Social Development. Social development The changing nature of our relationships with others over a life What characterizes our relationships during different

Social Development

Social development

The changing nature of our relationships with others over a life

What characterizes our relationships during different phases?

Theories of social development– Biological– Cultural– Cognitive

Freud (1856-1939)

Psychodynamic theory of personality Human drives (eros and thanatos) Conflict between drives and individuals or

social norms Social development a matter of learning to

channel sexual and aggressive urges into socially acceptable channels

Erikson (1902-1994)

Psychosocial theory of life stages Extension of Freudian psychosexual theory Considered entire life cycle, rather than first

5 years a la Freud Recognized influence of societal, historical,

and cultural factors on personality 8 stages of development, each characterized

by a conflict to be resolved

Erikson (1902-1994)

When the environment makes new demands on people, conflicts arise

Faced with a choice of 2 ways of coping with the conflict (adaptive vs. maladaptive)

Only once crisis resolves does one have the energy to address next stages of development

With resolution comes personality change Failure to resolve means conflict will recur

1. Oral-sensory

Birth to age 1 Conflict: Trust vs. mistrust Important event: Feeding Infant only develops a sense of trust if

caregivers are consistently responsive to basic needs

Must form trusting relationship with parents to form with others

2. Muscular-Anal

18 months to 3 years Conflict: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Toilet training Self confidence and control development Toddler strives for auntonomy Negative parenting or experiences can instill

sense of shame and incompetence

3. Locomotor

3-6 years old Conflict: Initiative vs. guilt Independence

– Eager for responsibility– Sense of guilt may develop if child not allowed to

be responsible and do things on own– E.g., handing tools to dad

4. Latency

Ages 6-12 Conflict: Industry vs. inferiority School As students, have means and need to be

productive and work on own Peer interactions important for development Lack of success in these areas - inferiority

5. Adolescence

12-18 years Conflict: Identity vs. role confusion Peer relationships Teen must formulate identity in areas of

politics, sex roles, occupation, etc.

6. Young adulthood

18-40 years Conflict: Intimacy vs. isolation Romantic relationships Must develop intimate relationships or suffer

sense of isolation

7. Mid-adulthood

40-65 Conflict: Generativity vs. stagnation Parenting Must find some way to satisfy and support

the next generation

8. Maturity

65+ Conflict: Ego identity vs. despair Reflection on, and acceptance of one’s own

life Fully accepting oneself and coming to terms

with mortality Inability to do so = despair

Evolutionary perspectives

Darwin & Natural Selection Mechanisms underlying human behavior are

products of natural selection (evolved because of survival benefit)

Freud and Erikson influenced

John Bowlby (1907-1990)

Attachment – emotional bond between infant and adult caregiver

Promoted by instinctive tendencies in both partners

E.g., infants cries elicit distress in caregiver, smiling and cooing when comforted, reciprocal reinforcement

Cultural perspectives

Biology emphasizes universal similarities, cultural emphasizes flexibility of human nature

Development is a matter of adapting to the social norms and practical conditions of the culture

Cultural look at Erikson

4. Industry – coincides with age when school starts in our society

5. Identity – we start deciding on careers6. Intimacy – coincides with typical age for

marriage• Different cultures may have different norms,

and consequently different conflicts to resolve at different ages/times

Urie Bronfenbrenner

www.people.cornell.edu/pages/ub11/

Bronfenbrenner - Social Ecology Theory

Network of interactions/interdependencies among people, institutions, and clutural constructs (e.g., tools, religion, modes of communication) to which the developing person must adapt psychologically

Child’s ability to learn at school influenced not just by course material, but parents’ attitudes re: education


Microsystem: layer closest to the child; has most influence

relationships/interactions with immediate environment (e.g., family, school, neighborhood)

reciprocal interactions (parents behavior influences child, child’s behavior influences parents)


Mesosystem: layer provides structure between structures of microsystem

connection between teacher and parents, church and community, etc.

Exosystem: larger social system not directly interactive (parents workplace

schedule) but feels pos or neg influence


Macrosystem: outer most layer of child’s environment

Cultural values, customs, laws trickle down effect on all other layers E.g., cultural determinants of who is involved

in raising the child


Chronosystem: dimension of time as it relates to child’s environments

Elements can be external, such as timing of parental death

Internal - physiological changes within child With age, kids react differently to

environmental changes (more proactive)

Cognitive perspectives

Piaget Child as mentally active contributor to own

developments changes in social behavior reflective of

underlying changes in way child understands the world

Cognitive perspectives

Vygotsky concepts such as right/wrong, friend/enemy

exist in social environment and symbolized in words

integrates cognitive and cultural perspectives

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

Based on Piaget Piaget - 2 stages divided at age 10 think about moral dilemmas in different ways Young - rules are fixed and absolute

– consequence based

Older - judgement of motive/intention– onset of formal operations

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

6 stages of moral development stages not a product of maturation, but of

socialization Heinz steals drugs example Focus on reasoning behind judgement

Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 1 - Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment orientation

Similar to Piaget’s first stage “It’s against the law to steal”. Why is it wrong?… Because you get

punished.


Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange Recognize there isn’t one universal “right” or

“wrong” passed down from authorities different people have different viewpoints Heinz may steal drugs if wants wife to live,

but might not if he wants a new wife Consequence doesn’t define right/wrong, but

is viewed as a risk or consideration


Indications of appreciation of fair exchange still see people as individuals and not as co-

members of society

Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 2 - Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships pre-adolescence morality more than simple deals/exchanges people should behave in “good” ways, live up

to expectations of society View Heinz’s behavior as moral, because it is

well intentioned and altruistic Pharmacist viewed as selfish, greedy


Stage 4: Maintaining social order stage 3 most applicable to 2 party dilemmas

involving close acquaintances now person becomes concerned with society

as a whole emphasis on obeying laws, respecting

authority, pulling societal weight euthanasia verdict


Stage 4: take the perspective of society as a whole, view self as part of collective

Kohlberg’s 6 Stages: Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality

Stage 5: Social contract & individual rights people want to keep society functioning functional society not always fair Recognize differences in values but think all

rational people agree on 2 things:1 Everyone entitled to basic rights2 desire democratic process for change


Heinz has a duty to save wife that supercedes law

Right to life: at stage 4, based on religious doctrine or some authoritative principle that legitimizes opinion

Stage 5 - based on what one thinks society ought to value

working towards conception of “good” society


Stage 6: democratic process, while desirable, does not invariably result in moral decision making or change

somebody gets short end of stick Federal budget stage 6 aspires towards justice


Justice: – treat all claims from all parties with impartiality– respect basic dignity of all individuals– principles of justice apply to all (Universal)– wouldn’t vote for a law that benefits some, but

hurts others– justice for all– Kohlberg’s “theoretical stage”

Summary of Kohlberg

Stage 1: kids think that what authority says is right, is right

Obey rules, avoid punishment Stage 2: No longer see single authority; can

entertain differing view points useful to make social exchanges for own

benefit

Summary of Kohlberg

Stages 3 & 4: start thinking as members of society bound by values, norms, expectations

Stage 3 - emphasize being a good person– Having helpful motives towards those you care

about

Stage 4 - shift focus to obeying laws to maintain society as a whole

Summary of Kohlberg

Stages 5 & 6: Less concerned about maintaining society for it’s own sake, more concerned with “what makes a good society”?

Stage 5- basic rights and democratic process allowing all voices to be heard

Stage 6 - justice

Summary thus far...

3 Categories of social development1 Biological - universal drives, instincts, stages

common of human nature2 Cultural - development viewed as adaptation

to norms/values of culture3 Cognitive - relationship between intellectual

dev. and social development

Summary thus far...

As kids acquire greater understanding, the behave towards others in more advanced ways

Social Development

Continued…

Review…

3 categories of social development– Biological theories (universal drives, instincts)– Cultural theories (adaptation to cultural norms)– Cognitive theories (social dev is a product of

intellectual development)

– Erikson & Bowlby, Bronfenbrenner, Kohlberg

Attachment and Bonding

Infants develop an emotional bond with those with whom most dependent

Subsequently use bonded caregiver as a “home base” from which to explore environment

Bowlby– 1950’s– Attachment theory

Attachment and Bonding

“…an affectionate tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specific one – a tie that binds them together in space and time.” (Ainsworth)

Bowlby’s Attachment

Found that securely attached kids – Show distress when object of attachment leaves,

especially in unfamiliar environment– Show pleasure when reunited with mom– Show distress when approached by stranger,

unless mom reassures/comforts kid– More likely to explore unfamiliar environment if

mom present, than if mom is absent– Social referencing

Harlow’s Monkey’s

Harry Harlow, 1959 Monkeys raised in cages with two surrogate

moms (bare wire vs. cloth) ½ fed from wire mom, ½ fed from cloth mom Would monkeys attach to surrogate in lieu of

mom? Which would be more effective in facilitating

attachment – feeding or tactile?

Harlow’s Monkey’s

All monkeys treated cloth surrogate as mother (regardless of feeding)

Clung to it for extended periods daily Sought protection when threatened Braver exploring when present Press lever repeatedly to be able to see

it/her

Strange Situations Test

Ainsworth Infant and mother placed in unfamiliar room

with toys Infant remains in room while mom and

stranger move in and out 3 attachment styles

Ainsworth’s Typology

Securely Attached– Explore room/toys confidently with mom present– Gets upset and explores less when mom gone

(with and without stranger)– Demonstrates preference for mom over stranger– Express pleasure when mom returns

Ainsworth’s Typology

Avoidant attachment: Avoid mom and give her cold shoulder

Anxious Resistant Attachment: No avoidance but persistent but difficult to comfort when distressed

70% Secure 20 % Avoidant 10 % Anxious Resistant

Reciprocal Parent-Child Influence

Temperament influences parental behaviour/interactions

Van den Boom (1994) – mothers of irritable babies tend to withdraw emotionally

When parents of irritable children are coached/instructed/supported in efforts to parent/interact effectively, outcomes are good

Attachment

Through early developmental interactions with primary caregivers, children develop internal working model of self, others, and their sense of self in relation to others

Model influences individual throughout development

Secure = more confident, better problem solving, emotional health, sociable

Attachment Disorders

Inhibited RAD: failure to initiate/respond to social interactions in developmentally appropriate manner

Non-attachment disorder Result of being deprived of opportunity to

attach, or by removal of primary object without adequate replacement

Attachment Disorders

Disinhibited RAD: diffuse attachments Indiscriminate sociability Lack of apprehension for strangers High turnover of caregivers/incomplete

attachment with any one figure One disrupted attachment that impacts

willingness to do so again

Socialization

Caregivers serve as source of comfort & security

Also vehicles for learning/practicing cultural rules/norms/values

most early social interactions are with caregivers

Helping & Giving Behaviors

Instinctual cross cultural by end of first year, spontaneous giving threshold nurtured and celebrated in some

cultures helping with adult tasks (18-30 months) Transition from self- to other-oriented

Empathy

Capacity to sense and feel emotions others feel

By age 2, clearly exhibit concern for distressed others and respond with efforts to comfort

Securely attached: more giving, helpful

Restraint

Balance between exploring and appropriate fear

Conflict between wants and social/environmental limitations

Social referencing - looking to caregiver for indications of whether to proceed or not

Restraint

7-15 mos: avoids approaching if caregiver’s expression suggests fear, disgust, anger

Increasingly verbal in 2nd year 2 1/2 - 3 years: reference absent caregiver

by recalling words (Vygotsky’s private speech)

Attempts to negotiate (ambiguous cues vs. desirable object)

Guilt

Not inherently negative Can facilitate self control Crucial to social development and interaction Empathy-based vs. Anxiety-based Guilt deters aggression, moderates

selfishness, promotes helping

Parenting Style

Authoritarian: obedience valued for it’s own sake; high degree of power assertion

Authoritative: Concerned that kids learn basic principles of right and wrong; value inductive discipline over power assertion

Permissive: Most tolerant and least likely to discipline; interventions motivated by parental frustration

Play

Universal forms of play Rough-and-tumble: play fighting/chasing Constructive: building/making things Sociodramatic: imaginary roles Formal games: sports, games with

established rules, competitive

Play

Teaches kids to get along with each other, and allows practice of survival skills

Predators practice hunting, prey practice escaping, etc.

Play nurturing Play fighting Culture specific play activities

Mixed Age Play

School vs. neighborhood Qualitative differences of mixed age play

– less competitive– gentler• Exposure to new skills and info• Opportunity to consoliidate knowledge through

teaching• Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

Gender Differences

Biology vs socialization sex vs. gender Newborn males more irritable & less

responsive than females 6 mos: boys more fidgetty and more likely to

exhibit facial expression of anger 13-15 mos: girls more compliant (static

through adolescence)

Gender Differences

Caregiver behavior– Gentler and more verbal with girls– Discrepancy between treatment of males and

females dependent on degree of differentiation between male/female roles in culture

Gender Differences - Peers

Have begun to internalize cultural gender expectations

recognize own gender and stability thereof Attend most closely to people of own gender

and model behavior Exaggerate male/female differences Evolutionary value


Play primarily with own gender Most aversion to opposite sex between 8-11 Stronger avoidance in girls until later

childhood Boys avoidance of girls supported by social

sanctions imposed by both males and females


Girls more likely to influence peer behavior via polite suggestions

Boys more likely to use direct commands Boys unresponsive to polite suggestions,

therefore resistant to female influence

Gender Differences - Boys

Large, hierarchically organized groups efforts to prove superiority and dominance

via competition and social coercion King of the hill

Gender Differences - Girls

Smaller, intimate groups Cooperative play Competition more subtle Jumping rope

Adolescence

Puberty until individual viewed by self and others as member of adult society

Transition characterized by rebellion and risk taking

Female onset = 10.5 Male onset = 12.5 Earlier onset than non-industrialized cultures

Adolescence

Erikson - adolescence = identity crisis Who am I? How do I fit in? Rebellion vs. rejection Rebellion linked more to physical maturation

than age

Peer Influences

Emphasis shifts from parental influences and models to peers

Content of peer interactions change from play activities to thoughts/feelings

Delinquency training

Peer Influences

Restructuring of established gender barriers Dunphy (1963) Cliques: close knit group

– 3-9 members– same sex– best friends– substantial time together on daily basis

Peer Influences

Crowd: larger group composed of several cliques– Selected contacts (parties, planned activities)– cross gender– provides safe environment for interacting with

opposite sex– opposite sex peers in social network tends to

increase with age

Delinquency & Risk Taking

Myth of Invulnerability Sensation seeking Moffit

– Delinquency = pathological side effect of conflict between early puberty and delayed acceptance into adult world

– Sex, crime, alcohol as adult activities

Delinquency & Risk Taking

Judith Harris:– juveniles engage in delinquency to set selves

apart from adult society– dress, act differently– goal is acceptance of own peers rather than

adults

Evolutionary perspective

Young Male Syndrome: reproductive value of risk taking

goal of achieving higher status, thereby increasing attractiveness to females

Females also engage in peak levels of risk taking and delinquency during adolescence

Fighting related to gossip/insults re: sexual behavior that decreases reproductive options

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Social Development. Social development The changing nature of our relationships with others over a life What characterizes our relationships during different