Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Chapter 17Chapter 17

Social Psychology- do others Social Psychology- do others have an influence on our have an influence on our feelings, thoughts and feelings, thoughts and

behaviors?behaviors? Area of psychology that attempts to Area of psychology that attempts to explain how the actual, imagined, or explain how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others influences implied presence of others influences that thoughts, feelings, and that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of othersbehaviors of others

Why are first impressions so Why are first impressions so important?important?

You are a manager in a fast food You are a manager in a fast food restaurant who is waiting for a restaurant who is waiting for a prospective employee to come in for an prospective employee to come in for an interview. The scheduled time for the interview. The scheduled time for the interview has passed. The prospect interview has passed. The prospect has not called. He is 10 minutes late. has not called. He is 10 minutes late.

What are you thinking?What are you thinking?

The applicant arrives after another 10 minutes The applicant arrives after another 10 minutes have passed. He explains that he has have passed. He explains that he has overslept and had to change a flat tire before overslept and had to change a flat tire before coming to the interview. His hair is uncombed, coming to the interview. His hair is uncombed, and he looks like he hasn’t shaved in a couple and he looks like he hasn’t shaved in a couple of days. His T-shirt has stains on it, pants are of days. His T-shirt has stains on it, pants are greasy, nails have dirt under them, and he is greasy, nails have dirt under them, and he is wearing flip flops. Ten minutes into the wearing flip flops. Ten minutes into the interview, he lights a cigarette.interview, he lights a cigarette.

Do you hire him?Do you hire him?

As a manager, do you have any As a manager, do you have any evidence of how this applicant will evidence of how this applicant will perform on the job?perform on the job?

Again, why are first Again, why are first impressions so important?impressions so important?

We are all subject to the We are all subject to the primary primary effecteffect, the tendency to attend to , the tendency to attend to initial initial informationinformation more than information that more than information that is presented lateris presented later

Simple acts have a real impact on first Simple acts have a real impact on first impressions (a smile, a hand shake)impressions (a smile, a hand shake)

Once a first impression is formed, the Once a first impression is formed, the impression acts as a framework through impression acts as a framework through which later information is interpretedwhich later information is interpreted

How are opinions about behavior How are opinions about behavior formed? 2 types of Attributionsformed? 2 types of Attributions

DefinitionDefinition: An : An attributionattribution is an is an inference about the cause of our own or inference about the cause of our own or someone else’s behaviorsomeone else’s behavior

Situational attributionsSituational attributions: people : people attribute the cause of a behavior to attribute the cause of a behavior to some factor in the environmentsome factor in the environment Example: the prospective employee had Example: the prospective employee had

dirty jeans on, was late, and dirty nails dirty jeans on, was late, and dirty nails because he was changing a tirebecause he was changing a tire

Dispositional attributionsDispositional attributions: people : people attribute the behavior to something attribute the behavior to something internal- some personal trait, motive, internal- some personal trait, motive, or attitudeor attitude Example: the prospective employee Example: the prospective employee

wore dirty jeans, had dirty nails and was wore dirty jeans, had dirty nails and was late because that is the way this person late because that is the way this person is- lazy, not responsible and sloppy.is- lazy, not responsible and sloppy.

Actor-Observer EffectActor-Observer Effect

People tend to attribute People tend to attribute their own their own behaviorbehavior usually to usually to situational factorssituational factors and the and the behavior of othersbehavior of others usually to usually to internal or internal or dispositional or internal dispositional or internal factorsfactors

““I can’t help what happened…it was I can’t help what happened…it was outside of my control.”outside of my control.”

““What’s wrong with that person? What’s wrong with that person? Why doesn’t he stop that behavior?”Why doesn’t he stop that behavior?”

AttractionAttraction

What makes you like, or even fall in What makes you like, or even fall in love with one person and ignore or love with one person and ignore or react negatively to another?react negatively to another?

Proximity and Attraction: a Proximity and Attraction: a sure way to “hook up”sure way to “hook up”

It is easier to develop relationships with It is easier to develop relationships with people who are close at handpeople who are close at hand

Proximity increases the likelihood that Proximity increases the likelihood that there will be repeated contacts, and mere there will be repeated contacts, and mere exposure tends to increase attraction exposure tends to increase attraction (the (the mere-exposure effect)mere-exposure effect)

Ex.: Internet relationships: may live Ex.: Internet relationships: may live thousands of miles apart but experience thousands of miles apart but experience electronic proximity via WWWelectronic proximity via WWW

Brother married his lab partnerBrother married his lab partner

Physical Attractiveness and Physical Attractiveness and Attraction: do looks count?Attraction: do looks count?

Major factor in choice of romantic partnersMajor factor in choice of romantic partners People attribute positive qualities to those People attribute positive qualities to those

who are physically attractive who are physically attractive (halo effect)(halo effect) Attractiveness is a generally universal Attractiveness is a generally universal

principleprinciple Details of appearance (meanings of facial Details of appearance (meanings of facial

expression) vary across culturesexpression) vary across cultures Teacher bias, (preferential behavior) shown Teacher bias, (preferential behavior) shown

towards children who are attractivetowards children who are attractive

Other hypothesis concerning Other hypothesis concerning attractionattraction

People are often attracted to individuals People are often attracted to individuals who are similar to themselveswho are similar to themselves

Others argue that they choose mates Others argue that they choose mates whose characteristics complement their whose characteristics complement their own (opposites attract)own (opposites attract)

Evolutionary psychologists argue that Evolutionary psychologists argue that men and women are attracted to one men and women are attracted to one another on the basis of what each can another on the basis of what each can contribute to the creation and support to contribute to the creation and support to the familythe family

Conformity, Obedience, and Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance: are you an Compliance: are you an

individual?individual? ConformityConformity is changing or adopting a behavior or is changing or adopting a behavior or

attitude in order to be consistent with the social attitude in order to be consistent with the social norms of a group of the expectations of other people.norms of a group of the expectations of other people.

Ex.: we conform to other’s expectations to have their Ex.: we conform to other’s expectations to have their approval, love, or acceptanceapproval, love, or acceptance

Social normsSocial norms are the standards of behavior and the are the standards of behavior and the attitudes that are expected of members of a attitudes that are expected of members of a particular group.particular group.

Ex.: necessary to have a society- drive on one side of Ex.: necessary to have a society- drive on one side of the road and follow traffic signsthe road and follow traffic signs

Solomon AschSolomon Asch

Did a very well-known experiment on Did a very well-known experiment on conformityconformity

Eight participants- only one non-Eight participants- only one non-confederate participant, all others confederate participant, all others deliberately chose wrong answerdeliberately chose wrong answer

In most cases, subjects conformed to In most cases, subjects conformed to the incorrect, unanimous majoritythe incorrect, unanimous majority

Obedience: how atrocities can Obedience: how atrocities can happen and be rationalizedhappen and be rationalized

Milgram conducted a classic study of Milgram conducted a classic study of obedience (see intro to chapter)obedience (see intro to chapter)

Shocking participant even though in apparent Shocking participant even though in apparent extreme painextreme pain

Ordinary citizens delivered potentially life-Ordinary citizens delivered potentially life-threatening shocks until presence of another threatening shocks until presence of another person who refused to go along with this- gave person who refused to go along with this- gave participants the courage to defy authorityparticipants the courage to defy authority

Ex.: Nazi Germany concentration campEx.: Nazi Germany concentration camp

Compliance: three ways to get Compliance: three ways to get your own way or what you your own way or what you

wantwant Acting in accordance with the wishes, Acting in accordance with the wishes,

suggestions, or direct requests of suggestions, or direct requests of other peopleother people

There are 3 techniques (strategies) There are 3 techniques (strategies) used to gain compliance:used to gain compliance: Foot-in-the-door techniqueFoot-in-the-door technique Door-in-the-face techniqueDoor-in-the-face technique Low-ball techniqueLow-ball technique

Foot-in-the-Door TechniqueFoot-in-the-Door Technique

Strategy designed to gain a favorable Strategy designed to gain a favorable response to a small request at first, with response to a small request at first, with the intent of making the person more the intent of making the person more likely to agree later to a larger requestlikely to agree later to a larger request

Ex.: Carpet company that guarantees Ex.: Carpet company that guarantees they will, at no cost, clean one carpet they will, at no cost, clean one carpet and then get you to agree to do the rest and then get you to agree to do the rest of the house for payof the house for pay

Door-in-the-Face TechniqueDoor-in-the-Face Technique

Strategy in which someone makes a Strategy in which someone makes a large, unreasonable request with the large, unreasonable request with the expectation that the person will refuse expectation that the person will refuse but will be more likely to respond but will be more likely to respond favorably to a smaller request laterfavorably to a smaller request later

Guilt often used by charitable Guilt often used by charitable organizations- “please don’t hang up, organizations- “please don’t hang up, even a dollar will help…”even a dollar will help…”

Low-ball TechniqueLow-ball Technique

A very attractive initial offer is made A very attractive initial offer is made to get people to commit to an action, to get people to commit to an action, then the terms are made less then the terms are made less favorablefavorable

Often see this technique on Often see this technique on infomercials on TV- “but that’s not infomercials on TV- “but that’s not all!”- improve the deal by slashing all!”- improve the deal by slashing the price if you order in ten minutesthe price if you order in ten minutes

Group Influence-how does Group Influence-how does being in a group influence being in a group influence

one’s behavior? one’s behavior? When others are present, either as When others are present, either as

an audience or as co-actors, a an audience or as co-actors, a person’s performance on easy tasks person’s performance on easy tasks is usually improved, but performance is usually improved, but performance on difficult tasks is usually impairedon difficult tasks is usually impaired

Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation

A term used by psychologists to refer to A term used by psychologists to refer to both negative and positive effects of the both negative and positive effects of the presence of others on our behaviorpresence of others on our behavior

Positive effect: before going out, we Positive effect: before going out, we usually engage in some type of grooming- usually engage in some type of grooming- combing hair, putting on makeup, combing hair, putting on makeup, choosing our clothing carefullychoosing our clothing carefully

Negative effect: may drink to excess at a Negative effect: may drink to excess at a party because others are doing itparty because others are doing it

Social LoafingSocial Loafing

People’s tendency to put forth less effort People’s tendency to put forth less effort when they are working with others on a when they are working with others on a common task than when working alonecommon task than when working alone

Less likely to occur when individual Less likely to occur when individual output is monitored or when people have output is monitored or when people have a personal stake in the outcome (one a personal stake in the outcome (one grade shared)grade shared)

Ex.: group projects, slacker participants Ex.: group projects, slacker participants and those who carry the groupand those who carry the group

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization

Following group discussions, group Following group discussions, group decisions usually shift to a more decisions usually shift to a more extreme position in whatever direction extreme position in whatever direction the members were leaning toward the members were leaning toward initiallyinitially

Groupthink happens when individuals Groupthink happens when individuals adopt a group’s opinion without any adopt a group’s opinion without any objective consideration of the presence objective consideration of the presence or lack of supporting factsor lack of supporting facts

Social Role Expectations: does Social Role Expectations: does our role dictate how we act?our role dictate how we act?

Individual behavior can be guided by the Individual behavior can be guided by the expectations associated with social rolesexpectations associated with social roles

Ex: in childrearing, mothers and fathers Ex: in childrearing, mothers and fathers follow different behavioral guidelines- follow different behavioral guidelines- Moms tend to be the nurturing force, Moms tend to be the nurturing force, Dad may be the disciplinarianDad may be the disciplinarian

Policemen and prison guards are Policemen and prison guards are notorious for their ‘tough guy’ behaviorsnotorious for their ‘tough guy’ behaviors

Attitudes and Attitude Attitudes and Attitude ChangeChange

Attitudes have three components:Attitudes have three components: CognitiveCognitive: thoughts and beliefs about : thoughts and beliefs about

an attitudinal objectan attitudinal object EmotionalEmotional: feelings toward the object: feelings toward the object BehavioralBehavioral: how you will behaviorally : how you will behaviorally

act towards the objectact towards the object

What are your attitudes What are your attitudes towards SNAKES?towards SNAKES?

How many of you dislike snakes?How many of you dislike snakes? Cognitive:Cognitive: snakes can be dangerous snakes can be dangerous Emotional:Emotional: they’re creepy and scare me they’re creepy and scare me Behavioral:Behavioral: how would you react if I how would you react if I

released a snake and it slithered by you on released a snake and it slithered by you on the floor?the floor?

There is an obvious cognitive-emotional-There is an obvious cognitive-emotional-behavioral link attached to your attitude behavioral link attached to your attitude about this object!about this object!

Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance

The conflict that is associated with The conflict that is associated with unpleasant feelings that happen unpleasant feelings that happen when people become aware of when people become aware of inconsistencies in their attitudes and inconsistencies in their attitudes and behaviorbehavior

People use defense mechanisms People use defense mechanisms (rationalization) to terminate the (rationalization) to terminate the unpleasant feelingsunpleasant feelings

Bad Habits and Cognitive Bad Habits and Cognitive DissonanceDissonance

How many of you smoke?How many of you smoke? Do you know the dangers associated with Do you know the dangers associated with

smoking?smoking? Do you know anyone who has cancer or who has Do you know anyone who has cancer or who has

died of cancer associated with smoking?died of cancer associated with smoking? If you know that smoking is associated with lung If you know that smoking is associated with lung

cancer and heart disease, why will you not quit cancer and heart disease, why will you not quit smoking?smoking?

The rationalization (excuses) are the cognitive The rationalization (excuses) are the cognitive dissonance. “I only smoke when I am drinking. I dissonance. “I only smoke when I am drinking. I have cut back to one pack per day.”have cut back to one pack per day.”

PersuasionPersuasion

The deliberate attempt to influence The deliberate attempt to influence attitudes and/or behavior of another attitudes and/or behavior of another personperson

This occurs at work, in social This occurs at work, in social situations, and in family lifesituations, and in family life

4 elements of persuasion4 elements of persuasion

SourceSource: who is doing the persuading: who is doing the persuading AudienceAudience: who is being persuaded: who is being persuaded MessageMessage: what is being said: what is being said MediumMedium: means by which the message : means by which the message

is transmittedis transmitted

Can we be taught to be persuasive? Can we be taught to be persuasive? YES!YES!

You can better persuade your You can better persuade your audience if…audience if…

You are You are crediblecredible- i.e., you have - i.e., you have expertise (knowledge), are expertise (knowledge), are trustworthy, possess integritytrustworthy, possess integrity

You are You are attractiveattractive- i.e., have - i.e., have celebrity status, or are similar to your celebrity status, or are similar to your audienceaudience

You are You are likeablelikeable

Pro-social BehaviorPro-social Behavior

What motivates one person to help What motivates one person to help another?another?

What is the by-stander effect, and What is the by-stander effect, and why does it occur?why does it occur?

Definition: pro-social behavior is Definition: pro-social behavior is behavior that benefits others, such behavior that benefits others, such as helping, cooperation, and as helping, cooperation, and sympathysympathy

Pro-Social Behavior:Pro-Social Behavior:AltruismAltruism

Behavior that is aimed at helping Behavior that is aimed at helping others, requires some self-sacrifice, others, requires some self-sacrifice, and is not performed for personal and is not performed for personal gaingain

We help out of empathy- to put We help out of empathy- to put ourselves in another’s shoesourselves in another’s shoes

Volunteering at a homeless shelterVolunteering at a homeless shelter

Bystander EffectBystander Effect

As the number of bystanders at an As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability that emergency increases, the probability that the victim will receive help from them the victim will receive help from them decreases, and the help, if given, is likely decreases, and the help, if given, is likely to be delayedto be delayed

Kitty Genovese Case: 1964- attacked and Kitty Genovese Case: 1964- attacked and eventually murdered over 1 hour in front eventually murdered over 1 hour in front of 38 of her neighbors in Queens, NY- not of 38 of her neighbors in Queens, NY- not a single person called police or interveneda single person called police or intervened

AggressionAggression

The intentional infliction of The intentional infliction of psychological or physical harm on psychological or physical harm on othersothers

Can occur at home, work, or on the roadCan occur at home, work, or on the road Biological factors:Biological factors: more men than more men than

women display aggressive behaviorwomen display aggressive behavior HypothesisHypothesis: there is a link between : there is a link between

testosterone and aggressiontestosterone and aggression

Aggression, continuedAggression, continued

Environmental factors:Environmental factors: Frustration-aggression hypothesisFrustration-aggression hypothesis: :

frustration doesn’t always cause aggression, frustration doesn’t always cause aggression, but likely to do so if it’s intense and seems to but likely to do so if it’s intense and seems to be unjustified (arouses negative emotions)be unjustified (arouses negative emotions)

ScapegoatingScapegoating: targeting someone/population : targeting someone/population with displaced aggression (minority groups)with displaced aggression (minority groups)

Social learning theorySocial learning theory: aggressive behavior : aggressive behavior learned through modeling (influence of violent learned through modeling (influence of violent video games, TV, song lyrics)video games, TV, song lyrics)

Prejudice and DiscriminationPrejudice and Discrimination

What factors contribute to the What factors contribute to the development of prejudice and development of prejudice and discrimination?discrimination?

PrejudicePrejudice: : attitudesattitudes (usually negative) (usually negative) toward others based on gender, religion, toward others based on gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular race, or membership in a particular groupgroup Involves belief and emotions and can Involves belief and emotions and can

escalate into hatredescalate into hatred

Discrimination:Discrimination: behavior- behavior- actionsactions (usually negative) towards others based (usually negative) towards others based on their gender, religion, race, or on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a groupmembership in a group Minority racial groups (racism)Minority racial groups (racism) Women (sexism)Women (sexism) Elderly (ageism)Elderly (ageism) Handicapped, homosexuals, religious Handicapped, homosexuals, religious

groupsgroups

What are the roots of prejudice What are the roots of prejudice and discrimination?and discrimination?

Realistic conflict theoryRealistic conflict theory: as : as competition increases, so does competition increases, so does prejudice, discrimination, hatred prejudice, discrimination, hatred amongst competitive groupsamongst competitive groups American settlers and Native Americans American settlers and Native Americans

(land)(land) Americans and the Irish and German Americans and the Irish and German

immigrants (economic scarcity)immigrants (economic scarcity)

In-Groups and Out-GroupsIn-Groups and Out-Groups

In-group:In-group: social group with a strong social group with a strong sense of togetherness, from which sense of togetherness, from which others are excludedothers are excluded

Out-group:Out-group: individuals specified by individuals specified by the in-group as not belongingthe in-group as not belonging

Social-Cognitive theorySocial-Cognitive theory

People learn attitudes of prejudice and hatred People learn attitudes of prejudice and hatred the same way that they learn other attitudesthe same way that they learn other attitudes

Social cognitionSocial cognition: the ways that people : the ways that people process social informationprocess social information

Stereotypes:Stereotypes: widely shared beliefs about widely shared beliefs about the characteristic traits, attitudes, behaviors the characteristic traits, attitudes, behaviors of the members of the various social groups- of the members of the various social groups- including the assumption that they are all including the assumption that they are all alikealike