Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment...Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment | 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report is the culmination of cooperation and collaboration of a multi-agency

Source: NRC Enumerator Team (October 2016)

Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment October/November 2016

Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment | 2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report is the culmination of cooperation and collaboration of a multi-agency team led by the National Environment Research and Disaster-Preparedness Authority (NERAD) with the participation of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), World Vision (WV), Save the Children International (SCI), ActionAid Aid (AA), Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), Danish Refugee Council (DRC), Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC), Garsoor, World Concern (WC), Somali Red Crescent Society (SRCS), Pastoral and Environmental Network in the Horn of Africa (PENHA), Taakulo Somaliland Community (TASCO), Women Action for Advocacy and Progress Organization (WAAPO), Somaliland Hope Association (SOHA), and Concern Worldwide (CW). Special thanks goes NERAD for their leadership, to OCHA for coordinating the assessment process, to Matthew Rothero and Ahmed Ege from ActionAid for drafting the report and developing the methodology, and also Mohamed Ahmed Magan and Billow Hassan Abdi from Save the Children for the ongoing support provided with the ONA platform and data analysis. Crucially, thanks also go to the many households and key informants who were willing to be respondents as part of the assessment process, despite the hardships that many of them are experiencing at this time.


CONTENTS

LIST OF ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................................ 4

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 5

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................................... 7

BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................................................................... 8

Historical / Political Context ....................................................................................................... 8

Economic Context .................................................................................................................... 8

Social Context .......................................................................................................................... 8

Drivers of the Crisis .............................................................................................................................. 9

Protection Concerns ............................................................................................................... 12

Response .............................................................................................................................. 12

Government of Somaliland Capacity.......................................................................................... 13

Access .................................................................................................................................. 13

Gaps and Challenges ............................................................................................................... 14

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................................... 14

ASSESSMENT FINDINGS ....................................................................................................................................... 16

Food Security and Livelihoods .................................................................................................. 16

WASH ................................................................................................................................... 18

Health .................................................................................................................................. 18

Nutrition ............................................................................................................................... 20

Education.............................................................................................................................. 21

Shelter ................................................................................................................................. 22

Protection ............................................................................................................................. 22

Displacement ........................................................................................................................ 23

RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 24

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 26

ANNEX 1: Assessment Timeframe, Sampling, and Site Selection ......................................................................... 28

The sampling approach for Household Interviews ....................................................................... 29

The sampling approach for Key Informant Interviews .................................................................. 29

Assumptions ......................................................................................................................... 30

Methodological Considerations ................................................................................................ 31


LIST OF ACRONYMS

AIM-WG Assessment Information Management Working Group

CW Concern Worldwide

DRC Danish Refugee Council

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization

FDGs Focus Group Discussions

FEWSNET Famine Early Warning Systems Network

FSNAU Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit

FHH Female Headed Household

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GoS Government of Somaliland

HAVOYOCO Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee

HCT Humanitarian Country Team

HHQ Household Questionnaire

IDP Internally Displaced Persons

ILO International Labor Organization

IPC Integrated Phase Classification

JPLG Joint Program for Local Government

KIQ Key Informant Questionnaire

KIIs Key Informant Interviews

MHH Male Headed Household

MoWR Ministry of Water Resources

NDC National Drought Response Committee - Somaliland

NERAD National Environment Research and Disaster Preparedness Authority

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NRC Norwegian Refugee Council

OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

OIC Organization of Islamic Cooperation

ONA

PENHA Pastoral and Environmental Network in the Horn of Africa

PPPS Probability Proportionate to Population Size

RI Resilience Index

RIMA Resistance Index Measurement and Analysis

SCI Save the Children International

SDF Somaliland Development Fund

SIRNA Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment

SRCS Somali Red Crescent Society

SSP Sampling Start-Point

SWALIM Somalia Water and Land Information Management

UN United Nations

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNFPA United Nations Population Fund

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

WFP World Food Programme

WV World Vision

ONA refers to the online platform to which data from household interviews and key informant interviews was uploaded. ONA provides a suite of analytical tools by which to examine the data-set. ONA is not defined.


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This inter-agency needs assessment was prompted by the collective concerns of a range of agencies (including from Government) operating in Somaliland. Increasingly, the impacts of the drought have been felt by the communities in which these agencies work and serve. The assessment was undertaken with a growing sense of urgency in October/November 2016 and during this time the Government of Somaliland made a drought declaration in recognition of the seriousness of the situation country-wide. The assessment findings are therefore relevant given the timing of the preliminary findings, and now the dissemination of this more detailed report, which coincides with high-level discussions about resourcing and planning of response in Somaliland.

According to the most recent seasonal assessment published by the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) and the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWSNET) released on 20 September 2016, more than one million people in Somaliland (or 31 per cent of the population) will be in need of some form of humanitarian assistance until the end of 2016. This includes approximately 248,000 people who face acute food insecurity, or are in “Crisis” (IPC Phase 3) and “Emergency” (IPC Phase 4), and approximately 826,000 who are at risk of slipping into acute food insecurity if they do not receive assistance. The assessment indicated that acute malnutrition had worsened.

Given the cross-sectoral nature of the assessment, the findings reflect the impact of drought in multiple dimensions of Somaliland society. The impact is serious and will worsen given the vulnerability of households and communities as reflected in the findings below. When the drivers of the current situation are considered, low rainfall over a number of years, exacerbated by the El Nino phenomenon, are important. However, other contributing factors suggest that the current crisis is more complex in nature as highlighted in the discussion below.

The following is a summary of key assessment findings:

Food Security and Livelihoods

The majority of households have seen their main source of income significantly reduced or lost as a result of the drought. Assistance to drought affected families is limited with only a small proportion of households having received cash or food assistance in the last year to help mitigate drought impact.

Loss of livestock was reported by a significant number of respondents suggesting that asset depletion attributed to the drought is very prevalent, undermining existing sources of income, food, and the potential to recover post-crisis. The evidence would suggest that loss of livestock is more likely to occur in areas where there has been no vaccination programme.

The resilience of drought affected families is seriously undermined. This is reflected in the probable loss of significantly more livestock given the poor body condition of surviving animals and insufficient levels of fodder, pasture, and water.

Additionally, drought affected families are resorting to a range of negative coping strategies including reducing the number of meals eaten in a given day, an increasing number of households obtaining credit (where available) to purchase food, as well as evidence of migration to other areas in search of pasture for livestock.

Available food for household consumption is now reaching critical levels with a quarter of households reporting that stocks will only last from one to three days. Many respondents reported an increase in household food expenditure suggesting that food commodity prices are increasing.

WASH

The majority of households reported that the availability of water is a major problem facing their families at this time. The majority of households are obtaining their water from only one source, with this source for some households being water trucking.

The drought has had implications for other aspects of water availability and quality. Nearly half of respondents report that the distance to an available water source has increased as a result of the drought. A considerable number of respondents also report that the prevalence of illness amongst children has increased since the drought in areas where the water source is considered both safe and unsafe for drinking. Evidence from the assessment would suggest that there is insufficient water for washing, cooking and cleaning needs.

Protection issues associated with the collection of water are evident, with a small proportion of respondents reporting that they, members of their household, or members of the assessed area, have experienced an act of violence when collecting water. The responsibility for collecting water typically falls to adult female


household members, which suggests this group is more vulnerable to protection threats or acts when collecting water.

Good hygiene practices associated with the collection and storage of water are compromised in a significant number of households. This is because not all households use a separate container for collecting and storing water, that the storage containers do not always have a lid, and that the cleaning of water storage containers occurs infrequently.

Less than half of respondents report having access to a latrine, which may have implications for health outcomes in certain locations. A considerable number of respondents report that the prevalence of illness amongst children has increased since the onset of drought in both households who do not have access to a latrine, and those households who do have access to a latrine, though the increase in reported illness is less in this latter group.

Good hygiene practices associated with the use of latrines are compromised in a number of ways. Only a small proportion of households report having handwashing facilities in proximity to latrines; less than half of respondents report washing their hands after using the latrine; and even fewer households report using soap when washing hands. It was observed that there are few designated open defecation sites even in locations where the prevalence of latrines is limited. These factors may have implications for health outcomes in certain locations.

Health

Evidence would suggest that the onset of drought has made it more difficult to access health services. Nearly half of respondents reported an increase in the cost of health care since the onset of drought, with cost identified as the major barrier to accessing health care.

A third of respondents reported that the prevalence of disease and illness amongst children has increased since the onset of the drought. A small proportion of respondents are reporting malnutrition as one of these illnesses, and prevalence of malnutrition amongst the population more generally. Malnutrition was

also observed in adults by some respondents.

Nutrition

The vast majority of respondents reported that they had not received milk products in the form of assistance since the onset of drought, and similar numbers reported non access to nutrition programmes. This suggests a paucity of services to support improved nutrition for children and pregnant and lactating women. There is however less evidence to support the idea that the quality and availability of food has negatively affected pregnant or lactating women in the household at this stage.

Education

Although the majority of households report there being a learning space or school in their village or in proximity to their village, less than half of respondents report that their children attend school. Reasons for non-attendance in school include the inability to pay school fees, the fact that children in the household may not be of school age, and also the drought, amongst other reasons.

The lack of facilities within school may also be a factor in dissuading parents / guardians from sending their children to school. It was reported that less than half of schools have safe drinking water and even fewer have latrines available to their students. Only a small proportion of respondents reported that these latrines (where available) are separated by gender.

Shelter

Only a quarter of the respondents reported that report owning the land that they are settled on, and where the land is rented, the majority of households report not having a contract to reflect this. This suggests a degree of land ownership or land tenure insecurity. In addition, the cost and availability of shelter construction materials were highlighted as the main challenges associated with meeting shelter needs at this time.

Protection issues associated with shelter include lack of lockable door in the shelters of just over a third of respondents. The majority of households also reported that there is no source of light at night in their shelters.

One should be reticent about these findings given that these supposed cases of malnutrition may not have been diagnosed by a health care professional.


Protection and Displacement

A small proportion of households reported the separation of family members and hosting unaccompanied children in their household as a result of the drought. This would suggest that the onset of drought has impacted on household composition, including as a result of migration to better pastures to preserve livestock, and sending children to places where food or work are more available.

Protection threats were reported by a small proportion of the respondents, including where there are limitations on movement (e.g. as a result of armed actors), and feeling threatened in specific locations of the community, for example, at water points, in the market, or at latrines. There was very little difference in the level of reporting of these threats for women and girls, as compared to men and boys.

Key Informants in most of the locations assessed noted that there has been migration of IDPs into these areas. The relationship between IDPs and host communities are good.

INTRODUCTION

The complex emergency currently being experienced in Somaliland is driven by low rainfall and climatic shocks experienced over a number of years within a context of climate change; an enduring conflict and clan rivalries which have displaced many thousands of people, increasing competition for resources and disrupting traditional patterns of migration. Additionally, the erosion of coping strategies and exhaustion of livelihood assets, especially livestock; as well as a host of aggravating factors including poor access to some locations due to insecurity, a lack of investment in services and infrastructure including infrastructure for the provision of water, land tenure issues and inflation are some of the contributing factors. Entrenched patriarchal norms also place limits on the representation of women and minorities in decision making spaces, ensuring the marginalization and hardships of these groups. The El Niño weather event, which has been so evident in 2015 and 2016, has exacerbated these underlying factors, driving Somaliland into a drought crisis seriously affecting over a million people, and consequently affecting all sectoral outcomes including in public health, nutrition, livelihoods, and water and sanitation sectors.

The trajectory of the crisis has been one of increasing scale and vulnerability. In a needs assessment undertaken in December 2015, ActionAid reported

[1] that ‘Somaliland is experiencing a severe drought affecting more than

240,000 people due to harsh climatic conditions triggered by the El-Nino phenomenon’. Nine months later in September 2016, the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) and the Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWSNET) released a seasonal assessment revealing that more than one million people in Somaliland (or 31 per cent of the population) will be in need of some form of humanitarian assistance until the end of 2016. This includes approximately 248,000 people who face acute food insecurity, or are in “Crisis” (IPC Phase 3) and “Emergency” (IPC Phase 4), and approximately 826,000 who are at risk of slipping into acute food insecurity if they do not receive assistance. The assessment indicated that acute malnutrition had worsened

[2]. In

the “Update: Call for Aid – Drought and El Nino” launched in July by the Humanitarian Country Team, it was stated

[3] that ‘given the slow onset nature of drought, severity of vulnerabilities within the assessed areas, and the likely

knock-on effect on livelihoods, the assessment also confirmed that recovery from the impacts of the drought is likely to require support beyond immediate life-saving needs’.

The consensus emerging from the current crisis, and one that reiterates longstanding pre-crisis concerns, is that there are serious developmental challenges affecting Somaliland, making a drought crisis as one such emergency. Whilst acknowledging that an immediate humanitarian response is critical in providing life-saving assistance to drought affected communities, a more effective and coordinated approach is required to address the underlying factors that make Somaliland so vulnerable.

In response to this set of circumstances, NERAD with the support of OCHA initiated this Inter-Agency Needs Assessment.

The objectives of the assessment were:

To build up a more complete picture across Somaliland of communities affected by the drought and other humanitarian issues and identify priority needs.

To utilize assessment findings to engage with the donor community for additional resource mobilization.

To utilize assessment findings to better plan and implement emergency programming and longer term development programming including resilience building.


BACKGROUND

Historical / Political Context [4]

After assuming power in a military coup in October 1969, Mohamed Siad Barre led a brutal military dictatorship, marked by widespread human right abuses. The growing discontent with and oppression by Barre’s leadership led to the formation of an opposition group, the Somali National Movement (SNM) in the North (Somaliland) in 1981. With the formation of armed opposition groups in Mogadishu and its surrounding regions in the late 1980s, the Barre regime finally collapsed and on 27 January 1991, Barre fled Mogadishu. On 18 May 1991, the various Somaliland communities met at a Grand Conference and decided to re-assert Somaliland’s sovereignty and independence. Using indigenous peace-making procedures, the various Somaliland communities held a considerable number of local meetings and national conferences to re-establish the peace between the different communities and lay the foundations for local security and governance. The development of the Somaliland constitution started with the National Charter in 1993, followed by an Interim Constitution in 1997 and culminated in the adoption of a final constitution in 2001. On 31 May 2001, 97.9 per cent of Somaliland’s population voted in favor of the new constitution in a referendum endorsed by international observers as free and fair. Nation-wide local elections took place in 2002 and in 2012. Presidential elections took place in 2003 and 2010, and parliamentary elections in 2005.

Economic Context [5]

Based on initial GDP analysis Somaliland’s GDP for 2012 is estimated to have been $1.4 billion (Jan 2014 US$ prices), with GDP per capita estimated at $347. This would be the fourth lowest in the world, ahead of Malawi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Burundi. Almost 30 per cent of GDP is derived from the livestock industry followed by 20 per cent from wholesale and retail trade (including the informal sector); 8 per cent from crops and 6 per cent from real estate activities. In 2012, Somaliland’s trade deficit was approximately $496 million, which was financed through a combination of remittances and external aid. Somaliland has very low levels of investment, ranked approximately 180th in the World for gross fixed capital formation as a percentage of GDP. Furthermore, Somaliland has very low employment-to-population ratios, with 28 per cent for males and 17 per cent for females (15-24 year olds in Borama, Hargeisa and Burao - ILO Labor Force Survey 2012).

Tax revenue as a percentage of GDP in Somaliland (approximately 7 per cent in 2012) is less than half the sub-Saharan African average. Historical low levels of domestic revenue have only been able to sustain core Government functions and maintain peace and stability. The lack of investment in social services, has taken a toll on human development. The Somaliland authorities have taken recent, commendable, strides in strengthening budgeting and planning and enhancing revenue, and the Budget Policy Committee now ring-fences 10-13 per cent of the growing budget for investment activities. Establishment of the Somaliland Development Fund (SDF) has also enabled Government to exercise greater control over external resources. However, [the World Bank considers that] reform of key sectors is needed to sustain revenue generation and create a more competitive economy. The absence of a conventional financial system is significantly hindering access to finance which is the number one constraint on private sector activity in Somaliland.

Social Context

In a 2016 study [6]

, the FAO reported that Somaliland is a lineage-based society in which clans and sub-clans identity play an important role. Clan influence plays an important but ambiguous and contradictory role in almost all decision-making in Somaliland. On the one hand the social contract between clans has been central to maintaining peace and stability and on the other hand clan-based customary practices have been the main source of tension causing land dispute in the country. Hence, in the absence of a sufficient professional and institutional capacity the government’s decisions are often penetrated by strong societal (clan) and powerful private interests.

This has serious implications for the role and situation of women in all aspects of Somaliland society as indicated in a UNDP study which examined the empowerment of women in public administration

[7]: The re-emergence of

customary law, the extended use of shari’a law with a conservative and discriminatory interpretation, and the resort to clan-based forms of political representation have meant that women have been virtually excluded from the political and judicial structures that have emerged in different parts of the country…. Somali customary law recognizes the rights of men but limits the rights of women and is only administered by men. Women are often disadvantaged by their lack of education or knowledge of customary law and, hence, as long as male-dominated clan politics prevail, women will be marginalized due to the gendered nature of the clan system that guarantees the power and privilege of its male members but not its female members. These gender issues and stereotypes appear to be pervasive in all spheres of life, including in the public administration.


Drivers of the Crisis

A. Climate Change / Low Rainfall

Evidence suggests that Somaliland is increasingly affected by climate change and associated weather shocks. In the last 30 years since 1982 there have been seven major shocks – or ‘bad’ years – in Toghdeer Region, for example. Of these, six have occurred in the last 15 years

[8]. In 2015 and 2016, in which the impact of the El Nino

weather phenomenon has been so evident, the following can be said: The Gu rains from April to June 2016 provided some relief and reduced the impact of the drought in parts of Puntland and Somaliland. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) managed Somalia Water and Land Information Management (SWALIM) Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed and Toghdeer regions received near average to above average rainfall compared to the long term mean for the period. Recovery from the drought nevertheless remains very slow. The remaining parts of Somaliland, and most areas in Puntland recorded below average rains that were sporadic and ended prematurely

[9]. Households now have insufficient time to recover between shocks as these increase in frequency and intensity.

Affected populations resort to coping strategies as the norm, increasing vulnerability as these become ever more desperate or exhausted entirely. Agricultural yields have dropped significantly and livestock have perished.

B. Conflict and Displacement

UNCHR undertook a study [10]

of IDP settlements in Hargeisa in which the total population of interest was 12,255 households equating to 71,753 individuals. The household survey confirmed a spike in displacement in 1988 due to the Somali civil-war primarily in opposition to Siad Barre’s repressive rule, and demonstrates steady new displacement over the years: Place of origin of the targeted population indicates that a vast majority of the surveyed population is from Somaliland (86 per cent), 12 per cent are coming from south-central Somalia and 2 per cent coming back from abroad. Only 6 households, out of 2,512 surveyed, are coming from Puntland. More recently, the dispute between Puntland and Somaliland has also had enduring consequences for both the populations of Somaliland and Puntland. The conflict is predicated on the claims of Puntland to Sool, Sanaag and Cayn based on kinship ties with the region’s dominant Darod clans. Conversely, Somaliland claims the territory as part of the original bounds of the British Somaliland protectorate, which the self-declared country regards itself as the successor too. Given the turbulent history of Somaliland and Somalia more widely, there have been successive waves of displacement intensifying competition for resources (e.g. land, water etc.), including access to under-resourced services, separating families, as well as disrupting traditional patterns of migration.

C. Erosion of coping mechanisms and exhaustion of livelihood assets.

Assessments undertaken since the onset of the crisis reveal the loss of livelihood assets and a range of coping strategies that are typically unsustainable. These two facets (loss of assets and coping strategies) are interrelated. Debt (or debt burden) is an important indicator determining the overall economic stability of communities. In a study undertaken by NRC

[11] focusing on communities in Sool and Sanaag it was revealed that 41.7 per cent of those

surveyed responded that they have had to take out debt to meet their basic needs. More women responded as having to take out debt than men; 61.1 per cent of women (n=58) and 50.8 per cent (n=31) of men responded that they have incurred debt.

During FGDs and KIIs in a study undertaken by ActionAid [12]

, the community expressed that work pressure on women has increased in the drought situation. Women have to spend more time in search of water and have to travel long distances for grazing livestock and searching for fodder. The same study points towards the erosion of support networks, with the break-up of households (in the first instance) with 40 per cent of male household members travelling to coastal areas in search of pastures and water as a result of the drought crisis. Surveys carried out by HAVOYOCO

[13] among people displaced by drought in Toghdeer, Sool and Sanaag regions of

Somaliland found that 59 per cent of households reported they had lost all their livestock, forcing them to abandon their livelihoods and move to towns.

In terms of a quantitative measure for household resilience in Somaliland the Resistance Index Measurement and

Analysis (RIMA) can be used. The RIMA concluded an average overall RI of -0.0026 for Somaliland. This low RI score implies that there are a significant number of people with low resilience capacity suggesting an urgency of intervention in those particular districts in Somaliland. Moreover, female headed households (FHH) with a score of -0.0138 are more vulnerable and poorer than the male headed ones (MHH) who have a resilience score of 0.0013

[14].

The RIMA is an index based on the following dimensions of resilience: Adaptive Capacity; Social Safety Nets; Assets; and Access to basic services. For details

please refer to: http://www.slideshare.net/FAOoftheUN/resilience-index-measurement-and-analysis-rima


D. Poor Investment in Services and Infrastructure.

In 2014, the Government of Somaliland approved legislation passed by both the Parliament and President endorsing a Decentralization Policy. This process supported by UNDP, other UN agencies and a range of external governments, provides the political, administrative and financial scope to decentralize service delivery, to districts with sufficient capacity, in prioritized sectors which are health, education, water/sanitation and roads. It also gives District Councils the authority to make local decisions on planning, finance and human resources. UNDP is supporting this process through the UN Joint Program for Local Government Service Delivery (JPLG). Whilst progress has been made in terms of civil servant capacity and the development of processes and systems for the delivery of services to constituents, the Ministry of Planning (GoS) has acknowledged that progress has been hindered by limited availability of central government funding.

Underfunding of services is evident in many areas of Somaliland society and no more crucially than in the provision of water infrastructure during drought. In a recent study looking at different dimensions of the drought in Awdal and Woqooyi Gabeed Regions

[15] it was clear that the dilapidation of wash infrastructure is a serious issue. In Iihinta

Dheye Village (Bulahar District) for example, 7 out of the 14 berkads are not functioning necessitating rehabilitation. Similarly, in Boodale Village (also Bulahar District) the water tank is not functioning due to a broken solar panel used to pump the water. Only 2 out of the 12 shallow wells in and around the village are functioning. Similar stories can be found in the majority of the 21 villages surveyed in the study, where damaged water infrastructure is inhibiting the proper utilisation of available water, including for irrigation. Lack of investment in all basic services across Somaliland is limiting human development outcomes. Access to water, as discussed here, is just one area.

E. Land Tenure

Land is a vital livelihood asset in Somaliland allowing grazing for livestock and the growing of crops / staples. The security of land tenure is undermined by complicated institutional mandates and legislations defining land and territorial rights and ownership, by limited availability of land tenure documentation, corruption, and clan and religious based decisions about the allocation of lands and dispute resolution. In a study by the FAO

[16]

respondents were asked what they considered to be the main impediments to guaranteeing the rights of women and minority groups to land. More than 45 per cent (N=112) of female respondents noted that it was decisions based on cultural and religious grounds that were behind the discrimination against them. For example, in the distribution of inheritance, Islamic procedure gives male members of the family 50 per cent more than the female members and culturally males are given the best lands. In UNHCR’s study of IDP settlements in Hargeisa it was found that very few households (only 3 per cent) interviewed indicated owning land or house in the place of origin

[17], suggesting that lack of land ownership is a driver for migration and displacement. Insecure land tenure leads to

the marginalization of the indigent, minority groups and women. Without ownership of land vulnerability increases (to drought for example) and displacement becomes more likely.

F. Inflation / Reduced Spending Power.

Pressure on household income has increased as a result of increasing commodity prices and limited access to markets. ActionAid’s study

[18] of communities in Marood-jeh and Gabiley regions revealed that in the last 3 years

73 per cent of respondents acknowledged increased expenditure on livestock keeping. 65 per cent respondents indicated higher expenditure on purchasing fodder, 43 per cent pointed out higher expenditure on water and 33 per cent on animal health care. Similarly, the same study found that farming inputs such as tractor time for tillage, pesticides and fertilizers had also increased. FGDs organized by NRC also highlighted changes in prices, leaving families without enough money to purchase food. In a FGD in Taleex, a participant said:

“There has been a change in the price of food because of inflation of the dollar. If the price of a bag of rice was Sh. 300,000, it is now Sh 390,000. This means many of us have to purchase less food.

[19]”

Consequently, a reduction in food consumption is evident in many areas. The SIRNA [20]

reported that the low food consumption scores in Somaliland reflect the heavy dependence on basic staples and limited variety of foods consumed. The decrease in variety of foods consumed was particularly high in severely drought affected areas (96 per cent), compared with moderately affected areas (80 per cent). The report continues by saying that in Puntland, expenditure was on average 34 USD per week, over double the expenditure reported in Somaliland (15 USD per week). This suggests a greater constraint on spending power in Somaliland, or the prioritization of other expenditures than food, which is leading to a reduction in access to sustenance.

G. Lack of Representation for Women

Somali society is by and large patriarchal where males hold primary power, predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property etc. This patriarchal social system is hinged on


the clan structure which is bound by male dominance and women are generally excluded from all decision-making processes, and their role is seen as supporting men’s views, ideas and decisions, and that context permeates to both politics and property ownership. Hence women are inadequately represented at all levels of the government and even to the level of village committees in Somaliland

[21]. This places serious constraints on the permissible

role that women and minorities can play in Somaliland society. For instance, at the national level, women and minority groups are not well represented at all, for example, out of the 164 parliamentarians from the two houses (Elders and Representative) there is only one women representative and one for the minority clans, while in the local governments out of 375 councilors there are only 9 women and no single minority representative

[22].

Population Characteristics

Please refer to the map in Annex I for an overview of the sampled locations. The map also denotes livelihoods groups as defined by FSNAU, and their distribution across Somaliland. Somaliland has the following livelihoods groups: Guban Pastoral; West Golis Pastoral; Northwest Agropastoral; Toghdeer Agropastoral; Hawd Pastoral; Northern Inland Pastoral - Goat & Sheep; and East Golis - Frankincense, Goats & Fishing.

UNFPA provides the following demographic composition data[23]

. Please note that whilst the five regions presented in the following tables cover all of Somaliland (in terms of geography and data capture), other sources of data separate Somaliland in to smaller (more numerous) regional units.

Regions: distribution by sex, number of households, and household size:

Distribution by Sex (percent)

Male

Female

No. of

Households

Household

Size

Awdal

51.8

48.2

83,641

8.0

Waqooyi Gableed

49.8

50.2

205,026

6.1

Togdheer

50.1

49.9

122,597

5.9

Sool

52.8

47.2

52,643

6.2

Sanaag

52.0

48.0

73,426

7.4

Household heads by sex (percent).

87.7 81.2 77.9

86.4 87.7

12.3 18.8 22.1

13.6 12.3

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Awdal W. Galbeed Togdheer Sool Sanaag

Male Female


Population distribution by type of residence (percent).

Protection Concerns

Protection concerns within Somaliland society are both longstanding and more prevalent because of the drought crisis. The SIRNA reports

[24] that a high proportion of households reported the separation of family members, 37

per cent in Puntland and 24 per cent in Somaliland. The high reporting of child separations is of particular concern given the limited displacement [in surveyed areas], suggesting the separations may be a regular occurrence. Naturally separation heightens the risks faced by children when they are no longer with their immediate family or guardians. Limited access to school for children compounds this problem, raising questions about the safety and well-being of children not in school, and undermining longer term attainment and prospects. SIRNA findings suggest that only 33 per cent of males and 29 per cent of females aged between 5-12 attend some form of education

[25]. Attendance rates for secondary school are even lower. There are also protection threats associated

with the use of certain facilities such as water points and latrines. Only 11 per cent of surveyed households with access to a communal latrine reported segregation by gender, only 27 per cent reported latrines were accessible to those with disabilities, and only 29 per cent reported that communal latrines had internal locks

[26].

In terms of recourse to services or duty bearers when a protection threat or act is experienced options are limited, a facet also highlighted in the SIRNA

[27]: For women who do experience violence, reported services for assistance

were limited, with 95 per cent in Puntland and 93 per cent of households reporting community leaders. The only other service cited by more than 10 per cent of households in either location was police, at 12 per cent in Puntland and 33 per cent in Somaliland. Given patriarchal attitudes and norms within Somaliland society the level of effectiveness to be demonstrated by these duty bearers in response to protection threats faced by women is perhaps questionable. Regarding the displaced, these communities typically have much more limited access to various forms of counselling and legal assistance. As IDPs are typically forced to settle on land that is publicly owned, access to these vital services is important, particularly when land disputes arise. Additionally, these are the communities most frequently facing eviction, causing them to continue relocating in search for stable shelter

[28].

Response

While the UN and the NGO community had on-going emergency, safety nets and recovery programs in Somaliland to address ongoing vulnerability, the scale up of the response to meet the specific needs resulting from the 2015/2016 gradually started in January but significantly in February 2016 by which time many pastoral households had already lost their animals. Although partners on ground repeatedly updated each other on the on-going emergency situation in the drought affected areas, the individual agencies challenge was that partners were not able to translate this knowledge into action. Part of this was attributed to lack of timely resources. It was also due to competing priorities with needs in the South Central zone where the humanitarian community focused on the looming impact of the El Nino which was expected to result in flooding during the fourth quarter of 2015. There was

21.4 11.2 8.0 4.3 5.7

42.8 64.6 67.1

37.0 29.4

1.2

3.6 3.6

1.5 0.2

34.7 20.6 21.4

57.3 64.8

Awdal W. Galbeed Togdheer Sool Sanaag

Rural Urban IDP camps Nomadic


also the lack of clear understanding of the scale of the impact of the drought to motivate enthusiastic consolidated response action.

The following extract is taken from ‘Somalia – Update: Call for Aid, Drought and El Nino’[29]

:

The response continues to the extent more resources are being made available. The government, local authorities, civil society organizations, the private sector, bilateral aid and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) have also provided assistance. During the first five months of 2016, the humanitarian clusters reached an estimated 277,800 people (89 per cent) with access to food and safety nets on monthly basis (out of a target of 311,000 people monthly), 105,240 people (14 per cent) with livelihood assets monthly (out of a target of 761,000 people) and 116,300 people (13 per cent) with seasonal inputs monthly (out of a target of 887,500 people). From a target of 178,230 people, nearly 133,200 children have been reached with nutrition activities. Some 465,000 people were targeted for health services. As at May 2016, 87,800 Somalis were reached with primary health services, while 107,500 people were reached through mobile health services. The WASH cluster targeted to serve 700,000 people. Some 183,000 were reached with water vouchers while 130,000 were reached though boreholes. Education was targeting 34,000 people but reached 19,300 in Somaliland and Puntland, largely through reprogramming of other resources for less expensive interventions, and unfortunately not undertaking the costly school feeding programmes due to lack of funding.

Government of Somaliland Capacity

In February 2016 the Government of Somaliland issued a declaration of drought as a result of the El Nino weather system and appealed for humanitarian assistance, following on a similar appeal on behalf of the Somaliland and Puntland administrations in March 2016. The President of Somaliland formed the National Drought Response Committee (NDC) headed by the Vice President to lead the mobilization of local and international resources to respond to the drought. The success of NDC in mobilizing significant amounts of resources rested on the representation of different levels of society, including religious leaders and the business community. This has given confidence that Somaliland can take stronger lead in addressing emergencies and building resilience using locally mobilized resources if the right personalities are involved in impartial high level committee. It provides confidence to the general public to contribute funds for the common good. NDC established regional committees from local community to assist in the identification of affected communities at the regional and district levels, and the distribution of humanitarian assistance.

Similarly, the strategy [30]

of the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) has progressive aims such as cost recovery, drought preparedness, early warning, and preparedness capacity, as well as program of work for the rehabilitation and development of water infrastructure country wide. The aims of this strategy may not be realized given the limitations on financing, not only in terms of putting in place new infrastructure, but also in terms of maintenance. A representative from the MoWR pointed out at a recent coordination meeting (12.10.2016) that investments had been made in new water infrastructure, however sustainability was a crucial issue with reports that this infrastructure was falling into a state of disrepair i.e. the dilapidation of wash infrastructure is discussed in more detail in the ‘Poor Investment in Services and Infrastructure’ section above.

The lack of delineation between the responsibilities and mandates of multiple government ministries undermines their effectiveness, which is further eroded by a lack of central government funds, and capable institutions through which to implement policy. The decentralization of service provision, as promulgated in the Decentralization Policy, may address responsiveness and accountability issues. As discussed elsewhere these factors have serious implications for the realization of ministerial plans, government initiatives and the provision of services.

Access

Access remains a challenge in some areas and for some types of activities. Reports suggest that security constraints can play a major role in determining the nature of samples for some assessments, with security threats impeding staff access to some locations and logistical constraints reducing capacity in the field to collect data. This was the experience of enumerators working on behalf of the FAO, UNICEF, and WFP as they collected data for their resilience report

[31]. UNHCR was also impeded from collecting data from some locations, in this case Sheikh

Noor. ‘During the enumeration exercise the enumeration teams were asked to stop enumerating in the settlement. Some of the population residing there did not want to be recognized as living in a settlement for IDPs’. This served to highlight ‘the complexity of identifying settlements in such contexts: while government and humanitarian agencies designate Sheikh Noor as a settlement, those residing there view it in a different light’

[32]. Whilst

recognizing the threats that international staff in particular can face, the need to arrange an escort for international staff for trips into the field is both inconvenient and costly, and arguably has questionable efficacy. The very strict


security procedures for UN staff can also limit their flexibility and working behavior. More generally, the Humanitarian Country Team (and Partners) report that overall, markets and supply routes remain open and functional. The ban by Puntland authorities on road transportation of humanitarian supplies into Puntland from Somaliland nevertheless continues to be a challenge

[33]

Gaps and Challenges

Funding shortfall remains a challenge for a sufficiently robust response to assist the 1.7 million people in need of various types of humanitarian assistance and many have received little or no assistance to date. Sectors such as protection and education, in particular, have not made meaningful progress due to lack of funding. It was estimated that by May 2016, humanitarian partners only reached between 40 and 50 per cent of the targeted caseload

[34].

This shortfall translates into more localized gaps in provision and coordination, as demonstrated by the following examples: In FGDs organized by ActionAid, community members told that since there is no social security programme, they do not receive any monetary support, except very limited food and water support as relief

[35]. In

the same study it was reported that there had been very little support delivered in the assessed villages. Only 13 per cent of respondents / households had received some relief materials. However, most of the relief materials were provided by the village community (36 per cent of the respondents) and extended families (46 per cent of the respondents). 15 per cent of respondents have also acknowledged receiving some relief materials from NGOs

[36].

Similarly, other agencies highlighted gaps in provision as well alluding to limitations in coordination. KIIs organized by NRC highlighted the fact that few, if any, NGOs and international aid organizations operated in Sool and Sanaag, indicating a deep gap in services and aid provision for local communities

[37].

In almost all of the assessments undertaken in relation to development and crisis in Somaliland (please see references), seemingly sensible recommendations have been made as to the way forward on specific and not so specific issues. Without further study it is however unclear at this stage just how many of these recommendations have been acted upon or implemented, and whether or not funding (or lack of) is the determining factor in the realization of these. This assessment is multi-sectoral and therefore in terms of recommendations (please see below) a multi-sectoral approach might be the way forward. Again, however, evidence would suggest that poor coordination and lack of funding are limiting factors in respect of scale and impact of a multi-sectoral response, if this was indeed the approach chosen. The Humanitarian Country Team (and Partners) report that an integrated response of education, WASH and food security was initiated in some parts of the region and demonstrated that more can be achieved through a joined-up response. It was concluded that more financial resources are needed for the realization of the full benefits of a joined-up response…There is a need, however, to deliberately plan for an integrated approach in order to ensure inclusion in planning interventions and resource mobilization. There is also a need for the Inter-Cluster Coordination Group to earmark funding for the integrated approach

[38]. This

assessment and the other assessments cited reveal that the needs are extensive, in terms of addressing the immediate needs created by the drought crisis and longer term development challenges in Somaliland.

METHODOLOGY

Assessment teams

Primary data collection was undertaken by 13 teams in 19 districts. Ostensibly there were 10 agencies leading the primary data collection, but within enumerator team’s other agencies were represented. Each of the 13 enumerator teams contained three people, including at least one female. The teams used mobile data collection to complete 600 household surveys and 30 key informant interviews. Team leaders were also tasked with completing an observational checklist in each location to provide more qualitative information. Although there were questions about access to education services in both the household questionnaire(HHQ) and key informant questionnaire (KIQ), the Ministry of Education also requested that teams collect specific information about educational institutions within specific locations.

Coordination

The coordination process was led by NERAD with the support of OCHA. In terms of collective decision making and consensus building, an Assessment Information Management Working Group (AIM-WG) was established with the participation of 13 agencies. The AIM-WG met on numerous occasions in September and October to discuss and to make decisions about the nature of the assessment and the assessment process to be followed. Responsibility for specific tasks was delegated to AIM-WG members. On 20 October, Save the Children International (SCI) provided guidance during the enumerator training day on mobile data collection. During the 10 days of primary data collection, ActionAid was the point of contact for enumerator teams experiencing problems. The enumerator


training day involved the process of establishing collective understanding about assessment requirements, including coordination on locations. OCHA’s Information Management Unit (IMU) assisted in data analysis. Local authorities were also notified about the assessment in each district.

Given the number of agencies involved in the assessment, there were coordination challenges. For example, when inputs were requested for both the HHQ and KIQ through the Sectors including from other UN agencies the response was poor. This perhaps reflects the recent transition from a cluster based system to sectors and the work that still needs to be done in this area.

Under the leadership of the National Environment Research and Disaster Preparedness and Management Authority (NERAD), the inter-agency needs assessment consisted of the following stages:

1. Formation of the AIM-WG including planning, preparation and development of questionnaire tools.

2. Enumerator training

3. Review of secondary data including previous assessments, monitoring and situation reports, demographic data on affected populations and IDP figures at regional and district levels

4. Primary data collection including Household Surveys (HHS) and Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), supplemented with an Observational Checklist (per settlement) and an Educational Assessment Tool. Site selection covered 19 districts representing across Somaliland.

5. Joint data analysis, including quality control, identifying priority needs, and defining of findings and strategic priorities.

6. Preparation and dissemination of final assessment report.

* Please see Annex 1 for additional details on assessment timeframe, sampling, and site selection

Map of Respondent Locations against Livelihood Zones


ASSESSMENT FINDINGS

Food Security and Livelihoods

84 per cent of households have had their main source of income affected by the drought, with 62 per cent of these households reporting significant to completely reduced or lost income.

Of the households reporting significant to completely reduced or lost income, 74 per cent did not receive any food assistance in the last year.

Of the same households reporting significant to completely reduced or lost income, respondents living in 85 per cent of villages did not receive cash assistance.

Of the households who completely lost their main source of income (a reduction of 80 per cent-100 per cent) as a result of the drought, 36 per cent of households are in Sanaag, 26 per cent in Toghdeer, and 22 per cent in Sool.

Of the respondents reporting livestock as their main livelihood, 86 per cent reported that they have lost livestock in the last season.

79 per cent of the total number of animals lost (as a percentage of total reported animal loss in the country) was in Sanaag, Toghdeer, and Sool regions, with 52 per cent of these losses reported in Sanaag only. At the district level, the highest number of reported animal loss was 24 per cent in Ceel Afweyn and 16 per cent in Badham.

84 per cent of reported animal loss was in villages where it was reported that there was no vaccination or treatment campaign.

More than 92 per cent of animals lost were in or around locations where respondents reported that the pasture condition was not normal for this time of year and where there was insufficient grazing for livestock.

Of the 86 per cent of respondents who reported losing livestock, 59 per cent also reported migrating with the animals.

92 per cent of respondents attributed loss of livestock to the drought with 29 per cent in Sanaag, 19 per cent in Toghdeer and 17 per cent in Sool.

88 per cent of the respondents who reported livestock as their main source of income, also reported that the body condition of their animals was thin, with 82 per cent reporting the body condition of their animals as ‘very thin’.

The most affected regions where body condition of animals was reported as ‘very thin’ were Sanaag (where 36 per cent of households reported body condition of animals as ‘very thin’), Toghdeer (25 per cent), and Sool (20 per cent).

Of those households who reported the body condition of their animals as being ‘very thin’, 96 per cent of these households also reported that they have no stock of fodder.

The majority (79 per cent) of the households whose livelihood is livestock keeping are dependent upon one water source for their livestock

89 per cent of households said there was insufficient water for farming. 28 per cent of respondents who reported insufficient water for farming are Waqooyi Galbeed, 20 per cent in Toghdeer, and 17 per cent in Sanaag.

When asked what are the major problems facing your family at this time, 28 per cent of respondents indicated the lack fodder, lack of water, and bad markets.

49 per cent of respondents identified lack of fodder as a major problem they are facing at this time. Of the respondents who identified fodder as a major problem, 27 per cent are in Sanaag, 20 per cent in Toghdeer regions and 18 per cent in Waqooyi Galbeed region.

25 per cent of respondents reported that their food stock would only last from one to three days. 0.3 per cent of respondents reported that their food stock was already exhausted.

Of the respondents reporting that their food stocks would last from one to three days, 31 per cent are in Toghdeer, 25 per cent are in Awdal, and 15 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed.


19 per cent of respondents reported that their food stock would last for one week. Of these respondents, 24 per cent are in Sanaag, 20 per cent in Toghdeer, and 17 per cent are in Awdal.

When asked what coping strategies are employed by households when there is not enough money to buy food (in the last month), as one of their coping strategies the following were identified: reducing the number of meals (59 per cent of households), buying food on credit (47 per cent), and consuming less preferred food (35 per cent).

51 per cent of respondents eat less than three meals per day, including 12 per cent reporting eating no meal per day. Of those reporting no meals, 79 per cent are in Awdal, 18 per cent are in Sanaag, and 1 per cent is in Sool. Of those reporting eating one meal a day, 40 per cent are in Toghdeer, 18 per cent in Sool, and 16 per cent in Awdal.

The number of respondents reporting purchasing food on credit has increased by 45 per cent since the onset of the drought. 61 per cent of respondents report that they do not have access to credit.

Of the 70 per cent households who reported an increase in household food expense, 34 per cent reported an increase of more than 30 per cent in their household food expense.

There were 30 key informants including government officials (40 per cent); community leaders (30 per cent); women’s representatives (17 per cent); head teachers / teachers (7 per cent); health professionals (3 per cent); and NGO representatives (3 per cent) whose data and analysed.

80 per cent of KI respondents reported that there had been loss of livestock due to the drought. In the areas where there was livestock loss, 67 per cent of KI respondents reported that this occurred in areas where there were no vaccination campaigns.

73 per cent of KI respondents reported that there had been no cash based intervention in the assessed areas.

73 per cent of KI respondents reported that there has been a decrease in demand for livestock in markets. 73 per cent of KI respondents reported that the price of livestock has decreased in the market.

90 per cent of KI respondents reported that there is insufficient grazing for livestock in and around their location. Additionally, 97 per cent of KI respondents reported that the pasture condition is not normal for this time of year.

70 per cent of KI respondents reported boreholes as one of the main sources of water for households within the assessed area. 40 per cent of KI reported shallow wells as one of the main sources of water, and 40 per cent reported berkads.

97 per cent of KI respondents reported that there is no fodder in the assessed area.

70 per cent of KI respondents reported that households in the assessed area need to buy fodder for their livestock.

93 per cent of KI respondents reported that the body condition of livestock within the assessed area was ‘thin’, with 63 per cent of KI respondents reporting ‘very thin’.

63 per cent of KI respondents reported that there has been livestock migration into the assessed area. 67 per cent of KI respondents reported that there has been livestock migration out of the assessed area.

83 per cent of KI respondents reported that households borrow to meet their food needs.

27 per cent of KI respondents reported that household food stocks within the assessed area will last from one to three days. 30 per cent of KI respondents reported food stocks to last for one week.

70 per cent of KI respondents reported that households within the assessed area are eating less than normal.

43 per cent of KI respondents reported that households within the assessed area do not have access to loans.

There has been a 50 per cent increase in KI respondents reporting that households are now buying food on credit since the onset of drought (as compared to pre-drought levels)

There has been a 160 per cent decrease in the number of KI respondents who report that households are acquiring their food from their own livestock / crops since the onset of drought.

There has been a 300 per cent increase in the number of KI respondents reporting that households are acquiring their food from family or other sources since the onset of the drought.


83 per cent of KI respondents report that there has been an increase in the price of food staples since the onset of the drought.

Of the KI respondents who reported an increase in household food expense, 12 per cent reported an increase of more than 30 per cent.

73 per cent of KI respondents reported that there is no water available for farming in the assessed area.

37 per cent of KI respondents reported that community members within the assessed area have not received food assistance.

73 per cent of KI respondents reported that the workload of women has changed since the onset of the drought, with the majority of respondents reporting the need to travel for fodder, grazing and water as the reasons for this.

WASH

71 per cent of respondents identified lack of water as a major problem facing their family at this time. Of the 71 per cent of respondents who identified water as a major problem, 32 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 21 per cent in Toghdeer, and 18 per cent in Sanaag.

78 per cent of the respondents reported accessing water for drinking from only one water source. 21 per cent reported getting water from berkads, 17 per cent from a piped system, and 13 per cent are dependent on water trucking.

Where the source of water is considered safe for drinking by respondents, 27 per cent of respondents reported an increase in the incidence of illness affecting children in households since the drought. Where the source of water is considered unsafe for drinking by respondents, 49 per cent of respondents reported an increase in the incidence of illness affecting children in the household since the drought.

46 per cent of respondents reported an increase in distance to access water since the drought. 45 per cent of respondents reported that the distance to access water since the drought has not changed. For the respondents who reported an increase in distance, 13 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 20 per cent in Sanaag, and 17 per cent in Sool.

60 per cent of respondents reported that adult female members of the household are responsible for collecting water.

25 per cent of the assessed population reported that they have access to less than 30 liters of water per day. Of those reporting less than 30 liters of water per day, 25 per cent of respondents are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 24 per cent in Toghdeer, and 21 per cent in Awdal. 71 per cent of respondents reported that there is sufficient water for drinking and cooking. 74 per cent of respondents report that there is sufficient water for cleaning and washing. 69 per cent of respondents consider the water to be of good quality.

Although 69 per cent of respondents consider their water to be of good quality, 76 per cent of respondents report that their water is not treated.

8 per cent of the respondents reported that they face acts of violence when they collect water. The most prevalent acts of violence faced are verbal abuse (58 per cent), physical violence (35 per cent), threat of physical violence (23 per cent), and gender based violence (11 per cent).

36 per cent of respondents report that their household water is stored in a container or jerry can without lid. 63 per cent of respondents report that they do not have a separate container for collecting and storing water. 57 per cent of respondents report that they clean their water container / jerry can on a weekly basis. 28 per cent of respondents report that the clean their water container / jerry can on a monthly basis. 14 per cent of respondents report that the never clean their water container / jerry can.

46 per cent of respondents report that they do not have access to a latrine. Of those who report not having access to a latrine the incidence of illness amongst children since the onset of drought is reported to have increased by 46 per cent. Of those who reported having access to a latrine (79 per cent private and 20 per cent shared or communal), the incidence of illness amongst children since the onset of the drought is reported to have increased by 22 per cent.

Of the households without access to latrines, 26 per cent of respondents are in Sanaag, 19 per cent in Waqooyi Galbeed, and 19 per cent in Toghdeer.

Of the households who have access to a latrine, 67 per cent of respondents report that they are in a good state of cleanliness.

23 per cent of the communal latrines are not separated for males and females


79 per cent of respondents with access to a latrine report not having a handwashing facility. Only 39 per cent of respondents reported washing their hands after using the latrine. 49 per cent of respondents use only water to wash their hands.

61 per cent of respondents reported that women in the household do not have access to sanitary items.

When key informants were asked where households get their water from in the assessed area, 47 per cent reported water kiosks (distribution point), 43 per cent reported berkads, and 27 per cent reported water trucking.

83 per cent of KI respondents reported that water from these water points / sources is safe for drinking.

63 per cent of KI respondents reported that the available water is sufficient for household drinking, cooking, and cleaning needs.

57 per cent of KI respondents report an increase in the time taken for households in the assessed area to reach a water source or point since the onset of drought.

90 per cent of KI respondents report that households in the assessed area pay for water.

80 per cent of KI respondents report that households in the assessed area use the same water source for drinking and non-drinking needs.

87 per cent of KI respondents consider the water in the assessed area to be of good quality, although 73 per cent of KI respondents reported that no water sources are treated.

77 per cent of KI respondents reported that households within the assessed area have access to latrines, with the majority of these latrines being private.

Of the 23 per cent of KI respondents who reported that households do not have access to latrines in the assessed area, 57 per cent also reported that there are no designated defecation fields.

70 per cent of KI respondents reported that there are no designated dump sites for garbage in the assessed area. For the 30 per cent of KI respondents reporting that there are designated sump sites, 33 per cent report that they are not used by households in the assessed area.

Health

More than 10 per cent of the respondents reported that they do not have access to a health facility. 9 per cent of the respondents reported traveling more than 50 km to the nearest health facility.

When asked what is the type of the nearest functioning health facility, 42 per cent of respondents reported hospital, 26 per cent reported maternal and child health center, and 9 per cent reported mobile clinic.

When asked whether or not their children had experienced specific illnesses or diseases in the last month, the following was reported: 51 per cent of respondents reported no disease; 28 per cent malnutrition; 21 per cent diarrhea; 20 per cent malaria; 9 per cent respiratory infections; and 8 per cent measles. There is limited medical evidence to support illness prevalence and diagnosis.

When asked whether or not the adults in the household had experienced specific illnesses or diseases in the last month, the following was reported: 57 per cent of respondents reported no disease; 19 per cent malnutrition; 18 per cent malaria; 15 per cent respiratory infection; 10 per cent diarrhea; and 5 per cent measles. Again there is limited medical evidence to support illness prevalence and diagnosis.

33 per cent of the respondents reported that there had been an increase in the incidence of illness and disease affecting children in the household since the onset of the drought. The highest reported increases were experienced in Sanaag (27 per cent), Toghdeer (26 per cent), and Waqooyi Galbeed (14 per cent).

31 per cent of the respondents reported attempting to access health services since the onset of drought. 37 per cent of respondents reported that there has been a negative change in the ability to access health services since the onset of drought.

When asked if there has been a change in the amount they spend on health care since the drought, 48 per cent of respondents reported that there had been an increase. 24 per cent of respondents reported an increase in Waqooyi Galbeed, 22 per cent in Sanaag, and 10 per cent in Toghdeer.

The barriers to accessing heath care were reported as cost of health care by 70 per cent of respondents; the distance from a health care facility (44 per cent of respondents); and lack of transport (37 per cent of respondents).


For the key informant interview, 73 per cent of the respondents reported that there is a noticeable increase in the number of people experiencing disease in the assessed area since the onset of drought.

43 per cent of KI respondents perceive that the number of deaths has increased due to the onset of drought (perceptions only – no medical evidence to support this claim).

63 per cent of KI respondents reported that it has become more difficult for households in the assessed area to access health services as a result of the drought.

70 per cent of KI respondents reported that there has been an increase in household expenditure on health care in the last month since the onset of drought.

73 per cent of KI respondents reported that the cost of health for households is the most prevalent barrier to accessing health care.

Nutrition

79 per cent of the households said that they did not purchase infant milk products since the drought, and 20 per cent of households said that they did purchase these products. Of those that said no to purchasing these products, 25 per cent of respondents are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 21 per cent in Awdal, 19 per cent in Sanaag, and 19 per cent in Toghdeer. Of those respondents who said yes to purchasing infant milk products, 44 per cent alone are in Waqooyi Galbeed, and 19 per cent in Toghdeer.

97 per cent of respondents said that they did not receive milk products in the form of assistance since the onset of the drought. Of these households, 29 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 19 per cent in Toghdeer, and 18 per cent in Awdal.

92 per cent of respondents said that they did not have access to nutrition programmes since the onset of the drought. Of these respondents who indicated no access, 30 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 20 per cent in Toghdeer, and 17 per cent in Awdal. Conversely, of the households who reported having access to nutrition services since the onset of the drought, 37 per cent are in Awdal, and 26 per cent in Sanaag.

Of the 7 per cent of households who reported having access to nutrition programmes, 51 per cent reported that they had access to Outpatient Therapeutic Care Programmes, 31 per cent to Targeted Supplementary Feeding Programmes (TSFP), and 24 per cent Stabilization Centers.

61 per cent of respondents reported that there had not been a negative change in their ability to access nutrition services since the onset of the drought. 21 per cent of respondents reported that there had been a negative impact on their ability to access nutrition services, and 17 per cent reported that they had not tried to access these services.

When asked if there is a serious problem in your household because the practices of feeding children under two has changed, 74 per cent of respondents said no, 10 per cent said yes, and 16 per cent of respondents said that they did not know.

Of those households who reported yes to there being a serious problem because the practices of feeding children under two has changed, 81 per cent indicated lack of vitamin supplements, 78 per cent indicated breastfeeding practices have changed (starting later and stopping earlier), and 71 per cent indicated a reduction in the number of times children under 24 months are fed.

83 per cent of respondents reported that the availability and quality of food does not impact on the health of pregnant or lactating women in the household. Of these respondents, 32 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 29 per cent in Awdal, and 19 per cent in Toghdeer. Of the households who reported that the availability and quality of food does have an impact on the health of pregnant or lactating women in the household, 22 per cent are in Sool, 19 per cent in Toghdeer, and 16 per cent in Sanaag.

Of the 17 per cent of households who reported that the availability and quality of food does have an impact on the health of pregnant or lactating women, 81 per cent of respondents reported that the impact was less energy, 56 per cent said that the pregnant or lactating women in the household are producing less milk, and 37 per cent reported irregular breast feeding of the child / children.

67 per cent of the key informants observed malnutrition in children while 77 per cent observed malnutrition in women. 87 per cent of KI respondents attributed these observed rates of malnutrition to the drought.

50 per cent of KI respondents reported that there is a nutrition programme accessible to households in the assessed area, with an Outpatient Therapeutic Care Programme (OTP) being the most prevalent nutrition programme available.


80 per cent of KI respondents report that there has been no distribution of infant formula or milk since the onset of the drought from aid agencies, government or the local community.

53 per cent of KI respondents report that the health of children in the assessed area has deteriorated as a result of food availability and quality.

57 per cent of KI respondents report that the availability and quality of food has impacted on the health of pregnant or lactating women. 57 per cent of KI respondents reported that pregnant or lactating women have less energy or are feeling more tired, 41 per cent of KI respondents reported pregnant or lactating women are producing less milk for breast feeding, and 12 per cent of KI respondents reported irregular breasting feeding of child.

Education

81 per cent of respondents reported that there is a school or learning space in their village. Of the 19 per cent of respondents who reported no school or learning space in their village, 38 per cent are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 18 per cent in Awdal, and 14 per cent in Saahil.

Of the 81 per cent of respondents that reported a school or learning space in their village, 44 per cent of these reported access to only one school or learning space, with 33 per cent of these reporting access to a primary school. Of the 81 per cent of respondents that reported a school or learning space in their village, 31 per cent reported having access to both primary and secondary schools. Of the 81 per cent of respondents that reported a school or learning space in their village, 51 per cent reported access to a madrassa. 5 per cent of respondents reported to only having access to a madrassa.

When asked if school aged children in the household go to school, 45 per cent of respondents said that children in the household do not go to school. Of this 45 per cent, 24 per cent of respondents are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 24 per cent in Sanaag, 20 per cent in Awdal, and 17 per cent in Toghdeer.

Based upon the 45 per cent of respondents of households whose children do not attend school, the reasons for non-attendance where identified as the following: 38 per cent reported that they were unable to pay school fees; 37 per cent reported age (i.e. their children were not of school age); 12 per cent reported the drought; and 9 per cent reported domestic chores.

41 per cent of respondents reported that their children attended schools without safe drinking water. Of these respondents, 28 per cent are in Sanaag, 26 per cent in Toghdeer, 15 per cent in Awdal, and 15 per cent in Sool.

24 per cent of respondents reported that their children attend schools without access to latrines. Of these, respondents 39 per cent are in Sanaag, 28 per cent in Toghdeer, and 11 per cent Sool.

Of those children who go to schools without safe drinking water, 46 per cent of respondents also reported inadequate access to latrines

41 per cent of respondents reported that their children do not attend schools with separate latrines for boys and girls. Of these 30 per cent are in Toghdeer, 25 per cent in Sanaag, and 18 per cent in Awdal.

77 per cent of respondents reported that their children do not go to schools with a school feeding programme. Of the 23 per cent of respondents who reported that their children do go to a school with a feeding programme, 44 per cent are in Awdal, 17 per cent in Sanaag, 17 per cent in Waqooyi Galbeed, and 13 per cent in Toghdeer.

97 per cent of the key informants reported that there is a learning space or school in the assessed area. 53 per cent of KI respondents reported that there is both primary and secondary schools in the assessed areas.

72 per cent of KI respondents reported that school aged children in the assessed area go to school. For those KI respondents that reported school aged children not going to school, all of them attributed this to the drought.

81 per cent of KI respondents reported that children in the assessed area go to a school with safe drinking water. 19 per cent of KI respondents reported no safe drinking water in schools.

76 per cent of KI respondents reported that children in the assessed area go to a school with adequate latrines. 24 per cent of KI respondents reported inadequate latrines in schools.

67 per cent of KI respondents reported that children in the assessed area go to schools with separate latrines for boys and girls. 33 per cent of KI respondents reported no separate latrines in schools for boys and girls.


52 per cent of KI respondents reported that children in the assessed area attend a school with a feeding programme.

Shelter

26 per cent of respondents reported that they own the land they are currently settled on. 29 per cent of these respondents are in Waqooyi Galbeed, 23 per cent in Toghdeer, and 19 per cent in Sanaag. Of the households who do not own the land they are settled on, 38 per cent are obliged to give goods or services in order to stay on the land. Of the households who report paying goods or services in order to stay on the land, 52 per cent of respondents say that the amount has changed as a result of the drought.

88 per cent of respondents who pay rent pay with cash. 93 per cent of those households who rent the land that they are settled on pay monthly.

58 per cent of respondents report that they pay more than a quarter of their monthly household income on rent.

Of those households who do not own the land they are settled on, 75 per cent do not have a contract with the owner / landlord.

When asked what kind of shelter is the household using, respondents reported: 45 per cent normal structure, 36 per cent Somali hut of buul, and 19 per cent makeshift, exposed or open air as their shelter type. Of those reporting makeshift, exposed or open air as their shelter type, 61 per cent of these respondents are in Toghdeer.

43 per cent of respondents reported earth as the primary floor material for their shelter, followed by 26 per cent of respondents reporting cement, and 18 per cent plastic sheeting. 40 per cent of respondents reported iron sheeting as the primary wall / roof covering, 17 per cent reported plastic sheeting, and 17 per cent reported clothes / rags.

When asked what are the main challenges associated with meeting shelter needs, 89 per cent of respondents reported cost of construction materials, 85 per cent reported availability of construction materials, 62 per cent shelter size too small for the household, and 57 per cent land tenure / land ownership as a main challenge. 77 per cent of respondents reported both cost and availability of construction materials as main challenges associated with meeting shelter needs.

35 per cent of respondents reported living in a shelter without a lockable door, and 64 per cent reported that their shelter does not have a source of light at night.

When respondents were asked if they have the following basic items the following information was elicited:

Basic Item Yes (%) No (%)

Blankets 47 53

Bed mats 50 50

Plastic sheets 47 53

Jerry cans/water

containers

88 12

Clothes 17 83

Wash basin 44 65

When asked what the main challenges are for households within the assessed area for meeting shelter needs, 97 per cent of the key respondents reported cost of construction materials, 96 per cent said availability of construction materials, and 57 per cent said land tenure / land ownership issues.

Protection

57 per cent of respondents reported the presence of older persons, of which some are older persons providing care, in the household. 14 per cent of respondents reported more than one vulnerable group


within their households. 20 per cent of respondents reported that their households are female-headed. 18 per cent of respondents reported household members with some form of disability within the household.

8 per cent of households reported the separation of family members as a result of the drought. Of the households reporting separation, 44 per cent are in Toghdeer, 25 per cent in Sanaag, and 15 per cent in Sool.

Where family members have been separated, 37 per cent of respondents attributed this to losing caregivers/children during relocation / migration; 31 per cent of respondents attributed separation to losing caregivers / children due to medical evacuation; and 13 per cent attributed separation to caregivers voluntarily sending their children to extended family members / friends.

6 per cent of respondents reported having unaccompanied children within their households. Of this 6 per cent, 35 per cent of respondents are in Toghdeer, 35 per cent in Sool, and 18 per cent in Sanaag.

4 per cent of respondents reported that members of their households have experienced being threatened, intimidation, or violence since the onset of the drought. Of the 4 per cent, 50 per cent reported experiencing verbal abuse, 27 per cent beating or other ill treatment, and 32 per cent did not wish to answer.

22 per cent of respondents reported that they are unable to move freely around their current place, settlement or surrounding area. 32 per cent of these respondents are in Awdal, 28 per cent in Waqooyi Galbeed; and 22 per cent in Toghdeer.

12 per cent of the respondents report that members of their households felt or feared insecurity because of issues with the presence of police, clan militia, family member, gatekeepers, armed groups, community leaders, crime, with a number of respondents choosing not to answer.

6 per cent of respondents report that men and boys in their households feel unsafe in specific areas of their communities, including market place, water points, latrines, feeding centers, schools and health centers.

7 per cent of respondents report that women and girls in their households feel unsafe in specific areas of their communities, including the market place, water points, baths, feeding centers, schools and health centers.

In terms of seeking support when women and girl household members have experienced some form of violence, the most prevalent sources of support were reported as community leader, family member, and the police. 25 per cent of respondents report that when reporting violence and seeking support they resort to a family member or one other service provider, agency or community member. 7 per cent of women and girls who are victims of some form of violence do not seek help or support at all.

77 per cent of the key informants reported police as the most common structure for law enforcement in the assessed area, followed by community security at 37 per cent of respondents.

When asked which groups have been most affected by the onset of drought in the assessed area, 97 per cent of KI respondents reported women, 87 per cent reported older persons, and 83 per cent people living with disabilities.

60 per cent of KI respondents are aware of household members being separated from their households as a result of the drought.

40 per cent of KI respondents are aware of unaccompanied or separated children in the assessed area.

27 per cent of KI respondents report that there are limitations on the freedom of movement for individuals in their settlement or surrounding area. Threat of violence was highlighted as the most prevalent reason for these limitations.

37 per cent of KI respondents reported that there are locations in the assessed areas where men and boys, and women and girls, do not feel safe.

When asked where women and girls report acts of violence against them, 63 per cent of KI respondents reported community leaders, 57 per cent reported family members, and 57 per cent reported police.

Displacement

Information on displacement was sourced from key informants only.

80 per cent of KI respondents report that displaced households (IDPs) have arrived in the areas visited by the assessment teams in the last year, and 83 per cent of KI respondents report that there are still displaced households residing in the assessed area.

All KI respondents attribute the cause of displacement to the drought.


53 per cent of KI respondents report that there has been movement of households leaving the assessed area as a result of the drought.

80 per cent of KI respondents state that the relationship between IDPs and host communities is good, with 50 per cent stating very good. Reasons that might undermine the generally positive relationship between IDPs and host communities include pressure on resources (63 per cent of KI respondents), limited livelihood opportunities (37 per cent of KI respondents), and land issues (23 per cent of KI respondents).

RECOMMENDATIONS

Immediate

Food security and livelihoods

Alternatives to a general food distribution might be considered. Vouchers are an effective way of providing easily accessible and appropriate foodstuffs to vulnerable households. This is because families have the flexibility to purchase food and non-food items to meet their daily needs. Local markets and economies are also supported

*.

Food for work schemes might be another approach, tied to the work required to improve water infrastructure. The most appropriate modality for better access to food needs to be decided upon with prospective recipients.

Supplementary and therapeutic feeding programmes must be implemented alongside general distributions.

Support to livestock given that 86 per cent of respondents whose main livelihood is livestock reported loss.

Focus on the provision of fodder and water to sustain animals through this harsh period and restocking to support livelihoods transitioning into the post drought period. These initiatives may be targeted to support the most affected Sanaag, Toghdeer, and Sool regions.

In terms of restocking initiatives there are multiple considerations including selecting suitable livestock fit for local conditions is vital. Cash-transfers allow recipients to directly select what they buy and when, thus allowing the acquisition of better quality of stock at fairer prices, as well as preventing wasteful sales of distributed animals in order to buy basic provisions.

In areas of recurrent livestock die offs, alternative livelihoods might be considered including prevention of mass livestock mortality.

The assessment recommends vaccination and health programs for livestock as a measure to preserve livestock before they succumb to diseases as a result of drought induced vulnerability and weakness. Given resource constraints a vaccination or treatment campaign might be targeted at particular regions where animal vulnerability and loss is significant.

The assessment recommends unconditional Cash transfers. Cash allows the purchasing of fodder especially among the households that reported the body condition of their animals as being very thin.

WASH

Provide an urgent and adequate quantity of water and to protect water sources from contamination.

Serious consideration needs to be given to the provision of water for public facilities such as hospitals and schools, and the likely increase in disease prevalence as access to clean water becomes increasingly problematic.

Modalities of water distribution to the affected populations needs to be decided upon in consultation with stakeholders since water trucking for instance is both costly and logistically challenging to reach remote communities. The negotiating position of final recipients is also often very weak, though this might be mitigated by using a voucher modality. Despite these reservations a significant proportion of respondents are already obtaining water through water trucking.

* An extensive unconditional cash transfer programme (UCTP) was undertaken in response to the 2011 famine. In an assessment of this

programme, UNICEF reported on the effectiveness of cash transfers to reduce the impacts of drought[39]

.


Medium

Nutrition

There is need for extension of Nutrition programmes including integrated approaches to nutrition, health and education. Any new integrated nutrition and health programme might build upon the coordination mechanisms, structures and facilities developed as part of the Somali Joint Health and Nutrition Programme (JHNP)

*.

More localized nutrition approaches might be implemented, potentially utilizing education and health facilities to ensure wider and more consistent uptake and reach. Programs might include breakfast and school lunch programs, summer food service programs, and supplementary feeding programs for women, infants and children. Positive impacts of programs such as these include higher nutritional intakes, better behavior and cognitive development, higher school attendance rates, and a reduction in levels of low birth rate, fetal mortality, and child malnutrition.

WASH

There is need to improve water infrastructure since access to water is an issue for the majority of households during drought. More systematic investment is needed in water infrastructure, allied to new approaches for rainwater harvesting, and the more efficient utilization of available water. The progressive aims articulated in the Ministry of Water Resources water strategy might be a starting point for this. Sustainability of investment needs to be at the core of water infrastructure improvement initiatives.

Social Safety Net Programmes (SSNPs)

There is need to develop and fund scalable social protection programmes given that social protection is the most direct tool that governments have at their disposal to combat poverty and inequality for their societies. Social protection can serve as a key pillar in reducing vulnerability to risks and shocks if it is sufficiently adapted and scalable to respond rapidly to crises and to offer a buffer for households vulnerable to shocks. There is already a global consensus on social protection floors for all but the potential of social protection remains unmet. For countries that are susceptible to climate-related shocks, it is important that services and support for the most vulnerable members of society can be expanded in times of stress precipitated by the shocks, and reduced at other times. Rather than adding on external, parallel humanitarian support systems (which are generally inefficient, more costly, and late), it is better to expand existing national systems to meet rising need. Existing social protection systems will need to be adapted, and their effectiveness increased. Scalability is also important for other key services/programmes designed to build capacity in areas suffering from chronic problems and recurrent shocks. These might include farm input subsidy programmes where they exist, which can adapt inputs to changing agricultural forecasts; however, note that they should be reformed so they are effective, targeted, and support agro-ecological agriculture. It may also include veterinary services and health services for treatment of malnutrition.

Other recommendations

Access to credit / improved credit services are key. In the absence of external assistance households are resorting to a range of coping strategies to adapt to the vulnerabilities and risks they are experiencing. Although there are sustainability issues with credit, obtaining credit is an important coping strategy utilized in Somaliland. Promotion of credit services within Somaliland might be beneficial, including creating a legal / financial framework in which credit services can operate / exist. Credit institutions and services that might be considered include specialist microfinance institutions (MFIs), commercial bank MFIs, financial co-operatives (including credit unions), low-capital rural and/or local banks, state development and agricultural banks; postal savings banks; non-postal savings banks, and insurance services. Improved credit services would support households during times of crisis, as well as supporting longer term (household level) investments in livelihoods initiatives and concerns.

* The Somali Joint Health and Nutrition Programme (JHNP 2012-16) focused on the Somaliland regions of Toghdeer, Awdal, and Sanaag.

The programme was widely supported by a range of donors and implementing agencies. The 2015 JHNP report highlighted the following: it is estimated that by the end of 2016, JHNP will exceed the target of averting maternal deaths (to more than 10 per cent from the baseline), deaths of children (to reduce by more than 15 per cent) and the number of underweight children (to reduce by more than 10 per cent) [40]

.


Promoting collective / community action for resilience building is important. For example, ActionAid and other agencies have been successful in promoting community based resilience by resuming local traditions of collective action (guus). This can be seen through the formation of Village Disaster Risk Reduction Committees and the development of village contingency plans for disaster preparedness, and the formation of Water Point Management Committees. Community empowerment and accountability of this kind can be important in promoting adapted approaches to climate change including drought and other hazard types faced by communities in Somaliland. Examples of adaptation include the promotion and use of organic / natural pesticides reducing the health concerns and costs associated with chemical pesticides; the promotion of rainwater harvesting strategies for example via shelter roofs and guttering; the planting of Elephant Grass in river beds to reduce the velocity of water and consequential soil erosion; as well as other soil and water retention strategies such as the building of soil bunds. Communities are also linked to national level bodies such as NERAD and the MoA for information sharing (e.g. on weather and early warning) through structures like the Village Disaster Risk Reduction Committees.

The assessment recommends strengthening of forecasting and pre-determined early actions. Response around these forecasts needs to be galvanized to allow the development of an appropriate and timely response by both domestic and international actors. More consideration therefore needs to be given to how evidence and data might be improved and used to illicit a more timely and coordinated response. At the Global Level, FOA has developed an Early Warning-Early Action system. In parallel to the global level initiative, at the request of the HCT and in close consultation with a broad range of partners, Food Security and Nutrition Analysis Unit (FSNAU) has developed and launched in February 2016, a district-level database and dashboard for improving the linkages between Early Warning and Early Action in Somalia, including Somaliland. The database and dashboard are continually being refined, hence important to strengthen the Early Warning-Early Action database and dashboard through timely sharing of data by partners and by broadening access to the dashboard by a wider range of stakeholders, including government line ministries, local and international NGOs, UN agencies and donors. Secondly, the Food Security and Nutrition Analysis and Coordination Main and Sub-Units established within the Somaliland Ministry of Agriculture and the Somaliland Ministry of Health, respectively need to be strengthened so that they can facilitate and support the timely discussion and use of data and analysis from the dashboard in order to inform Early Action in Somaliland.

Parametric Insurance as a form of catastrophe insurance is emerging as a new way to provide prompt budgetary support to governments subjected to major natural disasters, like drought and other natural disasters in the case of Somalia. The payment of claims is not based on actual losses, but on parametric triggers, which are specified intensities of the natural disaster in a specified location, as measured by an independent agency. Since the payment of claims depend on the parametric triggers, which can be readily assessed, and not on actual losses which would have to be quantified, claims can be paid much faster

[41].

REFERENCES

1. ActionAid Somaliland. (2015). Drought Needs Assessment, Somaliland, November 23 – December 2,

2015. Hargeisa. ActionAid Somaliland. (P7).

2. FSNAU. (2016). Technical Release. September 20, 2016. Nairobi.

3. Humanitarian Country Team. (2016). Somalia – Update: Call for Aid, Drought and El Nino, July – September 2016. Mogadishu. Humanitarian Country Team. (P3).

4. Somaliland Government. (2016). History. Retrieved October, 19, 2016, from http://recognition.somalilandgov.com/history/

5. World Bank. (2014). New World Bank GDP and Poverty Estimates for Somaliland, January 29, 2014. Retrieved October 19, 2016, from http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/01/29/new-world-bank-gdp-and-poverty-estimates-for-somaliland

6. Food and Agricultural Organization. (2016). An Analysis of Women’s Land Rights and Territorial Rights of Somali Minorities in Somaliland. Hargeisa. FAO. (P23).

7. United Nations Development Programme. (2012). Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Public Administration (Puntland and Somaliland) Case Study. New York. UNDP. (P9-10)

8. UN Joint Resilience Strategy Members. (2014). Household Resilience in Somaliland – Baseline Analysis for Impact Evaluation of FAO-UNICEF-WFP Resilience Strategy. Hargeisa. WFP. FAO. UNICEF. (P48-49).

http://recognition.somalilandgov.com/history/

http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/01/29/new-world-bank-gdp-and-poverty-estimates-for-somaliland

http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2014/01/29/new-world-bank-gdp-and-poverty-estimates-for-somaliland


9. Humanitarian Country Team. (2016). Somalia – Update: Call for Aid, Drought and El Nino, July – September 2016. Mogadishu. Humanitarian Country Team. (P1)

10. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2015). Internal Displacement Profiling in Hargeisa. Hargeisa. UNHCR. (P19)

11. Norwegian Refugee Council. (2016). Programmatic Needs Assessment in Sool and Sanaag. Hargeisa. NRC. (P11).

12. ActionAid Somaliland. (2015). Drought Needs Assessment, Somaliland, November 23 – December 2, 2015. Hargeisa. ActionAid Somaliland. (P27).

13. Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee. (Date not available). Unreported Need: the Effects of Drought in Somaliland. Retrieved October, 20, 2016, from http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full%20Report_194.pdf

14. UN Joint Resilience Strategy Members. (2014). Household Resilience in Somaliland – Baseline Analysis for Impact Evaluation of FAO-UNICEF-WFP Resilience Strategy. Hargeisa. WFP. FAO. UNICEF. (P1).

15. United Nations Office for Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations Department for Safety and Security, Save the Children International, Care International, World Vision International. (2016). Awdal and Woqooyi Galbeed Regions, Somaliland, Inter-Agency Post-Drought Assessment 14-22 August 2016, Initial Investigation Report. Hargeisa. Agencies as listed. (Pages – Multiple).





20. REACH. (2016). Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment Somaliland and Puntland May 2016. Hargeisa. REACH. (P17-18).



23. UNFPA. (2016). Population Composition and Demographic Characteristics of the Somali People. (Pages – multiple).

24. REACH. (2016). Somalia Initial Rapid Needs Assessment Somaliland and Puntland May 2016. Hargeisa. REACH. (P30).






30. Ministry of Water Resources. (Current strategy). 3 Year Strategic Plan for Drought Resilience. Hargeisa. MoWR.

31. UN Joint Resilience Strategy Members. (2014). Household Resilience in Somaliland – Baseline Analysis for Impact Evaluation of FAO-UNICEF-WFP Resilience Strategy. Hargeisa. WFP. FAO. UNICEF. (P8)


http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Full%20Report_194.pdf








39. Kerren Hedlund, Nisar Majid, Dan Maxwell, and Nigel Nicholson. (Date N/A). Final Evaluation of the Unconditional Cash and Voucher Response to the 2011–12 Crisis in Southern and Central Somalia. Mogadishu. UNICEF.

40. World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s Fund, United Nations Population Fund, UNICEF, UNFPA, Somali Health Authorities. (2016). Joint Health and Nutrition Programme Annual Progress Report 2015. UNICEF.

41. This Matter. (2016). Parametric Insurance. Retrieved November, 11, 2016, from http://thismatter.com/money/insurance/types/parametric-insurance.htm

ANNEX 1: Assessment Timeframe, Sampling, and Site Selection

Assessment Timeframe

September 2016

October 2016

November 2016

W1

W2

W3

W4

W1

W2

W3

W4

W1

W2

W3

W4

Formation of the AIM-WG, planning and

preparation

Enumerator training (including organising)

Review of secondary data

Primary data collection

Joint data analysis

Preparation and dissemination of final report

Sampling and Site Selection

The sampling size was calculated using a sampling formula with known population:

Where:

Z = Z value (e.g. 1.96 for 95 per cent confidence level) p = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal (0.5 used for sample size needed) c = confidence interval, expressed as decimal (e.g., .04 = ±4)

A correction for Finite Population was applied:

new ss = ss/1+ss-1/pop

Where: pop = population i.e. population of Somaliland =3,508,180

ss =

Z 2 * (p) * (1-p)

c 2

http://thismatter.com/money/insurance/types/parametric-insurance.htm


The formula produced a sample size of 600 Households. The following approach was used:

The sampling approach for Household Interviews

A random, stratified, multi-stage, probability sample design was used. The purpose of this was to help ensure that the survey results provide an unbiased estimate of the current general household needs in Somaliland.

To achieve this objective the following principles were applied: (a) applying random selection methods at every stage of sampling, and (b) applying sampling with probability proportionate to population size. To increase the precision of the estimate, the 600 interviews were stratified by the key social characteristics in the population, including region, livelihood zone and residential locality (urban, IDP or rural). Stratification reduces the likelihood that distinctive types of people (e.g., those living in particular regions, belonging to particular clan, or living in the city or countryside) are not excluded from the sample.

The proportion of the sample allocated to each stratum is proportional to representation in the national population as indicated by the UNFPA population estimation in 2014. Because there is no complete list of individual citizens for public use, stratification into livelihood zones was used given that there is reliable population data for this, such as pastoral, urban, rural, agro-pastoral or IDP (as livelihood zone types). Although this reduced efficiency given the increased cost, time etc. in contacting the sample, greater confidence is assured particularly as agencies involved in the enumeration collectively have a presence in all regions of Somaliland.

To complete the process of sample design, the team allocated the 79 strata as per livelihood zones across the districts of Somaliland based on the proportion of the sample allocated to each. In multi-stage sampling, geographically defined sampling units of decreasing size at each stage were selected. In the first stages of sampling, random sampling is conducted with probability proportionate to population size (PPPS). The purpose of this was to guarantee that larger (i.e., more populated) geographical units have a proportionally greater probability of being selected in the sample.

This process has four stages and the following details the sampling process:

For the first stage, Livelihood zones as sampling units were randomly selected. For the second stage, randomly selected sampling start-points (SSPs) within the selected settlements were selected by walking into the centre of the town, village or settlement, by spinning a pen and following the direction pointed by the pen until reaching the most distant house / shelter. Following this line of approach, the third stage involved randomly selecting households by selecting every fifth house in urban areas, and every second house in rural areas. The fourth and final stage involved selecting the household head as respondent from within each randomly selected household.

Sampling (back) Check

Before leaving the sampling unit (i.e. the town, village, or settlement), an expectation of the Team Leaders of respective enumerator teams was that they should check the sampling by randomly selecting one of the households in which an actual interview was conducted. Team Leaders were instructed to first make sure that the sampling interval along the walk route was correctly followed. Additionally they were instructed to locate the person who was interviewed to ensure that their details had been correctly collected during the data collection process. This measure of control was introduced to better ensure the reliability of process and findings. NERAD and OCHA teams were also in the field to provide support to enumerator teams. Technical support was also available from ActionAid (as a point of contact) and respective agencies involved in the assessment (i.e. the AIM-WG members).

The sampling approach for Key Informant Interviews

Purposive sampling was the sampling approach used for the KIIs. It was acceptable for the Key Informants to be selected from the following groups:

- Government Officials

- Community Leaders

- Women’s representatives

- Clan Leaders

- Religious leaders

- Head teachers / teachers

- Health professionals

- NGO representatives.


In total 36 KIIs were originally planned i.e. two per district. In each district it was expected that one of the Key Informants would be male and the other female. In the event, 30 KIIs were analysed. The final summary of interviews (household/key informant/locations/teams) can be found in Annex II.

Other tools

An Observation Checklist and Education Assessment Tool were also utilized as part of the assessment. These were to be completed by Team Leaders in each community. The purpose of the Observation Checklist was to elicit complementary qualitative information from sites given the ‘closed-question’ nature of the HHQ and KIQ. The Education Assessment Tool was included as a late request from the Ministry of Education, the purpose being to gather information about specific educational institutions in each location. This was in addition to the information gathered about access to education through the HHQ and the KIQ.

The following table summarizes the planned for approaches to primary data collection. As described below there was a degree of deviation from this original plan. Please refer to Annex II for the final record:

District Lead Organization

HH Sample Size

KIIs Observation Checklist

Education Assessment

Baki WV 17 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Berbera SCI 30 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Borama SCI 67 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Burco CARE 79 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Buuhoodle SRCS 15 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Caynabo DRC 10 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Ceel Afweyn NRC 17 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Ceerigaabo NRC 35 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Gebiley ACTIONAID 18 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Hargeysa ACTIONAID 118 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

GARSOOR 46

Laas Caanood DRC 27 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Laasqoray/Badhan World Concern

41 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Lughaye WV 17 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Owdweyne PENHA 17 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Sheikh SCI 13 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Taleex SRCS 12 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Xudun SRCS 7 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Zeylac SCI 14 2 (1 Female, 1 Male) 1 1 for each settlement

Total 600 36 18 61

Mobile Data Collection

Given the experience of some of the AIM-WG members in mobile data collection, it was decided that an online platform would be used for the HHQ and the KIQ. This decision allowed for more efficient data collation and analysis. The ONA platform was used and this was administered by Save the Children.

Assumptions

It is worth noting that it is often assumed that the needs and causes with the greatest number of votes (perhaps expressed as the highest percentage in an assessment report etc.) represent the most pressing needs or the most serious causes of a problem. The risk to this assumption is that ‘felt’ needs might not


necessarily be the real needs in the community. The use of multiple sources of information (HHS, KIIs, Observational Checklists, and a range of secondary data) will allow for multiple perspectives to be considered which should facilitate the identification of true causes and true needs.

An assumption acknowledged and understood by this assessment is that a respondent’s understanding of needs and problems and their causes is likely based on different beliefs and ideas to those of the audience, particularly where the audience (e.g. the author or reader of this report making inferences) is external to the context.

Given the long-term nature of the current drought crisis it is an assumption of this assessment that respondents may focus entirely on the lack of water as the preeminent cause of the drought and by extension their problems and needs. This may happen to the exclusion of other drivers of the crisis. As presented in the sections above, the drought crisis is framed more broadly than ‘just’ the impact of the El Nino phenomenon with respect of multiple drivers, including those with a developmental foundation or bias. The multi-sectoral approach of the assessment should also illicit information about multiple dimensions of the crisis

A rationale for the initiation of this inter-agency assessment is that it would add value and new data, building on other assessments already undertaken. It is a self-validating assumption that this assessment does in fact add value and that the recommendations are worthy of consideration, particularly given the prescient timing of the assessment which coincides with the Governments drought declaration announcement.

It is an assumption that the inter-agency process has value in itself regardless of assessment findings and uptake of recommendations. This echoes one of the stated objectives, that this assessment is a catalyst for better coordination going forward.

The methodology described in this section is sufficient and robust enough to allow for relevant and appropriate inferences to be made (even allowing for the gaps and challenges as discussed in the next section).

Methodological Considerations

Data cleaning was undertaken with the support of OCHA’s team in Nairobi, Save the Children, and ActionAid. Issues identified during the ‘cleaning’ process included a number of respondents not providing consent, a number of respondents being unrealistically under age (0, 5 and 6 years old), household entries with unrealistic numbers of men, women, or lactating and pregnant women, as well as some entries with extreme outliers for certain fields (e.g. the household debt incurred to purchase food). In total, the enumerator teams collected more than the 600 interviews originally planned. However, with the removal of entries for the reasons mentioned here, as well as adjustments made in a number of locations where over-interviewing had occurred, the data analysis was ultimately based upon 600 households in total. Radom sampling principles were applied as these adjustments were made.

49 KIIs were collected which was significantly more than planned. The over-interviewing was identified to have happened in Hargeisa which might have introduced an ‘urban’ bias to the analysis had not a number of Hargeisa interviews been excluded. The number of KIIs was reduced from 49 to 30 with this in mind.

As the basis for randomly selecting settlements as part of the sampling process it was necessary to have a complete list of settlements for Somaliland. Despite being established in 1994 with a mandate for food security and nutrition analysis, FSNAU was unable to provide the assessment team with this information. Although FSNAU’s efforts were appreciated – a list of settlements was generated from memory – it was necessary to resort to offices external to Somaliland in Nairobi to get this information. This highlights a gap in basic information in Somaliland.

As the questionnaire tools were developed the inputs of specialist UN agencies was sort. Despite requesting this through the sectors this assistance was not forthcoming, undermining the questionnaire tools in some respects, for example in terms of checking and validation.

Given the multi-sectoral nature of both the KIQ and HHQ the questionnaires were long in terms of the number of questions and choices available to each respondent. This had implications for the length of time taken to undertake a single interview, and for the mobile technology in use i.e. during some surveys the technology failed meaning that interviews had to be carried out on paper, with respondent findings uploaded after the event and when connectivity was better.

The majority of questions in the HHQ and KIQ were closed, meaning that more qualitative information was not elicited from respondents. To counter this and to improve the richness of information collected the Observational Checklist and Education Assessment Tool were introduced to the methodology.


It was evident during the enumerator training that there was a wide ranging level of skills and experience across enumerator teams. Although the training brought all teams up to a standard, there were some inconsistences in approach as the enumeration was undertaken (see data cleaning above). To mitigate this, teams were supported by their respective agencies, and by ActionAid as a fallback option.

Whilst every effort was made to be as inclusive as possible, notable exceptions to the inter-agency process were those organizations belonging to the OIC. OIC organizations played an important role in responding to the 2011 famine and again to the current (2015/2016) drought crisis. The OIC perspective would have been welcomed, including participation in the AIM-WG and coordination structures more broadly.

ANNEX 3: Interviews Summary

Agency Region District KI Interviews Village/Community HH Interviews

ActionAid Waqooyi Galbeed Gabiley 2 Cali Xaydh 2

Dabacado 11

Gabiley 6

Hargeisa 1 “150” 13

Ahmed Macalin Haarun 7

Ahmed Mooge 2

Daloodho 3

Daruuraha 24

Gacanta 12

Ganad 12

Hodan Hills 24

Ina Macalin Haruun 1

Ina Mooge 1

Mohamed Mooge 13

Care Togdheer Burco 2 Adowyurare 1

Aqibo 4

Buqleye 8

Cadowyurare 9

Hodan 18

Jadhlaaye 8

Kaam Wayne 1

Saylada 13

Shacabka 17

DRC Sool Caynabo 2 Balaadhis 1

Caynabo 3

Fadhiyar 6

Laascanood 2 Gambadha 7

Kalabaydh 6

Laascanood 13

Garsoor Waqooyi Galbeed Hargeisa 1 Daami 2

Daba Jalab 5

Daba Raqas 6


Dabajilab 5

Dabaraqas 5

Ina Igire 17

Istaadhouska 1

Mohamed Mooge 2

Naasa Hablood 2

State House 1

NRC Sanaag Ceel Afweyn 2 Bixin 6

Ceel Afweyn 4

Kalmac 4

Karin Biyood 2

Ceerigaabo 2 Bixin 1

Booca 10

Dayacan 8

Xaafad Somali 7

Yufle 10

PENHA Togdheer Odaywayne 2 Kaladhac 1

Odaywayne 4

Qudhackudle 11

Salaan 1

SCI Awdal Borama 2 Ahmed Abdisalam 8

Ambasa 1

Axmed Guray 2

Boorama 1

Cabaase 11

Haddi village 1

Haye Yaabe 9

Sh abdisalam 1

Sh Axmed Salaan 3

Sheikh Cismaan 11

Xaddi 3

Xalane 4

Xalimaale 6

Zeylac 1 Ceel Gaal 12

Fiqi Aden 1

Xalimaale 4

Zeylac 1

Saahil Berbera 2 Barwaaqo 3

Burco Sheekh 5

Ceel Garde 7

Faradeero 11


Jamalaaye 1

Suryo malab Ley 1

Waraabe u taag 1

Sheikh 2 Hudduse 4

Sheikh 6

Udusah 1

SRCS Sool Taleex 0 In Taleex 2

Qowlo 10

Xudun 0 Holhol 5

In Xudun 1

Xudun 2

Togdheer Buuhoodle 0 Buuhoodle 19

World Concern Sanaag Badhan 1 Badhan 6

Sibaayo 26

Laasqoray 2 Durduro 8

Laasqoray 8

World Vision Awdal Baki 2 Baki 1

Guleed Walaw 2

Lughaye 2 Farda lagu xidh 1

Garbo Dadar 11

Geerisa 14

Grabodadar 1

Lughaye 2

Osali 1

Grand Total 30 600

Documents

Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment...Somaliland Inter-Agency Needs Assessment | 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report is the culmination of cooperation and collaboration of a multi-agency