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Soc 319: Sociological Approaches to Social Psych
Collective Behavior (cont’d) & AltruismApril 21, 2009
Theories of collective behavior
Contagion Theory –People are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior in a crowd because they are anonymous and feel invulnerable. Emotions spread across persons in the crowd. “Laws of imitation” and “group mind” (LeBon).
Convergence Theory – There is like-mindedness before the group comes together.
Emergent Norm Theory – Patterns of behavior emerge within the crowd. Crowds develop their own definition of the situation and establish norms for behavior that fits the occasion. Pre-existing norms may not be applicable.
Social movements
A social movement refers to a collection of individuals who organize together to achieve or prevent some social or political change.
There is a direct link between social movements and social change.
The success of a movement often is resource- dependent; where resources include money, labor, contact with media, credibility (Resource Mobilization Theory)
Stages in Social Movements
Preliminary stage - people begin to become aware of a threatening problem.
Coalescence stage - people begin to organize and start making the threat known to the public.
Institutionalization stage - organizational structure develops.
Why do some people participate in social movements yet others don’t? Strength of attitude (recall attitude-behavior linkage
literature). Situational constraints (time, access). Risks vs. benefits: High-risk/cost activism raises
barriers to mobilizing participants. Rational decision is not to participate when perceived low success outweighed by potentially great cost (violence, loss of job, etc.).
“Social network” theory proposes that people may get involved because of relationships they have with others who already belong to the movement.
“Mass society” theory proposes that social movements attract socially isolated people.
Underlying Causes of Collective Behavior & Social Movements Strain: imbalance in society, typically between
wants/expectations and reality. Relative deprivation: a gap between one’s actual
conditions and the conditions of some other group/individual.
Grievances and competition: discontent over current allocation of resources. Competitive action: conflict between local groups. Reactive action: conflict between local group and
agents of national political system. Proactive reaction: demands for resources, rights, and
power.
Altruism & Pro-Social Behavior
Act performed with the goal of benefiting another person Intention to help Benefits to others, not to oneself Helper often incurs costs
Motives Egoism (self-interest, self-esteem
enhancement) Belonging (group, community, collective) Altruism (general concern for others)
Normative Expectations
Social responsibility: obligation to respond to those in need.
Reciprocity: help others because they have helped us in past (or will in the future).
Personal norm: feeling of moral obligation to help a specific person in specific situation, based on one’s own values.
Non-involvement (?): Norm that people are emotionally or physically uninvolved with others.
Social Exchange Theory
Individuals desire to maximize outcomes and minimize costs.
Helping can be rewarding in three ways: It increases the probability that someone will
help us in return; It can relieve the personal distress of the
bystander; It can gain us social approval and increased
self-worth.
Was Wesley Autrey behaving rationally??
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e9JcX2X7XnM
Empathy-Altruism Model (Batson, 1981) Altruism occurs when we experience empathy
for the person in need; we are able to experience events and emotions the way that person experiences them.
Helping will occur for purely altruistic reasons, regardless of what one can gain.
Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping
When did people agree to help Carol (who was in auto accident) w/work missed in Intro Psych? (Toi & Batson 1982)
High empathy: Imagine how Carol felt Low Empathy: Be objective, don’t be concerned w/ how Carol felt
Arousal/Cost-Reward Model of Helping Arousal/Cost-Reward Model of Helping (Piliavin & Dovidio)(Piliavin & Dovidio)
Others’ distress creates uncomfortable arousal in us.
We are motivated to reduce this arousal. Helping others may reduce this arousal. Before decision to help (to reduce arousal), we
may consider cost-reward factors: If rewards > costs, may be more likely to help
Increased Increased Chance That Chance That Help Will Be Help Will Be
OfferedOffered
Increased Increased chance that chance that help will be help will be
offeredoffered
Observation of another in clear need of
help
Increased negative
emotional arousal
If cost of helping is
small
If rewards are large
If arousal is strong
Arousal/Cost-Reward Model of HelpingArousal/Cost-Reward Model of Helping
Predicted Responses For Arousal Model (Piliavin & Dovidio)
Costs For Helping
Costs For Not
Helping
Low High
Low Will vary (Depends on
perceived norms for situation)
Leave the situation, ignore,
denial
High Direct intervention
Indirect intervention OR
Redefine Situation
Evolutionary Perspectives
Puzzle: If an organism acts altruistically, it may decrease its own reproductive fitness.
Importance of kin selection: behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection.
Impact of reciprocity, or expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future. Simon (1990): The best learners of societal
norms (esp. altruism) have a competitive advantage.
8080
6060
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High(parents, siblings, children)
High(parents, siblings, children)
Cunningham et al., (1995)
Cunningham et al., (1995)
4040
Degree of RelatednessDegree of Relatedness
Mod. (grand-parents)
Mod. (grand-parents)
Low (first cousins)
Low (first cousins)
None (attractive strangers)
None (attractive strangers)
Would you lend this person your car? Proportion saying “yes” are plotted values.
Why didn’t anyone come to the rescue of Kitty Genovese? [Reprinted with permission from the March 27, 1964 New York
Times. Copyright © 1964 by the New York Times Co.]
37 Who Saw Murder Didn't Call the Police
Apathy at Stabbing of Queens Woman Shocks Inspector
By MARTIN GANSBERG
For more than half an hour thirty-eight respectable, law-abiding citizens in Queens watched a killer stalk and stab a woman in three separate attacks in Kew Gardens. Twice the sound of their voices and the sudden glow of their bedroom lights interrupted him and frightened him off. Each time he returned, sought her out and stabbed her again. Not one person telephoned the police during the assault; one witness called after the woman was dead.
Influences on Prosocial Behavior: Social Context Number of bystanders (Latane & Darley)
Diffusion of responsibility Urban v. rural
urban overload hypothesis (Milgram): persons living in cities keep to themselves to avoid being overloaded by all the stimulation they receive.
Cultural context Collectivist cultures more likely to help in-group
members and less likely to help out-group members than in individualist cultures. (In general, in-group favored)
Darley & Latane: Number of bystanders & helping behavior # in Group: One Two Five
Percent
Helping
85 62 31
Lag Time
(second)
52 93 166
Diffusion of responsibility
A decrease in the individual sense of responsibility for taking action in an emergency because of the presence of other bystanders. The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely each person is to act.
Bystander effect: As number of bystanders increases, likelihood of helping decreases and more time passes before help occurs.
Darley/Latane Model of Helping
Bystander must perceive an emergency. The unaware cannot act.
Bystander must interpret situation as an emergency. Pluralistic ignorance: misinterpretation/inaction by
many may stifle action. Bystander assumes responsibility to act.
Must know what to do, show expertise. Bystander must decide (and know how) to help.
Must assess costs and efficacy of routes. Bystander actually does help.
Does not ensure effectiveness.
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Alone Alone
Percentage Reporting Smoke
Percentage Reporting Smoke
4040
With 2 other real subjects
With 2 other real subjects
With 2 calm confederates With 2 calm confederates
Darley & Latane: Smoked filled room where “subjects” were completing questionnaires.
Influences on Prosocial Behavior: Characteristics of Helper
Positive v. negative mood Negative-state relief hypothesis: people help to
alleviate own sadness and distress (Cialdini) Good mood: interpret events in a sympathetic way;
helping prolongs the good mood; increases self-attention and behavior consistent w/values.
Gender: Men help in chivalrous, heroic ways, and women help in nurturing ways involving long-term commitment (Eagly & Crowley, 1986) ??
Similarity to target Personality : Not one enduring trait that enhances
helping across all contexts (e.g., empathetic, belief in just world, locus of control, social responsibility)
Influences on Prosocial Behavior: Characteristics of Help Recipient “Deservingness”: Responsibility is assigned
to victims in varying degrees. Piliavin et al. “subway” studies Weiner et al. Reason why patient as AIDS
(e.g., sex v. blood transfusion) Attractiveness/likeability Similarity to help-giver
Personal style Political views Race/ethnicity