Society Culture and Reform 1820 1860

8/10/2019 Society Culture and Reform 1820 1860

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@e) =or( &ecame (no)n a# t"e D&urnedo$er di#trictE for it# freuent D"ell

&rim#toneE re$i$al#.

2. a+ti#t# and Met"odi#t# !n t"e Sout" and on t"e ad$ancing )e#tern frontier,

a+ti#t and Met"odi#t circuit +reac"er#, #uc" a# eter Cart)rig"t, )ould

tra$el from one location to anot"er and attracted t"ou#and# to "ear t"eir dra/matic +reac"ing at outdoor re$i$al, or cam+ meeting#. *"ey con$erted many

of t"e unc"urc"ed into re#+ecta&le mem&er# of t"e community. y 1850, t"e

a+ti#t# and t"e Met"odi#t# "ad &ecome t"e large#t rote#tant denomination#in t"e country.

A. Millenniali#m Muc" of t"e religiou# ent"u#ia#m of t"e time )a# &a#ed on t"e

)ide#+read &elief t"at t"e )orld )a# a&out to end )it" t"e #econd coming ofC"ri#t. *"e +reac"er illiam Millergained ten# of t"ou#and# of follo)er#

&y +redicting a #+ecific date cto&er 21, 1844 )"en t"e #econd coming

)ould occur. *"ere )ere o&$iou# di#a++ointment# )"en not"ing "a++ened

on t"e a++ointed day, &ut Millerite# )ould continue a# a ne) religion, t"eSe$ent"-ay %d$enti#t#.

4. Mormon# %not"er religiou# grou+, t"e C"urc" of Gatter-ay Saint#, or

Mormon#, )a# founded &y 'o#e+" Smit"in 18A0. Smit" &a#ed "i# religiou#

t"in(ing on a &oo( of Scri+tureBt"e oo( of MormonB)"ic" traced a con/nection &et)een t"e@ati$e %merican# and t"e lo#t tri&e of !#rael. Smit"

gat"ered a follo)ing and mo$ed from @e) =or( State to "io, Mi##ouri,

and, finally !llinoi#. *"ere, t"e Mormon founder )a# murdered &y a local

mo&. *o e#ca+e +er#ecution, t"e Mormon# under t"e leader#"i+ of rig"am=oung migrated tot"e far )e#tern frontier, )"ere t"ey e#ta&li#"ed t"e @e)

Hion a# t"ey called t"eir religiou# community on t"e &an(# of t"e reat Salt

Ga(e in 9ta". *"eir coo+erati$e #ocial organi7ation "el+ed t"e Mormon# to+ro#+er in t"e )ilderne##. *"eir +ractice of +olygamy allo)ing a man to

"a$e more t"an one )ife, "o)e$er arou#ed t"e "o#tility of t"e 9.S. go$ern/

ment.

*"e Second reat %)a(ening, li(e t"e fir#t, cau#ed ne) di$i#ion# in #ociety &e/

t)een t"e ne)er, e$angelical #ect# and t"e older rote#tant c"urc"e#. !t affected

all #ection# of t"e country. ut it )a# only in t"e nort"ern #tate# from Ma##a/c"u#ett# )e#t)ard to "io t"at t"e reat %)a(ening +layed a #ignificant role in

#ocial reform. %cti$i#t religiou# grou+# +ro$ided &ot" t"e leader#"i+ and t"e )ell

organi7ed $oluntary #ocietie# t"at dro$e t"e reform mo$ement# of t"e ante/&ellum era.

. Culture3 !dea#, t"e %rt#, and Giterature !n uro+e, during t"e early year# of t"e1:t" century, a romantic mo$ement in art and literature #tre##ed intuition and

feeling#, indi$idual act# of "eroi#m, and t"e #tudy of nature. %t t"e time, in t"e

9nited State# from 1820 to 1860, t"e#e romantic and ideali#tic t"eme# )ere &e#t


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e+re##ed &y t"e tran#cendentali#t#, a #mall grou+ of @e) ngland )riter# and

reformer#.

1. *"e *ran#cendentali#t# riter# li(e Ral+" aldo mer#onand >enry -a$id

*"oreauue#tioned t"e doctrine#of e#ta&li#"ed c"urc"e# and t"e ca+itali#tic

"a&it# of t"e merc"ant cla##. *"ey argued for a my#ticaland intuiti$e)ay oft"in(ing a# a mean# for di#co$ering one# inner #elf and loo(ing for t"e

e##ence of od in nature. *"eir $ie)# c"allenged t"e materiali#tic %merican

#ociety &y #ugge#ting t"e arti#tic e+re##ion )a# more im+ortant t"an t"e+ur#uit of )ealt".

%lt"oug" t"e tran#cendentali#t# )ere "ig"ly indi$iduali#tic and $ie)ed organ/

i7ed in#titution# a# unim+ortant, t"ey #u++orted a $ariety of reform#, e#+ecial/ly t"e anti#la$ery mo$ement.

a. Ral+" aldo mer#on 180A1882 *"e &e#t (no)n tran#cendentali#t,

Ral+" aldo mer#on, )a# among t"e mo#t +o+ular %merican lecturer# of

t"e 1:t" century. >i# e##ay# and lecture# e+re##ed t"e indi$iduali#ticmood of t"e +eriod. !n an 18A< addre## at >ar$ard CollegeD*"e %meri/

can Sc"olarE, mer#on e$o(ed t"e nationali#tic #+irit of %merican# &yurging t"em not to imitate uro+ean culture &ut to create an entirely ne)

and originalAmericanculture. >i# e##ay# and +oem# argued for #elfreli/

ance,inde+endent t"in(ing, and t"e +rimacy of #+iritualmatter o$er ma/terial one#. %# a nort"erner, mer#on, &ecame a leading critic of #la$ery

in t"e 1850# and t"en an ardent #u++orter of t"e 9nion during t"e Ci$il

ar.

&. >enry -a$id *"oreau181enry -a$id *"oreau. *o

te#t "i# tran#cendentali#t +"ilo#o+"y, *"oreau conducted a t)oyear e/

+eriment of li$ing &y "im#elf in t"e )ood#out#ide to)n. *"ere "e u#edoer$ation# of nature to di#co$er e##ential trut"# a&out life and t"e uni/

$er#e. >i# )riting# from t"e#e year# )a# +u&li#"ed in t"e &oo( for )"ic"

"e i# &e#t (no)n, Walden1854. ecau#e of t"i# &oo(, *"oreau i# re/mem&ered today a# +ioneer ecologi#t and con#er$ationi#t.

*"oug" "i# e##ay Dn Ci$il -i#o&edience,E *"oreau e#ta&li#"ed "im#elf

a# an early ad$ocate of non$iolent +rote#t. *"e e##ay +re#ented *"oreau#argument for not o&eying un;u#t la)#. *"e +"ilo#o+"er# o)n act of ci$il

di#o&edience )a# to refu#e to +ay a ta t"at mig"t &e u#ed in an DimmoralE

)arBt"e 9.S. )ar )it" Meico 18461848. For&rea(ingt"e ta la),*"oreau )a# forced to #+end one nig"t in t"e Concord ;ail. !n t"e net

century, *"oreau# e##ay and action )ould in#+ire t"e non$iolent

mo$ement# of &ot" Mo"anda# and"i in in !ndia and Martin Gut"er Iing.'r., in t"e 9nited State#.

c. roo( Farm Could a community of +eo+le li$e out t"e tran#cendentali#t

idealJ !n 1841, eorge Ri+ley, a rote#tant mini#ter, launc"ed a commun/

al e+eriment at roo( Farm in Ma##ac"u#ett#. >i# goal )a# to ac"ie$e Da


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more natural union &et)een intellectual and manual la&or.E Gi$ing at

roo( Farm at different time# )ere #ome of t"e leading intellectual# of t"e

+eriod. mer#on )ent, a# did Margaret Fuller, a femini#t ad$ocate of )o/men# rig"t# )riter and editor? *"eodor ar(er, a t"eologian and radical

reformer? and @at"aniel >a)t"orne, t"e no$eli#t. % &ad fire and "ea$y

de&t# forced t"e end of t"e e+eriment in 184:. ut roo( Farm )a# re/mem&ered for it# atmo#+"ere of arti#tic creati$ity and an inno$ati$e #c"ool

t"at attracted t"e #on# and daug"ter# of @e) ngland# intellectual elite.

2. Communal +eriment# *"e idea of )it"dra)ing from con$entional #ociety

to create an ideal community, or uto+ia, in a fre#" #etting )a# not a ne) idea.

ut ne$er &efore )ere t"e #ocial e+eriment# #o numerou# a# during t"e

middle decade# of t"e 1:t" century. *"e o+en land# of t"e 9nited State# &e/fore t"e Ci$il ar +ro$ed fertile ground for o$er a "undred e+erimental

communal effort and roo( Farm an eam+le of a "umani#tic or #ecular e/

+eriment. %lt"oug" many of t"e communitie# )ere #"ortli$ed, t"e#e D&ac(/

)ood# uto+ia#E reflect t"e di$er#ity of t"e reform idea# of t"e time.

a. S"a(er# ne of t"e earlie#t religiou# communal mo$ement#, t"e S"a(er#"ad a&out 6,000mem&er# in $ariou# communitie# &y t"e 1840#. S"a(er#

"eld +ro+erty in commonand (e+t men and )omen #trictly #e+arate for/

&idding marriage and #eual relation#. For lac( of ne) recruit#, t"eS"a(er communitie# $irtually died out &y t"e mid/1:00#. *"e %mana#et/

tlement# founded in !o)a &y erman ieti#t# )ere al#o dedicated to an

a#cetic life, &ut allo)ed for marriage, )"ic" "el+ed to en#ure t"e #ur$i$al

of t"eir communitie#.&. @e) >armony *"e #ecular nonreligiou# e+eriment in @e) >armony,

!ndiana, )a# t"e )or( of t"e el#" indu#triali#t and reformer Ro&ert

)en. )en "o+ed "i# uto+ian #ociali#t community )ould +ro$ide an an/#)er to t"e +ro&lem# of ineuality and alienation cau#ed &y t"e !ndu#trial

Re$olution. *"e e+eriment failed, "o)e$er, a# a re#ult of &ot" financial

+ro&lem# and di#agreement# among mem&er# of t"e community. c. neida community %fter undergoing a religiou# con$er#ion, 'o"n >um/

+"rey @oye#in 1848 #tarted a coo+erati$e community in neida,@e)

=or(, t"at &ecame "ig"ly contro$er#ial. -edicated to an ideal of +erfect

#ocial and economic euality, mem&er# of t"e community #"ared +ro+ertyBand later e$en #"ared marriage +artner#. Critic# attac(ed t"e neida

#y#tem of+lanned re+roductionand communal c"ildrearinga# a #inful

e+eriment in Dfree lo$e.E $en #o, t"e community managed to +ro#+ereconomically &y +roducing and #elling #il$er)are of ecellent uality.

d. Fourier "alane# !n t"e 1840#, Many %merican#, including t"e ne)#+a/

+er editor, >orace reeley, &ecame intere#ted in t"e t"eorie# of t"e Frenc"#ociali#t C"arle# Fourier. *o #ol$e t"e +ro&lem# of a fiercely com+etiti$e

#ociety, Fourier ad$ocated t"at +eo+le #"are )or( and li$ing arrangement#

in communitie# (no)n a# Fourier "alane#. *"i# mo$ement died out,


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"o)e$er, almo#t a# uic(ly a# it a++eared. %merican# +ro$ed too indi$id/

uali#tic to ada+t to communal li$ing.

A. %rt# and Giterature *"e democratic and reforming im+ul#e# of t"e %ge of

'ac(#on e+re##ed t"em#el$e# in+ainting, arc"itecture, and literature.

a. ainting enre +aintingB+ortraying t"e e$eryday life of ordinary +eo/+le

B&ecame t"e $ogue of arti#t# in t"e 18A0#. eorge Cale& ing"am, for

eam+le, de+icted t"e common +eo+le in $ariou# #etting#3 riding ri$er/&oat#, $oting on election day, and carrying out dome#tic c"ore#.

Fur raders !escending the Missouri, c. 1845 notice t"e cat i# tet"ered.


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*"e County lection, #aid to de+ict an election in 1850, in Saline County, Mi##ouri

illiam S. Mount )on fame and +o+ularity for "i# li$ely rural com+o#ition#.

"tt+3KKen.)i(i+edia.orgK)i(iKilliamLSidneyLMountit )ill not let me co+y and +o#t

ot" *"oma# Cole and Frederic( C"urc" em+"a#i7ed t"e "eroic &eauty of %mericanland#ca+e#, e#+ecially in u+lifting dramatic #cene# along t"e >ud#on Ri$er in @e) =or(

State and t"e )e#tern frontier )ilderne##. *"e >ud#on Ri$er #c"ool, a# it came to &e

(no)n, e+re##ed t"e romantic age# fa#cination )it" t"e natural )orld.*"oma# Cole
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sidney_Mounthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sidney_Mounthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sidney_Mount


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"iew from Mount #olyo$e, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a hunderstorm%he

&'bow.


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>ome in t"e ood#, 184ollo)N and

NRi+ Oan in(leN, &ot" of )"ic" a++ear in "i# &oo( he )$etch (oo$ of*eoffrey +rayon, *ent,and 'ame# Fenimore Coo+er, for eam+le )rote

fiction u#ing %merican #etting#. Coo+er#eatherstoc$ingales)ere a #erie#

of no$el# )ritten from 1824 to 1841, t"at in he ast of the Mohicans, he

athfinder, and he !eerslayer, )"ic" glorified t"e frontier#man a# nature#no&leman. he )carlet etter1850 and ot"er no$el# &y@at"aniel >a)/


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t"orneue#tioned t"e intoleranceand conformityin %merican life. >erman

Mel$ille# inno$ati$e no$elMoby!ic$1855 reflected t"e t"eologicaland

cultural conflict#of t"e era, a# it told t"e #tory of Ca+tain %"a +ur#uit of t"e)"ite )"ale.

C. Reforming Society Reform during t"e ante&ellum era)ent t"roug" #e$eral#tage#. %t fir#t, t"e leader# of reform "o+ed to im+ro$e +eo+le# &e"a$ior

t"roug" moral +er#ua#ion. %fter t"ey tried #ermon# and +am+"let#, "o)e$er,

reformer# often mo$ed on to+olitical actionand to idea# for creating ne)in#titution# to re+lace t"e old.

1. *em+erance !t i# ea#y to under#tand, gi$en t"e "ig" rateof alco"ol con#um+/

tionfi$e gallon# of "ard liuor +re +er#on in 1820, )"y reformer# targetedalco"ol a# t"e cau#e of #ocial ill#, and )"y tem+erance &ecame t"e mo#t +o+u/

lar of t"e reform mo$ement#.

*"e tem+erance mo$ement )a# an ecellent eam+leof t"e #"ift from morale"ortationto +olitical life. !n 1826, rote#tant mini#ter# and ot"er#, con/

cerned )it" t"e "ig" rate of alco"ol con#um+tion and t"e effect# of #uc" e/ce##i$e drin(ing, founded t"e %merican *em+erance Society. 9#ing moral

argument#, t"e #ociety tried to +er#uade drin(er# not ;u#t to moderatet"eir

drin(ing &ut to ta(e a +ledge of total atinence. %not"er #ociety, t"e a#"/ingtonian#, )a# &egun in 1840 &y reco$ering alco"olic#, )"o argued t"at

alco"oli#m )a# a di#ea#e t"at needed +ractical, "el+ful treatment. y t"e

1840#, t"e $ariou# tem+erance #ocietie# "ad more t"an a million mem&er#,

and it )a# &ecoming re#+ecta&le in middlecla## "ou#e"old#to drin( onlycold )ater. *em+erance "ad &ecome a +at" to middlecla## re#+ecta&ility.

ermanand !ri#"immigrant# )ere largely o++o#ed to t"e tem+erancere/former# cam+aign. ut t"ey did not "a$e t"e +olitical +o)er to +re$ent #tate

and city go$ernment# from #iding )it" t"e reformer#. Factory o)ner#and

+olitician#;oined )it" t"e reformer# )"en it &ecame clear t"at tem+erancemea#ure# could reduce crime and +o$erty and increa#e )or(er# out+uton t"e

;o&. !n 1851, t"e #tate of Maine)ent &eyond earlier mea#ure# t"at "ad

#im+ly +laced tae# on t"e #ale of liuor. Maine &ecame t"e fir#t of 1A #tate#

to+ro"i&it t"e manufacture and #ale of intoicating liuor#&efore t"e Ci$ilar. !n t"e late 1850#, t"e i##ue of #la$ery came to o$er#"ado) t"e tem+er/

ance mo$ement. >o)e$er, t"e mo$ement )ould gain #trengt" again in t"e

late 18


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careta(er#. *o alle$iate t"e lot of t"e#e unfortunate#, reformer# +ro+o#ed

#etting u+ ne) +u&lic in#titution#B#tate#u++orted +ri#on#, mental "o#+ital#,

and+oor"ou#e#. *"ey "o+ed t"at t"e inmate# of t"e#e in#titution# )ould &ecured of t"eir anti#ocial &e"a$ior a# a re#ult of &eing )it"dra)n from #ualid

#urrounding# and treated to a di#ci+lined +attern of life in #ome rural #etting.

a. Mental "o#+ital# -orot"ea -i, a former #c"oolteac"er from Ma##ac"u/

#et#, )a# "orrified to find mentally ill +ri#on# loc(ed u+ )it" con$icted

criminal# in un#anitary cell#. S"e dedicated t"e re#t of "er adult life toim+ro$ing condition# for emotionally di#tur&ed +er#on#. !n t"e 1840#, "er

tra$el# acro## t"e country and re+ort# of a)ful treatment cau#ed one #tate

legi#lature after anot"er to &uild ne) mental "o#+ital# or im+ro$e ei#ting

in#titution#. %# a re#ult of -i# cru#ade, mental +atient# &egan recei$ing+rofe##ional treatment at #tate e+en#e.

&. Sc"ool# for&lindand deaf+er#on# *)o ot"er reformer# founded #+ecial

in#titution# to "el+ +eo+le )it" +"y#ical di#a&ilitie#. *"oma# allaudet

founded a #c"ool for t"e deaf, and -r. Samuel ridley >o)efounded a#c"ool for t"e &lind. y t"e 1850#, #+ecial #c"ool# modeled after t"e )or(

of t"e#e reformer# "ad &een e#ta&li#"ed in many #tate# of t"e 9nion. c. ri#on# *a(ing t"e +lace of crude ;ail# and loc( u+# )ere ne) +ri#on#

erected in enn#yl$ania. *"e#e+enitentiarie#, a# t"ey )ere called, e+eri/

mented )it" t"e tec"niue of+lacing +ri#oner# in #olitary confinementtoforce t"em "ig" rate of +ri#oner# #uicide#. *"e#e +ri#on reformer# reflect/

ed a ma;or doctrine of t"e a#ylum mo$ement3 #tructure and di#ci+line

)ould &ring a&out moral reform. %not"er +enal e+eriment, t"e %u&urn

#y#tem in @e) =or(, enforced rigid rule# of di#ci+line)"ile al#o +ro$id/ing moral in#tructionand )or( +rogram#.

A. u&lic ducation %not"er reform mo$ement #tarted in t"e 'ac(#onian erafocu#ed on t"e need for e#ta&li#"ing free +u&lic #c"oolfor c"ildren of all

cla##e#. Middlecla## reformer#)ere moti$ated in +art &y t"eir fear# for t"e

future of t"e re+u&lic +o#ed &y gro)ing num&er# of t"e uneducated +oorB&ot" immigrant and nati$e&orn. or(er# grou+#in t"e citie# generally

#u++ortedt"e reformer# cam+aign for freeta#u++orted #c"ool#.

a. Free common #c"ool# >orace Mann1olme# Mcuffey, a enn#yl$ania

teac"er created a #erie# of elementary tet&oo(#t"at &ecame )idely

acce+ted a# t"e &a#i# of reading and moral in#tructionin "undred# of


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#c"ool#. *"e Mcuffey reader#etolled t"e $irtue# of "ard )or(,

+unctuality, and #o&rietyBt"e (ind of &e"a$ior needed in an emerging

indu#trial #ociety.

&;ectingto t"e e$angelical rote#tant tone of t"e +u&lic #c"ool#, Roman

Cat"olic grou+#founded +ri$ate #c"ool# for t"e in#truction of Cat"olic andforeign&orn c"ildren.

c. >ig"er education *"e religiou# ent"u#ia#m of t"e Second reat %)a(en/

ing "el+ed fuel t"e gro)t" of +ri$ate college#. eginning in t"e 18A0#,$ariou# rote#tant denomination# founded #mall denominational college#,

e#+ecially in t"e ne)er )e#tern #tate# "io, !ndiana, and !o)a. %t t"e

#ame time, #e$eral ne) college#, including Mt. >olyo(eCollege in Ma##a/

c"u#ett# founded &y Mary Gyon in 18A


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)e'es18A


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1840 and 1844. *"e +arty# one cam+aign +ledge )a# to &ring a&out t"e

end of #la$ery &y +olitical and legal mean#.

d. lac( a&olitioni#t# #ca+ed #la$e# and free &lac(# )ere among t"e mo#tout#+o(en and con$incing critic# of #la$ery. % former #la$e Frederic(

-ougla##could #+ea( a&out t"e &rutality and degradation of #la$ery from

fir#t"and e+erience. %n early follo)er of arri#on, -ougla## later ad$o/cated &ot" +olitical and direct action to end #la$ery and racial +re;udice. !n

184arriet *u&man, -a$id Ruggle#, So;ourner *rut", andilliam Still, "el+ed organi7e t"e effort to a##i#t fugiti$e #la$e# e#ca+e to

free territory in t"e @ort" or to Canada, )"ere #la$ery )a# +ro"i&ited.

e. Oiolent a&olitioni#t# -a$id al(erand >enry >ig"land arnet)ere t)o

nort"ern &lac(# )"o ad$ocated t"e mo#t radical #olution to t"e #la$eryue#tion. *"ey argued t"at #la$e# #"ould ta(e action t"em#el$e# &y ri#ing

u+ led a re$olt again#t t"eir Dma#ter#.E !n 18A1, a Oirginia#la$e named@at

*urnerled a re$olt in )"ic" 55 )"ite# )ere (illed. !n retaliation, )"ite#

(illed "undred# of &lac(# in &rutal fa#"ion and managed to +ut do)n t"ere$olt. efore t"i# e$ent, t"ere "ad &een #ome anti#la$ery #entiment and

di#cu##ion in t"e Sout". %fter t"e re$olt, fear of future u+ri#ing# a# )ell a#arri#on# inflamed r"etoric +ut an end to anti#la$ery tal( in t"e Sout".

6. t"er Reform# ffort# to reform indi$idual# and #ociety )ere not limited to

mo$ement# for tem+erance, a#ylum#, free +u&lic education, )omen# rig"t#,and a&olition of #la$ery. t"er reform# of t"e ante&ellum era included3

a. *"e %merican eace Society, founded in 1828 )it" t"e o&;ecti$e of a&ol/

i#"ing )ar. !t influenced #ome @e) ngland reformer# to o++o#e t"e later

Meican ar. &. la)# to +rotect #eamen from &eing flogged.

c. dietary reform# eating )"ole )"eat &read and Syl$e#ter ra"am# crac(/

er# to +romote good dige#tion. d. dre## reform for )omen )earing %melia loomer# +antalette# in#tead of

long #(irt#

e. a ne) +#eudo#cience call +"renology t"e #tudy of t"e #(ull# #"a+e toacce## a +er#on# c"aracter and a&ility


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!n "er "i#tory of ante&ellum reform, Freedom# Ferment 1:44, %lice *yler +ortrayed t"e

reformer# a# ideali#tic "umanitarian# )"o#e c"ief goal )a# to create a ;u#t and euita&le

#ociety for all. t"er "i#torian# generally acce+ted *yler# inter+retation.

!n recent year#, "o)e$er, "i#torian# "a$e ue#tioned )"et"er t"e reform# )ere truly

moti$ated &y "umanitarian concern#. *"ey $ie) #uc" reform# a# tem/+erance, a#ylum#,and +u&lic education a# attem+t# &y t"e u++er and middle cla##e# to control t"e ma##e#.

%c/cording to t"eir argument, t"e tem+erance mo$ement )a# de#igned to control t"e

drin(ing of t"e +oor and recent immi/grant#. *"e c"ief +ur+o#e of +enitentiarie# )a# tocontrol crime, of +oor/"ou#e# to moti$ate t"e lo)er cla##e# to +ur#ue )or(, and of +u&lic

#c"ool# to D%mericani7eE t"e immigrant +o+ulation. Sc"ool# )ere #u++orted &y t"e

)ealt"y, &ecau#e t"ey )ould teac" t"e )or(ing cla## "ard )or(, +unctuality, and

o&edience. Re$i#ioni#t "i#torian# al#o "a$e di#co$ered t"at mo#t of t"e reformer# )ere"ig#, not 'ac(#onian -emocrat#.

Some "i#torian# "a$e argued t"at t"e reformer# "ad multi+le moti$ation# for t"eir )or(.

*"ey +oint out t"at, alt"oug" #ome rea#on# for reform may "a$e &een #elf#er$ing and&igoted, mo#t reformer# #incerely t"oug"t t"at t"eir idea# for im+ro$ing #ociety )ould

truly "el+ +eo+le. -orot"ea -i, for eam+le, ga$e t)o rea#on# for increa#ed #+endingfor treatment of t"e mentally ill. %++ealing to +eo+le# #elf intere#t, #"e #aid t"at t"e

reform )ould #a$e t"e +u&lic money in t"e long run. %++ealing to t"eir religiou# and

#ocial ideal#, #"e al#o argued t"at t"e reform )a# "umane and morally rig"t. >i#torian#+oint out furt"er t"at t"e mo#t #ucce##ful reform# )ere one# t"at "ad &road #u++ort acro##

#ocietyBoften for a mi of rea#on#.

Documents

Society Culture and Reform 1820 1860