971). In this case, it is largely the latter. Yet
it seems to be true that government intervention in markets, through price control, taxation,
subsidies and regulation, makes their operation more efficient.
Price control, for example, can be one of important tool. Darlenstein & Boxer (2002, in Hall et
al 2007) suggest that markets can be guided through price mechanism. Governments can set
a minimum price, and not allow price to fall below the equilibrium level. This can protect the
producers’ incomes.
In the case of agriculture in the UK, as consumers become richer, the tendency for them to
purchase basic foodstuffs, like bread and potatoes may decline. This may influence farmers
who might suffer very low revenues. The government sets up a minimum price as subsidies
to protect producers’ benefits, making their earnings stable. In other words, revenue stability
can be supported by government intervention (ibid, p.76).
Paragraphing
Paragraph 1: Surviving Cancer
Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few
cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival (Martinez 1995, p.43). In the
1930s, less than one in five cancer victims lived more than five years. In the 1950s,
the ratio was one in four, and in the 1960s, it was one in three. Currently, four of
ten patients who get cancer this year will be living five years from now. The gain
from one in four to four in ten represents about 69,000 lives saved each year
(p.44).
Paragraph 2: Surviving Cancer
Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancer. In the early 1900s, few
cancer patients had any hope of long-term survival, according to Martinez (1995,
pg.43). Yet because of advances in medical technology, progress has been made so
that currently four in ten cancer patients survive. It has been proven that smoking
is a direct cause of lung cancer. The battle has not yet been won. Cures for some
forms of cancer have been discovered. Still, other forms of cancer are still
increasing. Heart disease is also increasing, which is not good news.
10/10/2012
24
Paragraph 1:
Specific to the period, Classical Liberalism appeared in the 19th Century, having built on
ideas developed in the 18th Century by Adam Smith. According to Lynn (2003), it
advocated a particular pattern of government and society and recommended certain
limits and principles in the formation of public policy. Yet, Lynn argues that this has to be
understood in the context of the Industrial Revolution unfolding at the time, as well as
the rapid urbanization (2003, p.34). He believes that the conditions today, in contrast,
cannot demand such a simple framework. The thinking at the time was drawn on the
psychology of individual liberty, ‘utilitarianism’ and ‘natural laws’ along with a belief in
progress, all popularized by Adam Smith and relevant to the circumstances and rapid
change prevalent.
Paragraph 2:
Classical liberalism appeared in the 19th Century, having built on ideas developed in the
18th Century by Adam Smith. According to Lynn (2003), it advocated a particular pattern
of government and society and recommended certain limits and principles in the
formation of public policy. Lynn informs us of the Industrial Revolution at the time, as
well as the rapid urbanization (2003, p.34). The Industrial Revolution was much earlier
than Chinese industrialization. This occurred between the 1960s and 1990s when the
Chinese involved in agriculture fell by 30% (Jones, 2007, p.12). There are other types of
revolution as well. The Cultural Revolution in China was associated with a tremendous
shift in economic activity as well. The interpretation of Marxism by the government at
the time was an interesting one.
Paragraphing
• Don’t mix styles (indent or skip a line)
• One point per paragraph
• New point, new paragraph
• Nothing irrelevant or unnecessary
10/10/2012
25
Developing an idea
• Topic sentence
• Supporting sentences
– Defining, classifying, expanding, giving examples or detail
– Giving reasons or effects
– Contrasting, describing, explaining
– Refuting counter-arguments
• Closing or link sentence
An economic system is defined by Dixon (1981) as the system of
“production, distribution and consumption of goods and
services” (p.12). More abstractly, it is the set of principles and
techniques by which problems of economics are addressed,
such as the problem of scarcity through allocation of finite
productive resources (Castro 1994). It is composed of both
people and institutions, including their relationships to
productive resources, such as through owning and exploiting
property. Examples of contemporary economic systems include
capitalist systems, socialist systems, and mixed economies.
Cuba, for instance, is said to be socialist which refers to its
domination by a political, bureaucratic class, attached to one
single communist party. This party follows Marxist doctrines and
claims to represent the proletariat, though in a non-democratic
fashion. “Economic systems” is therefore the subject in
economics that includes the study of systems such as this.
10/10/2012
26
Specific to the period, Classical Liberalism appeared in
the 19th Century, having built on ideas developed in the
18th Century by Adam Smith. According to Lynn (2003), it
advocated a particular pattern of government and
society and recommended certain limits and principles in
the formation of public policy. Yet, Lynn argues that this
has to be understood in the context of the Industrial
Revolution unfolding at the time, as well as the rapid
urbanization (2003, p.34). He believes that the conditions
today, in contrast, cannot demand such a simple
framework. The thinking at the time was drawn on the
psychology of individual liberty, ‘utilitarianism’ and
‘natural laws’ along with a belief in progress, all
popularized by Adam Smith and relevant to the
circumstances and rapid change prevalent.
Paragraphing
�Long paragraphs annoy lecturers!
Keep to a single idea (developed) in each, e.g.
� Topic – explanation – origin –outcome
� Topic – extension – problem – solution
� Topic – cause – effect – recommendation
� Argument – counter-argument – refuted
� Any one of these ‘moves’ might be a reference!
10/10/2012
27
Critical writing and paragraphs
A simplified but typical feature
Claim (beliefs)Claim (what is commonly believed)
Reasons for supporting or rejecting these (evidence)
The structure of a sample argument
commonly held perspective dismissed
reasons for rejection ( + evidence)
writer introduces own position (+ evidence)
restatement of claim in stronger terms
10/10/2012
28
Counter-argument
• Essential to critical essay writing
• Take opposite arguments
• Discredit them
You need counter-argument!
10/10/2012
29
Counter-argument
‘Mini’ example:
The monarchy certainly has no place in modern Britain as it is
a categorically undemocratic institution, with the Queen
unelected. Despite this fact, it is often argued that the Queen
has no real power. However, according Welsh and Bales
(2004), Britain could go to war without even consulting the
elected parliament (cited in Burns, 2009). Furthermore, while
some would argue that the best democracies may be
constitutional monarchies, the hereditary system is actively
upheld by the monarchy and does not ensure individual
merit; therefore it clearly goes against the democratic
principle.
Counter-argument
‘Mini’ example:
The monarchy certainly has no place in modern Britain as it is
a categorically undemocratic institution, with the Queen
unelected. Despite this fact, it is often argued that the Queen
has no real power. However, according Welsh and Bales
(2004), Britain could go to war without even consulting the
elected parliament (cited in Burns, 2009). Furthermore, while
some would argue that the best democracies may be
constitutional monarchies, the hereditary system is actively
upheld by the monarchy and does not ensure individual
merit; therefore it clearly goes against the democratic
principle.
10/10/2012
30
Language of counter-argument
• It might be argued that …
• It could be argued that …
• It might be suggested that …
• It can be argued that …
• It has been claimed
• Jones (1999) claims that …
Language of counter-argument
• There is, perhaps, some evidence that …
• There is undoubtedly some truth in the idea that..
• Admittedly, there is …
• In spite of the fact that …
• It seems that …
• It appears that …
• It has often been observed that
• It has been suggested that …
10/10/2012
31
Language of counter-argument
• It is clear that …
• It is evident that …
• There is strong evidence to suggest that …
• Smith (1999) puts forward a strong case that ..
Language of counter-argument
• Critics of this view may allege that…
Allege, claim, suggest, hold, assert
=> state, declare, observe, point out, note
10/10/2012
32
Writing introductions
• Orientation to the topic
General background information, show relevance or
importance, define or classify any terms, explore
previous literature, raise a question/problem
• Thesis or purpose
Main argument or proposition the essay aims to prove.
Descriptive essays may just have a purpose (no thesis).
• Outline
Outlines how the essay will move.
• Scope
Possible limits or special focus of the topic.
In today’s globalised world, diversity is no longer a
buzzword; it is a universal feature of business. It
permeates every level of business and is embraced
by companies wishing to draw on the rich
perspectives that can be found in ethnic, age and
gender differences. In order to exploit the
advantages of diversity, equal opportunities
procedures should be applied to internal
promotions, external recruitment and all HRM
matters involving people. This essay will outline the
components of equal opportunities protocols, argue
the importance of implementing them and provide
case studies that have worked and that have not.
10/10/2012
33
In today’s globalised world, diversity is no longer a
buzzword; it is a universal feature of business. It
permeates every level of business and is embraced
by companies wishing to draw on the rich
perspectives that can be found in ethnic, age and
gender differences. In order to exploit the
advantages of diversity, equal opportunities
procedures should be applied to internal
promotions, external recruitment and all HRM
matters involving people. This essay will outline the
components of equal opportunities protocols, argue
the importance of implementing them and provide
case studies that have worked and that have not.
English is currently used as a means of communication
in an increasingly international forum. Moreover,
there are a substantial number of communities where
English is used ‘intranationally’ (Strevens 1980) even
though it is not the mother tongue. These include
communities in South Asia and Africa for instance. In
such cases, new varieties of English develop largely
from the largely institutionalised varieties (Kachru
1983), a phenomenon that does not occur where
English is spoken solely for international purposes.
This essay deals with one of these emergent varieties -
Nigerian English - considering it from both a historical
and linguistic perspective to demonstrate clearly that
it can be considered a standard form of the language.
10/10/2012
34
English is currently used as a means of communication
in an increasingly international forum. Moreover,
there are a substantial number of communities where
English is used ‘intranationally’ (Strevens 1980) even
though it is not the mother tongue. These include
communities in South Asia and Africa for instance. In
such cases, new varieties of English develop largely
from the largely institutionalised varieties (Kachru
1983), a phenomenon that does not occur where
English is spoken solely for international purposes.
This essay deals with one of these emergent varieties -
Nigerian English - considering it from both a historical
and linguistic perspective to demonstrate clearly that
it can be considered a standard form of the language.
Writing conclusions
• Summary
Briefly outlines what the essay covered
• Restating the thesis
Confirms your thesis, main logical conclusion
• Justifying
Final closure: identify any special relevant
focus, implications or recommendations
10/10/2012
35
The risks to the health of national economies and
practical labour market concerns have illustrated
the need to protect and extend intellectual
property rights. Industry scenarios and future
projections clearly demonstrate this. This reflects
deeper ethical issues regarding the safeguarding
and maintaining of incentives for artistic expression
and artists’ rights to revenues. Extending
intellectual property legislation should be
prioritised across all forms of broadcasting. This will
be a particularly exciting area of industry as the
world continues to expand into new media.
The risks to the health of national economies and
practical labour market concerns have illustrated
the need to protect and extend intellectual
property rights. Industry scenarios and future
projections clearly demonstrate this. This reflects
deeper ethical issues regarding the safeguarding
and maintaining of incentives for artistic expression
and artists’ rights to revenues. Extending
intellectual property legislation should be
prioritised across all forms of broadcasting. This
will be a particularly exciting area of industry as the
world continues to expand into new media.
10/10/2012
36
In exams
• Introductions can be much shorter
• Conclusions should still be substantial
Getting the balance:
1. Your own words to express your ideas and research
2. Other people’s words/ideas to support your ideas
(or be discredited)
3. Using ‘metadiscourse’
i.e. the language we use to talk about our writing
10/10/2012
37
Why reference in your work?
• Avoid failing (by plagiarising)
• BUT plagiarism is not the only reason!
• Show you have read widely & can select appropriate material
• Strengthen/support your arguments -essential to analysis and persuasion
• Acknowledge work of others, & gives you authority
• Allows reader to look it up
10/10/2012
38
Direct quotation
In your essay/report you write:
Baker (1992: 192) states: ‘ Languages vary tremendously in the type of conjunctions they prefer to use as well as the frequency with which they use such items.’
OR
‘Languages vary tremendously in the type of conjunctions they prefer to use as well as the frequency with which they use such items’ (Baker 1992: 192).
In your bibliography, you write:
Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation.London: Routledge.
Secondary references: Citing citations
Citations within citations
According to Gater (1999, in Higgs 2003:17)…
Gater (1999) claims that …. (in Higgs 2003:17) …
is that …. (Gater 1999, in Higgs 2003:17) …
10/10/2012
39
Altering quotes
• Use square brackets and three dots
“All [other instances] were dealt with
summarily, that is to say by translators
themselves… In 2003 over 150 translators
complained that there was not…”
ParaphraseIn your essay or report you write:
Baker (1992) suggests that not only do languages show huge variation in the type of conjunctions that they prefer to use, they also show great variation in the frequency with which they use these conjunctions.
Or
Not only do languages show huge variation in the type of conjunctions that they prefer to use, they also show great variation in the frequency with which they use these conjunctions (Baker 1992).
In your bibliography, you write:
Baker, M. (1992) In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation.London: Routledge.
10/10/2012
40
Paraphrasing tips
1. Overall sense of what is being said
2. Explain it to a ‘sympathetic’ listener.
3. Replace some words with synonyms.
4. Vary the grammatical structure.
Reporting verbsBe adventurous with reporting:
state that argue that refer to it as
claim that suggest that pinpoint the issue by
define it as… assert that highlight several…
mention that emphasise that hold that
note that point out that believe
reported explained held the view
overturned assumptions that
challenged the status quo by
was of the xxx school of thought …
10/10/2012
41
Referencing
Use stylistic variety:
– Seminal thinkers, incorporated into sentence:
Smith (2009) advanced the debate by…
– Incidental sources, in brackets:
There are four factors (Smith, 2009)…
Referencing style
Todaro (1989) argues that there are two kinds
of growth.
Todaro (1989) points out that there are two
kinds of growth.
There are two kinds of growth (Todaro 1989).
10/10/2012
42
Referencing style
A study by Matheson has shown that of 42 projects implemented with a participatory approach, 64% have been successful whereas the rate was only 8% with weak or no participation (1997).
Participation is the means and the path for the delivery of the project goals (Cleaver 2001; Cooke & Kothari 2001; UNDP 1998).
Referencing style
The action that occurs here is visibly an intrusion into
someone’s ‘territory of the self’ (Goffman, 1971: 28-
61).
Pawley (1986: 116), in discussing his concept of
‘lexicalisation’, notes that “it is important to separate
those form-meaning pairings that have institutional
status in this culture from those that do not, as well
as to denote particular kinds and degrees of
institutionalisation”.
10/10/2012
43
Longer, block & indented quotations
As Hartman et al. (1997, p.759) have indicated:
Despite its importance for policy, the question of air pollution abatement is a question that has not been comprehensively addressed because the requisite data have not been available. As a result, benefit-cost analyses of abatement options have relied on cost estimates from engineering models.
It has been indicated that:Despite its importance for policy, the question of air pollution abatement is a question that has not been comprehensively addressed because the requisite data have not been available. As a result, benefit-cost analyses of abatement options have relied on cost estimates from engineering models (Hartman et al. 1997, p.759) .
Various researchers across a range of academic disciplines have discerned a rise of supra-territoriality in contemporary history without using that precise word. Already at mid-century, for example, the philosopher Martin Heidegger proclaimed the advent of ‘distancelessness’ and an ‘abolition of every possibility of remoteness’ (1950: 165-6). Forty years later the geographer David Harvey described ‘processes that so revolutionize the objective qualities of space and time that we are forced to alter, sometimes in quite radical ways, how we represent the world to ourselves’ (1989: 240). The sociologist Manuel Castells has distinguished ‘a network society’ in which a new ‘space of flows’ exists alongside the old ‘space of places’ (1989: 348; 1996-7). In the field of International Relations, John Ruggie has written of a ‘nonterritorial region’ in contemporary world affairs (1993:172).
10/10/2012
44
When to cite:
• Ideas distinctive to an author
• Not commonly known or accepted
• Experts referred to
• All quotations (words copied)
• All paraphrases (your own words)
• If in doubt, be safe
Four main parts to a bibliographical entry
• 1 name
• 2 date
• 3 title
• publication details
Coyle, Edward F. (2004) Highs and Lows of Carbohydrate Diets. Sports Science Exchange 93. Vol. 17, 2. pp1-6. Available from http://www.gssiweb.com/reflib/refs/668/sse_93.cfm?pid=38[Accessed on 4th Oct. 2009].
10/10/2012
45
Bibliographies
Burbach, Retal (1997) Globalization and Its Discontents: the Rise of Postmodern Socialisms, London: Pluto
Clark, J. D. (1999) ‘Ethical Globalization: the Dilemmas and Challenges of Internationalizing
Civil Society’. Paper presented at the Third NGO Conference, University of Birmingham, 10-13 January.
DIFD (1997) Eliminating World Poverty: a Challenge for the 21st Century. White Paper on
International Development, London: The Stationery Office
Foster, R.J. (1991) ‘Making National Cultures in the Global Ecumene’, Annual Review of
Anthropology, vol.20, pp. 235-60
Knight-John, M. & Ellepola, C. (2004) ‘The Impact of GATS on Telecoms Competition in Sri Lanka’, WTO Case Studies http://www.wto.org/eng/res_e/casestudies/case39.htm (21 July 2006)
OECD (1995) A Global Marketplace for Consumers, Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Be smart!
Always keep an accurate record of details of each source:
Title (item/publication)
Author
Year
Volume/number if relevant
Website if relevant
Publisher if relevant
Page number if relevant
10/10/2012
46
Academic Writing Style
• Need to be universally understood
• Not ‘better’
• … just an academic ‘lingua franca’… a ‘code’
Academic Writing Style
1. CONCISE (usually!)
2. PRECISE
3. APPEARING NEUTRAL
4. FORMAL
5. SERIOUS
10/10/2012
47
How?
Eight steps
… to be concise, precise, objective, formal & serious
1. Remove redundancy
2. Convert (some) verbs to nouns
3. De-personalise (the passive voice can help)
4. Choose more precise, Latin-derived words
5. Embrace abstract nouns
6. Use caution and distance yourself
7. Emphasise a little
10/10/2012
48
Step 1: Being concise
“There has been less research in education this
year due to the fact that there is a complete lack
of public funding for it.” (24 words)
“A lack of public funding has meant less
educational research this year.” (12 words)
Step 1: Removing Redundancy
– postpone to a later date => postpone
– each individual person =>
– divided into two equal halves =>
– absolutely perfect =>
– an extra added bonus =>
– reverted back to =>
– still in use today =>
10/10/2012
49
Step 2: Verbs � Nouns
1. They will consider the issue at next week’s meeting.
Consideration will be given to the issue at next week’s meeting.
2. They eventually permitted the site to be used for the festival.
3. They will not announce the findings until next week.
4. They will produce the new car in a purpose-built factory.
Step 2: Verbs � Nouns
British Muslims have launched an ‘Islam is
Peace’ campaign. It was accompanied by a
communications effort worth £300,000.
The launch of British Muslims’ ‘Islam is Peace’
Campaign was accompanied by a
communications effort worth £300,000.
10/10/2012
50
Step 2: Verbs � Nouns
Consumer behaviour is evolving rapidly and
competition is fast to act. Managers must develop
emerging strategies in these changing times.
The rapid evolution of consumer behaviour and rate
of competitor response results in a management
need for the development of emergent strategies.
Your turn
If the children are vaccinated, we will save
hundreds of lives. The upshot is also greater
quality of life for everyone.
Vaccination of the children will result in
hundreds of lives saved and greater quality of
life for everyone.
10/10/2012
51
Step 2: Verbs � Nouns
• Many futile attempts have been made to
teach animals to speak how humans speak.
• Many futile attempts have been made to
teach animals to speak in human fashion.
Through the first half of the twentieth
century Labour held firm to the idea
that the land system in Britain needed
reforming. This article will attempt to
present the Labour party’s thinking on
the land question. It will examine the
changing nature of land-related policies
brought forward by Labour during the
inter-war period and indicate the
different, and indeed contradictory,
policy positions adopted by the party. It
presents an outline of Labour’s political
economy of the land question and
shows how, in the inter-war years,
changes in the way the party viewed
agriculture led to the development of
land policies based on control of land
use rather than on nationalization. This,
it will be argued, provides the vital
background to understanding the
decision of the Attlee governments not
to nationalize land.
Through the first half of the twentieth
century Labour held firm to the idea
that the land system in Britain needed
reforming. This article will attempt to
present what the Labour party thought
on the land question. It will examine
how Labour’s policies regarding land
changed between 1918 and 1939 and
indicate the different, and indeed
contradictory, policy positions adopted
by the party. It presents what Labour’s
political economy of the land question
was like and shows how, in the inter-
war years, changes in the way the party
viewed agriculture led to developing
land policies based on controlling the
use of land instead of nationalizing it.
This, it will be argued, provides the vital
background to understanding why the
Attlee governments decided not to
nationalize land.
10/10/2012
52
• It is essential to discuss how much cultural and biological
evolution can be explained by similar principles.
• Many factors must be considered in explaining how fast the
population has grown in the developing countries.
• There are advantages and declines in productivity and both are
related to how much the population density is increasing.
• Menzel (1973) showed that non-speaking chimpanzees can
convey where food is to one another.
• These star charts were provided to enable the deceased to tell
what time it is and what day it is.
• How big this group is varies in different centres.
• On the surface, why women and domestic architecture were
associated were obvious.
Step 3: De-personalising
• Celia can translate the entire work today.
• The entire work can be translated today.
• Have you developed the survey yet?
• Has the survey been developed yet?
• Will Kevin Rudd address aboriginal health?
• Will aboriginal health be addressed?
10/10/2012
53
• Mary Tyler Moore built the house.
• The house was built by Mary Tyler Moore.
• The house was built.
• Muslim philosophers created a unique culture
that has influenced societies in every
continent.
• A unique culture has been created by Muslim
philosophers, influencing societies in every
continent.
• Societies in every continent have been
influenced by the unique culture created by
Muslim philosophers.
10/10/2012
54
Comparing
Clever programmers and design
teams developed this e-learning
template for software application
and business process training
content. We have included
software applications and back
office process training for you.
Our brilliant new multi-media
expert, Bertie, delivers high-end
animations, graphics and
interactions to provide interactive
training. You will be using
complex simulations of
application environments and
business procedures.
This e-learning template has been
developed for software
application and business process
training content. Software
applications and back office
process training are included.
High-end animations, graphics
and interactions are delivered to
provide interactive training.
Complex simulations of
application environments and
business procedures are used.
Your turn
1. No one has ever found a language which displays lexical purity.
2. A few years ago they allowed women to vote.
3. We have begun to appreciate the range of sociolinguistic
factors which must have governed the dynamics of the
language.
4. The depression of 1920 spoke to us of the magnitude of
America’s economic power.
5. Lots of people think that the situation is getting worse.
6. Sometime soon they will find a vaccine for malaria.
7. If we define fascism this way, it obscures and distorts its
distinctive qualities during the inter-war years.
8. You can’t always trust the numbers in the report.
10/10/2012
55
Step 4: Choosing precise terms
What’s wrong with this:
A lot of people think that the weather is
getting worse. I think that they are quite right.
Research tells us that we now get storms etc
all the time.
Origins of English
Anglo-Saxon-derived words and phrasal verbs
- less formal and more familiar, friendly
versus
Latin-derived verbs and words via French
- ‘higher’ and more formal/polite/distancing
- give authority
Why?
10/10/2012
56
Examples
go after pursue
go on continue
build construct
make
fortunately
need
desire
make up with
advantage / benefit
get better
satisfactory
Examples
go after pursue
go on continue
build construct
make create
luckily fortunately
need require
want desire
make up with reconcile
good thing advantage / benefit
get better improve
okay satisfactory
10/10/2012
57
There exist a number of
arguments supporting the
view that it is necessary to
apply ethics to business
practice. Certain arguments
are philosophical and some
more empirical. Combined
they recommend that
business is shortsighted
where it fails to place ethics
as a crucial component of
commercial strategy and
practice.
We’ve got a whole lot of things
we’re pushing for about how
important ethics are in business,
you know what I mean? Some of
these things are pretty weird
abstract stuff and others are
more scientific kind of stuff that
you can prove. Put them
together and we reckon that
business is pretty stupid if it
doesn’t make ethics really
central to everything when it
plans and does things.
Cultures that score high in
uncertainty avoidance have a
preference for regulation, which
their religions, legal systems or
companies dictate, resulting in
more structured circumstances.
In high uncertainty avoidance
countries, employees tend to
remain for more extended
periods of time with their
present employer.
People from cultures that score well
in ‘uncertainty avoidance’ seem to
like rules; maybe they do as they
are told by their religion, or the
police, etc. or the things that the
laws or their bosses say to them. It
means things are much more
structured for them. In places
where there’s this high ‘uncertainty
avoidance’, people stay in their jobs
longer.
10/10/2012
58
The recession is likely to
produce substantial changes in
modern society. In addition,
climate change, and pollutants
in the environment, will do so as
well. The former will gradually
improve while the latter will
deteriorate and eventually lead
to our demise. In the modern
world and with a future so
bleak, a serious question arises
as to the rationale for producing
children.
Yeah, I reckon there’s gonna be
real change with this recession,
innit? ‘N climate change too, with
pollution an all that. I mean when
the first one gets better, the
second one’ll probably just start to
kick in and we’ll be all stuffed,
innit? Feckin hell, what are we
bringing children into this world
for, really?
With globalisation there is a
clear trend for minority
languages to become futile for
their users to develop and
maintain as the majority
languages become a lingua
franca. The world could feasibly
be dominated by a dozen or
fewer languages if the trend
continues, including Mandarin,
Arabic, Spanish, French,
Portuguese, Russian and English.
The result is a tragic extinction in
cultural heritage and a
considerable amount of secrets
lost.
As the world gets smaller, the
mother tongues of people in less
important places get less useful
and everyone starts speaking the
main languages. We’ll all soon be
run by just a few major ones like
Chinese, Arabic and the main
four Euro ones, which is a bit sad
coz when the others die out,
their way of doing things and
what they know is also then lost
forever.
10/10/2012
59
The goal of this paper is to describe the
theoretical underpinnings of the construct
Para-social presence and to develop an
instrument to measure this construct. Para-
social presence refers to the extent to which
a medium facilitates a sense of
understanding, connection, involvement and
interaction among participating social
entities. A case is made for treating a
website as a valid social actor and it is
argued that the relationship between a web
site and her visitors should be characterized
in much the same way one would
characterize an inter-personal relationship.
It is also argued that a website could possess
different degrees of para-social presence
depending on how it is configured and used.
A research framework is also developed that
illustrates the impact of new technologies
(such as personalization systems) and
associated web interface design decisions on
perceived communication characteristics of a
website, para-social presence, and
subsequent user evaluations of the website.
My reason for this article is to tell you about how
para-social presence is put together and what the
basis is for it and the ideas behind it, and I want to
measure how it’s put together. Para-social
presence means how much a medium helps us
understand, connect, get involvement and
interact with other social entities that are taking
part. We reckon websites should be seen as social
actors and the relationship between a website
and the people who visit it should be like a
personal one between real individuals.
We also think that a website should have different
levels of para-social presence because the way
they’re used might be different too. So we are
also doing a study that shows how new
technologies (like personalization systems), and
how the interface is designed, can make people
think or feel about the way the website speaks to
them, what they think of its para-social presence,
and how they rate the site later on.
The delegation of decision-making is
widespread in organisations so it is
essential for most employees to develop
at least some leadership skills.
You can give decisions to other people to
make. This happens a lot in organisations so
almost all people in them need to get some
sort of leadership, a little bit.
There are a number of approaches to
understanding leadership, ranging from
the traditional view that leadership is
inherent, to the more contemporary
view that leadership is more situational
than related to attributes in the leader.
There are all sorts of ways to see leadership,
from old-fashioned way that you have to be
born that way, to the more modern way that
it’s more about the situation you’re in than
what you’ve got inside you.
Observers have argued that employees
are often excessively set in their comfort
zones and if challenged they will resist.
Some think (but I don’t) that people
sometimes get too comfy in their jobs. If I
take on these people and this way of doing
things, they might push back.
Leadership can be seen as a subset of
management because the scope of
management is broader as it is
concerned more with behavioural as
well as non-behavioural matters.
Leadership is a small bit of management coz
management has more to do than that… and
also it’s to do with both stuff people do and
stuff not about what people do.
10/10/2012
60
Step 4: Choosing precise terms
Being articulate:
1. Habits – automatically interconnecting
higher and lower synonyms
2. Habits – automatically associating meaning
Forming ‘networks’ of meaning
3. Resources to help you
4. How? Other ways?
5. http://www.thesaurus.com
6. http://www.lexchecker.org
Step 5: Abstract nouns
Tangible? Useful? Why?
• Approach, procedure, process,
• Shortcoming, problem, issue, challenge
• Development, trend, change
• Distinction, difference, comparison, contrast
• Assumption, premise, basis, foundation, paradigm
• Description, outline, preview, overview, specification
• Recommendation, suggestion, proposal, opportunity
10/10/2012
61
The malnutrition in the rural population will
not be addressed by the local government as
the local government has not articulated that
they acknowledge the malnutrition in the
rural population.
The malnutrition in the rural population will
not be addressed by the local government as
this authority has not articulated that they
acknowledge the problem.
10/10/2012
62
More examples
A question that needs to be asked is whether ...
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that ...
One of the limitations is that it does not explain why...
One criticism of much of the literature on X is that ...
The key problem with this explanation is that ....
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between …
However, there is an inconsistency with this argument.
Smith's argument relies heavily on qualitative analysis of ...
It seems that Jones' understanding of this framework may be
questionable.
One major criticism of Smith's work is that ....
Many writers have challenged Jones' claim on the grounds that ...
Step 6: Use caution
What is wrong with the following?
Men and women are different. Men like money and
power but women like relationships and emotional
concerns. Males take turns in speech whereas
females speak at once. Females touch and care for
people while males only do so by providing for them
with things they can buy. Women focus on the
journey or process but men think only about the
destinations or results.
10/10/2012
63
should
would
may
might
can / could
must
will
have to be
ought to
Can
seems to
tends to
appears that
certain
absolute
possible
definite
impossible
extreme
excessive
intensely
unlikely
uncertain
most
highest
least
always
often
sometimes
usually
frequently
normally
generally
as a rule
on the whole
occasionally
rarely
seldom
hardly ever
never
probably , possibly
perhaps, maybe
absolutely
likely
clearly
roughly
certainly
surely
extremely
totally
completely
definitely
undoubtedly
presumably
conceivably
all / every / each / no / none / any
most / a majority (of) / the (vast) majority
a great proportion of / a large number
many / much
some / a number (of) / several
a minority (of)
a few / a little / few / little
no doubt
certainty
possibility
probability
likelihood
Generally speaking,
In a manner of speaking,
On the whole,
Put simply,
In general terms…
10/10/2012
64
Your turn: identify caution
• There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such
as an eye or a feather contributes to survival and
reproduction; the difficulty is in thinking of a series of
steps by which it could have arisen.
• There is experimental work to show that a week or ten
days may not be long enough and a fortnight to three
weeks is probably the best theoretical period.
• Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates
and showing contrasting combinations of
characteristics, were present in different areas.
Your turn: identify caution
• One possibility is that generalized latent inhibition is likely to
be weaker than that produced by pre-exposure to the CS itself
and thus is more likely to be susceptible to the effect of the
long interval.
• It appears to establish three categories: the first contains
wordings generally agreed to be acceptable, the second
wordings which appear to have been at some time
problematic but are now acceptable, and the third wordings
which remain inadmissible.
10/10/2012
65
Your turn
• Private companies are more efficient than state-owned
businesses.
• Older students perform better at university than
younger ones.
• Exploring space is a waste of valuable resources.
• Global warming will cause the sea level to rise.
• Science students work harder than those studying
humanities.
• Concrete is the best material for building bridges.
• Poor education leads to crime.
Step 7: Distance yourself
Which are more ‘distant’?
• It might be argued that …
• It has been argued that …
• It could be argued that …
• It can be argued that …
10/10/2012
66
Step 7: Distance yourself
Which are more ‘distant’?
• It is clear that …
• It is evident that …
• There is strong evidence to suggest that …
• There is a strong case that ..
• The allegation is that …
• It might be suggested that …
• It might be claimed that ..
• Jones (1999) has claimed that ..
• Critics of this view may allege that…
Step 7: Distance yourself
• Passive voice removes ‘you’!
• Reported speech
• Modal verbs and caution
10/10/2012
67
How distanced?
• There is, perhaps, some evidence that …
• There is undoubtedly some truth in the idea that..
• In spite of the fact that …
• It seems that … / It appears that …
• It has often been observed that
Step 7: Distance yourself
Choosing reporting verbs:
Which are more ‘suspicious’ and have a
distancing effect?
• Allege, claim, suggest, deny, proclaim
• State, declare, observe, note, report, describe
10/10/2012
68
Your turn
Now distance these:
• The neo-conservatives hold the key to peace.
• The Palestine solution is a simple one.
• Cuban central-planning is a flawless economic
model.
• Google’s tactic in China was unnecessarily
provocative.
Step 8: Emphasising
Inversion for emphasis
• Not only has the author presented some valuable
new information, he has also presented it in a very
clear and coherent manner.
• Particularly prominent were functional strategies …
Emphasis
• In no case do the authors provide any statistical
information about their studies.
10/10/2012
69
Step 8: Emphasising
Complete the following expressions:
• Particularly important (+ be+ noun phrase)
• Especially interesting…..
• Much less expected…..
• Rather more significant….
• Especially noteworthy…..
• Of greater concern….
Step 8: Emphasising
Complete the following from your own subject:
• Had the authors…..
• Were this situation…
• Seldom does the World Bank…
• Such was the impact…
• Never has such a theory….
• Should the result be positive…
• Only by interpreting….
• Rarely did Foucault….
10/10/2012
70
Summary
Table of the features of academic and non-
academic style
Your turn:
Which are on the wrong side of the table?
Which points have not been covered today?
LOW HIGH
More personal language and personal pronouns Greater use of the passive voice
Direct instructions (you should, you need to, they
must, do it!)
Greater use of reported speech
Attempts to appear neutral and objective The feeling that writer & reader are participants
The inclusion of personal anecdotes Attempts to appear relevant anywhere
The greater use of phrasal verbs The use of simple verbs (causes, results in, is, leads to)
The use of contractions (can’t, won’t, they’re, I’m) Nominalising verbs/phrases into nouns / noun groups
Wider use of emotive language Avoiding emotive language
The use of sayings and expressions The quoting of ‘experts’
Sentences beginning with linkers (and, but) No sentences beginning with linkers (and, but)
Occasional syntax and grammar errors Syntactically accurate sentences
More precise sounding choice of words More general sounding words
More friendly sounding choice of words Status-raising language (invoking authority)
The use of ‘street’ neologisms (invented words) The use of academic neologisms (invented words) only
The use colloquial language and swear words The use of abstract nouns
10/10/2012
71
Polishing your essay
Check for clarity
Signpost your moves!
• On the one hand / on the other hand …
• The second issue to be considered …
• Nevertheless, …
• Rees-Smith (2008) might claim that …
• Therefore, …
• It becomes clear that … / Clearly …
10/10/2012
72
Polishing your essay
Editing checks (then swap with a friend!)
• Do it – carefully!
• Paragraphing clear? (helps reader)
• Academic (not spoken) style?
• Accurate: grammar (check a friend’s)
• No plagiarism?
• Bibliography?
Issues resolved?
CHALLENGES POSSIBLE SOUTIONS
