SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION, compiled by David Brewer

The Grammatical-Historical Method of Bible Interpretation

This is the method that gives to each word the same meaning it would have in normal, ordinary, usual, and customary usage. This method of interpretation is based on a proper understanding of grammar, logic, history, geography, archaeology, and theology (systematic, biblical and practical).

“The Golden Rule of Biblical Interpretation”: when the plain sense of Scripture makes common sense, seek no other sense, but take every word at its normal, usual, ordinary meaning unless the facts of the immediate context clearly indicate otherwise. We should approach the words of a Scripture passage in the same basic way that we would any other type of literature (of course the difference is the Bible is fully inspired) or any ordinary conversation.

Without using the grammatical-historical method, all objectivity is lost. “What check would there be on the variety of interpretations which man’s imagination could produce if there were not an objective standard which the literal principle provides?” (Ryrie, 1965, p. 88). Without using this way of interpretation, the interpreter becomes the final authority of the meaning of the Scripture. In this case, “the interpretation is no longer grounded in fact and the text becomes putty in the hand of the interpreter” (Benware, p. 21).

A good example of what happens when there is no final authority, is the following classic spiritualized interpretation of the four rivers of Genesis 2:10-14: the Pishon, Havilah, Tigris and Euphrates represents the body, soul, spirit and mind (Willis and Master, p. 32). Another name for this improper method of Bible study is allegorizing. Allegorizing is “searching for a hidden or secret meaning underlying but remote from and unrelated in reality to the more obvious meaning of a text. In other words the literal reading is a sort of code, which needs to be deciphered to determine the more significant and hidden meaning” (Zuck, p. 29).

The Holy Spirit and Bible Interpretation

God has given us help in understanding His Word. When we became believers we were anointed and now experience this by the Holy Spirit (1 John 2:20, 27; cf. Luke 4:18; 2 Cor. 1:21-22), and this anointing gives us the capacity to understand God’s truth. The Holy Spirit can illuminate God’s truth so that we can better understand it. The Spirit, who alone knows God’s mind, can increase our understanding into these truths (1 Cor. 2:11-13)

In the context of 1 John 2, God had given to believers, from the Holy Spirit’s anointing, an enablement to perceive the difference between God’s truth and the spurious claims of the Gnostics. So the apostle John in this passage reminds his readers (who were faced with the peril created by the presence of the many antichrists) of the resources they have to meet this difficulty. The readers knew God’s truth and were not dependent upon the assertions of an elite few (the Gnostics) (1 John 2:20b) (Hiebert, pp. 112-114).

Some Qualifications for Interpreting the Bible

(1) A passion to know God’s word. “He must have the zeal that consumes; and the enthusiasm that breeds both reverence and industry” (Ramm, p. 13).

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(2) A deep reverence for God

(3) A prayerful attitude and humility, meekness, and patience. These latter virtues are a reflection of our reverence for God (Ibid.).

(4) A willingness to obey the Scriptures and a desire to put into practice what has been learned in the Word; a commitment to obedience

(5) A complete dependence on the Holy Spirit to guide and direct

Three Basic Steps of Bible Interpretation

(1) Observation

(a) Take note of each word, phrase, and the arrangement of words into sentences.

(b) Like a good detective, train your eyes to see the obvious and the not so obvious.

(c) This step of observation is vital since it will form the basis for your interpretations. In one of his most baffling cases, Sherlock Holmes commented to Watson: “I had . . . come to an entirely erroneous conclusion, which shows, my dear Watson, how dangerous it always is to reason from insufficient data” (The Illustrated Sherlock Holmes Treasury, New York: Avenel Books, 1976, p. 17, as quoted in Nyquist and Kuhatschek, p. 27).

(d) Ask many questions, like for instance, “What does this word or this construction mean and what does it contribute to the particular passage?”

(e) Ask questions like “Who, what, when, where, how, and why.”

(f) Read the book in which the passage occurs. For ease of reading and to better get the flow of the passage, use the New International Version or the New Living Translation, For studying, use the KJV, the NRSV, the NKJV, or the NASB. As you read, focus on the main purposes, setting, and themes of the book of the Bible as a whole. Read and re-read the chosen passage in the larger literary context of the book.

(g) As Dr. Poythress says, “The meaning of an oil paint arises not merely from blotches of paint, but seeing those blotches in relation to one another. If you only look at detail (like using a magnifying class on a painting), you lose sight of the whole.”

(h) Learn as much as possible about the speaker, audience, and the circumstances of the particular passage (historical background)

(2) Interpretation

(a) Try to answer the questions that you thought of in the above section.

(b) Try to draw conclusions about the overall structure of the passage and ascertain its main points.

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(c) Use cross-references to locate passages most similar or most contrasting to the given passage (KJV, NKJV, NASV, RSV, NRSV, NIV, NLT cross-reference Bible).

(3) Application (for an excellent book on this subject, read Jack Kuhatschek’s Applying the Bible; for an excellent and concise article see Zuck in Campbell, pp. 15-38). Application is “the process of communicating the present-day relevance of a biblical text, specifying how that relevance may be translated into action, and inviting and urging the hearers to make that transference” (Zuck in Campbell, 1982, 19).

(a) Ask and answer questions about what I should believe or do on the basis of the passage.

(b) The ultimate purpose of Bible study is not simply to educate us but to transform us (see Rom. 12:2). Heart appropriation, not merely head apprehension, is the true goal of Bible study (see 1 Peter 2:2).

(c) The application resides in the relation of the text to many others, and in relation to our circumstances and us.

(d) Application Rule #1 -- Whenever our situation corresponds to that faced by the original readers, God’s Word to us is exactly the same as it was to them (Nyquist and Kuhatschek 34).

(e) Application Rule #2 -- Whenever our situation does not correspond to that faced by the original readers, we should look for the principle underlying God’s Word to them. We can then apply that principle to comparable situations today (Ibid.).

(f) A good and fairly new commentary series to help you with this stage is The NIV Application Commentary (be careful with the commentaries in this set on prophetic books since not all of the authors are dispensational and premillennial in their perspective; for example the commentaries on Ezekiel, Daniel, Thessalonians and Revelation). The two best study Bibles I have seen are The NIV Study Bible and The Nelson Study Bible: New King James Version.

(g) Ask the following questions: Is there a command for me to obey? Is there a promise to

claim? Is there an example to follow? Is there a sin to avoid or confess? Is there a reason for thanksgiving or praise? What does this passage teach me about God, Jesus, myself, others? (Ibid.)

Some Steps For Applying Passages Which Might Seem Outdated or Irrelevant

(1) We must understand the original situation described in the passage and how God’s Word applied to that situation. To do this we must cross several barriers:

the time barrier – unless we understand the original situation, it is like listening to one end of a telephone conversation. As Kuhatschek wrote, “we hear what the author is saying, but we don’t know why he is saying it” (39). In order to do this, it is necessary to first look within the book or passage itself then look at a Bible dictionary / handbook / encyclopedia (40-41).

the language barrier – the Bible was originally written in Hebrew (77% of the chapters of the Bible, Aramaic (1%), and Greek (22%). Use all three types of translations (literal, dynamic equivalent, and free/paraphrase) as one step to seek to understand the original text.

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Literal – follows the wording of the Hebrew and Greek while consistently maintaining the historical distance (differences that exist between the original and receptor language in the area of words, grammar, idioms, and matters of culture and history).

Dynamic equivalent (probably the best choice) – an attempt to translate words, idioms, and grammatical constructions into accurate equivalents into the receptor language. This type of translation “updates” matters of style, language, and grammar while maintaining historical distance on most factual matters and all historical matters.

Free (paraphrase) – an attempt to translate the ideas from one language to another while eliminating as much as possible the historical distance

Examples of each kind of translation: literal (KJV, NKJV, NASB, RSV, NRSV – from most literal to less literal), dynamic equivalent (NIV, NAB, NEB, NLT, GNB, JB), free (Phillips, 1947, a good paraphrase, LB, The Message).

KJV = The King James Version (1611/1769), NKJV = The New King James Version (1982), NASB = The New American Standard (1977, 1995), RSV = The Revised Standard Version (1952), NRSV = The New Revised Standard Version (1989), NIV = The New International Version (1984), NAB = The New American Bible (1970), NEB = The New English Bible (1961), NLT = The New Living Translation (1996), GNB = The Good News Bible, JB = The Jerusalem Bible, LB = The Living Bible (1971) (from Fee and Worth, How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth, 2nd edition, chapter 2, 1993).

the cultural barrier – to cross this barrier use a good Bible dictionary / encyclopedia and books on Bible Customs.

and the geographical barrier (Kuhatschek, chapter 3).

Books to help you cross these barriers:

Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedias:

Bromiley, Geoffrey (ed.). International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 4 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979, 1982, 1986, 1988.

Butler, Trent., ed. Holman Bible Dictionary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 1991.Elwell, Walter A. Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible, 2 vols.. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988.Green, Joel B., Scott McKnight, and I. Howard Marshall, eds. Dictionary of Jesus and the

Gospels. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1992.Harrison, R. K., ed. The New Unger’s Bible Dictionary. Chicago: Moody, 1988.Hawthorne, Gerald F., Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid, eds. Dictionary of Paul and His

Letters. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1993.Hillyer, N. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary, rev. ed., 3 vols.. Wheaton: Tyndale, 1980.________. New Bible Dictionary rev. ed. Wheaton: Tyndale, 1982.Miller, Madeleine S. and J. Lane. Harper’s Encyclopedia of Bible Life, revised by Boyce M.

Bennettt, Jr. and Daniel H. Scott. New York: Harper & Row, 1978.Pfeiffer, Charles F., ed. The Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, 2 vols. Chicago: Moody, 1975; reissued

by Hendrickson Publishers, Peabody, MA, as the Wycliffe Bible Dictionary, one vol., 1998.

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Richards, Lawrence O., ed. Revell Bible Dictionary. 2nd deluxe ed., 1994. Revell is now a division of Baker Book House, Grand Rapids.

Sasson, Jack M., ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, 4 vols.. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1995.

Tenney, Merrill C. ed. The Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988.

________. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5 vols. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975.

Youngblood, Ronald F., ed. Nelson’s New Illustrated Bible Dictionary, rev. ed.. Nashville: Nelson, 1986.

Background Study Books -- General

Bimson, John J., ed. Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Places. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1995.Boardman, John, ed. The Oxford History of the Classical World. New York: Oxford University

Press, 1986.Coogan, Michael D. Oxford History of the Biblical World. New York: Oxford University Press,

1988.Drinkwater, J. F. and Andrew Drummond, eds. The World of the Romans. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1993.Edwards, I.E.S., C.J. Gadd, & N.G.L. Hammonds. Cambridge Ancient History, 3d ed.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971-1991.Feldman, Louis H. Jew and Gentile in the Ancient World. Princeton: Princeton University Press,

1993.Frank, Harry T. Discovering the Biblical World, rev. ed.. Edited by James Strange. Maplewood,

NJ: Hammond, 1988.Frankfort, Henri. The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. Supplemented by Michael Roaf

and Donald Matthews, 5th ed. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1996.Freeman, Charles. Egypt, Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.Gordon, Cyrus H., and Gary A. Rendsburg. The Bible and the Ancient Near East, 4th ed.. New

York: W. W. Norton, 1997.Harris, Roberta L. The World of the Bible. London: Thames & Hudson, 1995.Harrison, R. K, ed. Major Cities of the Biblical World. Nashville: Nelson, 1985.Hoerth, Alfred J.,ed. Peoples of the Old Testament World. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1994.Keener, Craig S. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. Downers Grove:

InterVarsity, 1993.Kitchen, Kenneth A. Ancient Orient and the Old Testament. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1966.Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. and Jeremy A. Sabloff. Ancient Civilizations: The Near East and

Mesoamerica, 2d ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1995.Malamat, Abraham. Mari and the Early Israelite Experience. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1989.Marclay, John M. Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan. Edinburgh:

T. & T. Clark, 1996.Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. Paul the Letter Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills.

Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1995.Niswonger, Richard L. New Testament History. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988.Richards, Lawrence O. The Victor Bible Background Commentary: New Testament. Colorado

Springs: Victor Books / SP Publications, 1994.

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Rogerson, John and Philip Davies. The Old Testament World. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.

Van Der Woude, A. S., ed. The World of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986.________. The World of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1989.Von Soden, Wolfram. The Ancient Orient. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.Watts, John H., and Victor H. Matthews. The IVP Bible Background Commentary: Genesis-

Deuteronomy. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1997.

Background – Archaeology

Batey, Richard. Jesus and the Forgotten City: New Light on Sepphoris and the Urban World of Jesus. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991.

Biers, William R. The Archaeology of Greece: An Introduction, rev. ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.

Charlesworth, James H. Jesus within Judaism: New Light from Exciting Archaeological Discoveries. New York: Doubleday, 1988.

Finegan, Jack. The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Life of Jesus and the Beginnings of the Early Church, rev. ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.

________. The Archaeology of the New Testament: The Mediterranean World of the Early Christian Apostles. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981.

________. Archaeological History of the Ancient Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 1979.Gill, David W. and Gempf Conrad, eds. The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting. Vol. 2,

Graeco-Roman Setting. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994.Hemer, Colin J. The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting. Sheffield,

England: JSOT, 1986.Horsley, Richard A. Archaeology, History, and Society in Galilee: the Social Context of Jesus and

the Rabbis. Valley Forge, PA: Trinity Press, 1996.McCray, John. The Archaeology of the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991.Meyers, Eric M., ed. Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, 5 vols. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1997.O’Connor, Jerome Murphy. The Holy Land: An Archaeological Guide from the Earliest Times to

1700, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.Rousseau, John J. and Rami Arav. Jesus and His World: An Archaeological and Cultural

Dictionary. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995.Shanks, Hershel and Dan P. Cole, ed. Archaeology and the Bible: the Best of BAR. Vol. 2

Archaeology in the World of Herod, Jesus, and Paul. Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeological Society, 1990.

Stern, Ephraim, ed. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, 4 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993.

Millard, Alan. Discoveries from the Time of Jesus. Batavia, IL: Lion Publishers, 1990.________. Treasures from Bible Times. Batavia, IL: Lion Publishers, 1985.

Background – Jerusalem

Avigad, Nahman. Discovering Jerusalem. Nashville: Nelson, 1983.Bahat, Dan and Chaim T. Rubinstein. The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. Translated by Shelomo

Ketko. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989.Ben-Dov, Meir. In the Shadow of the Temple: The Discovery of Ancient Jerusalem. Translated by

Ina Friedman. New York: Harper and Row, 1985.

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Geva, Hillel, ed. Ancient Jerusalem Revealed. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1994.Jeremias, Joachim. Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus: An Investigation into the Economic and Social

Conditions During the New Testament Period. Translated by F.H. and C.H. Cave. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. 1979.

Mare, W. Harold. The Archaeology of the Jerusalem Area. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987.

Background – New Testament

Meeks, W.A. The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.

Murphy-O’Connor, Jerome. S.V. St. Paul’s Corinth: Texts and Archaeology. Good News Studies 6. Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1983.

Stephens, William H. The New Testament World in Pictures. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1987.

Bible Customs

Brothwell, Don, and Patricia Brothwell. Food in Antiquity, expanded ed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.

Casson, Lionel. The Ancient Mariners, 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton University, 1991.Gower, Ralph, and Fred H. Wight. The New Manners and Customs of Bible Times. Chicago:

Moody, 1987.Matthews, Victor H. Manners and Customs in the Bible. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988.Matthews, Victor H. and Don C. Benjamin. Social World of Ancient Israel, 1250-587 B.C.E..

Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993.Meijer, Fik. A History of Seafaring in the Classical World. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986.Thompson, J. A. A Handbook of Life in Bible Times. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1986.Vos, Howard F. New Illustrated Bible Manners & Customs. Nashville: Nashville, 1999.

Bible Atlases

Aharoni, Yohanan, Michael Avi-Yonah, Anson F. Rainey, and Ze’ev Safrai. The Macmillan Bible Atlas, 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1993.

Baines, John and Jaromir Malek. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. New York: Facts on File, 1980.Beek, M.A. Atlas of Mesopotamia. Translated by D.R. Welsh. New York: Nelson, 1962.Beitzel, Barry J. The Moody Atlas of the Bible Lands. Chicago: Moody, 1985, 1996.Brisco, Thomas. Holman Bible Atlas: A Complete Guide to the Expansive Geography of Biblical

History. Nashville: Holman, 1998.Cornell, Tim and John Matthews. Atlas of the Roman World. New York: Facts on File, 1982.Finley, M.I., ed. Atlas of Classical Archaeology. London: Chatto and Windus, 1977.Grant, Michael. Ancient History Atlas, 4th ed. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989.Hammond, N.G.L. ed. Atlas of the Greek and Roman World in Antiquity. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes

Press, 1981.Levi, Peter. Atlas of the Greek World. New York: Facts on File, 1980.Rasmussen, Carl. NIV Atlas of the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1989.Roaf, Michael. Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia & the Ancient Near East. New York: Facts on

File, 1990.

Greek World / Hellenistic Era

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Cate, Robert L. A History of the Bible Lands in the Interbiblical Period. Nashville: Broadman, 1989.

Green, Peter. Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.

Jagersma, Henk. A History of Israel from Alexander the Great to Bar Kochba.

Histories of Israel

Bright, John. A History of Israel, 3rd edition. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1981, 1988.Translated by John Bowden. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.Merrill, Eugene H. An History Survey of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991.________. Kingdom of Priests: A History of Old Testament Israel. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1987,

1997.Shanks, Hershel, ed. Ancient History: From Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple.

Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1988, 1999.Wood, Leon J. A Survey of Israel’s History, rev. ed. Edited by D. O’Brien. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 1986.

(2) We must determine whether God’s Word in that situation reflects a specific application of a broader principle (Kuhatschek, chapter 4).

(3) We are ready to apply that general principle to situations we face. We have three options to apply a general principle to our lives: (1) apply the principle to the identical situation faced by those in the passage (Heb. 13:5 – “Keep your lives free from the love of money and be content with what you have”); (2) apply it to a comparable situation (strong and weak brothers, food sacrificed to idols in 1 Cor. 8 and Romans 14); or (3) apply it to an entirely different situation, depending on what we mean by different (Kuhatschek, chapter 5).

An application of these principles. In 1 Cor. 9:7 Paul uses a few analogies to support his point that the apostles had the right to receive financial support. To further support his point from the Law of Moses, he quotes from Deut. 25:4, ‘Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain.’ The above three points are derived from the steps Paul used, in quoting from this verse in Deuteronomy, to apply it to his situation of his rights as an apostle. For example, (1) he understood the original situation (the ox’s right to eat); (2) he sought to find a broader principle (a worker’s right to be paid); (3) then he applied it to his situation (an apostles’ right to be paid for their work) (Kuhatschek 33).

Guidelines for Determining Whether Bible Practices Are Culture-Bound or Transcultural

(1) Determine if the behavior in the biblical culture means something different in our culture (e.g., holy kisses [Rom. 16:16; 1 Cor. 16:20; 2 Cor. 13:12; 1 Thess. 5:26; 1 Pet. 5:14], foot washing [John 13:4-10]; stoning if one picks up sticks on the Sabbath [Num. 15:32-36]).

(2) If the behavior does mean something different in our culture, then determine the timeless principle expressed in that practice.

(3) Determine how the principle can be expressed in a cultural equivalent (“hearty handshake” instead of “a holy kiss” or just “holy kiss” with an explanation in the notes of what this meant in that culture – Rom. 16:16) (Zuck, pp. 96-97).

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Should I Use Commentaries?

I would highly encourage you not to use commentaries until you have studied the passage yourself (i.e., until you have gone through the above three steps and their subpoints). With an attitude of humility and dependence, pray that the Holy Spirit would give you insight into the passage. Use a Bible concordance, a Bible dictionary or Bible encyclopedia to help you in this process (see above bibliography).

What Type of Literary Genre Is The Particular Text?

“Genre,” or literary type, in literature is “a group of texts that bear one or more traits in common with each other.” It is important to ascertain what type of literary form the author is using, because different forms of literature are governed by different rules. We have to realize that the inspired authors of Scripture willingly submitted themselves to the norms of language governing those literary forms. We should ask ourselves if the passage in question is found in a proverb, in poetry, in a discourse, in an epistle, in biblical or prose narrative, or is an idiom, a hyperbole, a parable, a prophecy (major & minor prophets), or is apocalyptic literature (Daniel & Revelation) (Fee’s and Stuart’s book, How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth, Stein’s Playing by the Rules, Zuck’s Basic Bible Interpretation, and Ryken’s How To Read the Bible As Literature are all excellent for giving many tips on how to interpret the different types of genre).

Interpretation of Figures of Speech

What is a Figure of Speech -- A figure of speech is a word or phrase that is used to communicate something other than its literal, natural meaning. It is a colorful vehicle for presenting literal truth. Behind every figure of speech is a literal meaning. An example of a figure of speech in English would be to say, “It is raining cats and dogs,” as opposed to just saying, “It is raining hard.” The aforementioned figure of speech conveys the same idea but is an unusual, picturesque, out-of-the-ordinary, more colorful, vivid and more interesting way of expressing it. Some other examples of figures of speech: “That argument doesn’t hold water.” “I was tickled to death” (Zuck, pp. 143-144, 147).

Why Are Figures of Speech Used?

(1) To Attract Attention -- Phil. 3:2 – “Watch out for those dogs”; James 3:6 – “The tongue also is a fire.”

(2) It makes Abstract or Intellectual Ideas More Concrete; Is Useful For Clarifying. Whenever the author wishes to speak of things not perceived by the senses, he may be forced to use nonliteral language (C.S. Lewis, Miracles, and pp. 88-89).

(3) They Aid in Retention and They Make Indelible Impressions -- Hosea 4:16 – “The Israelites are . . . like a stubborn heifer.”

(4) They Abbreviate An Idea – they are graphic so there is no need for an elaborate description -- Psalm 23:1 – “The Lord is my Shepherd.”

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(5) They Encourage Reflection -- Psalm 52:8 – “But I am like an olive tree flourishing in the house of God;” Isaiah 1:8 – “the Daughter of Zion is left like a shelter in a vineyard, like a hut in a field of melons, like a city under siege.”

(6) To Emphasize a Point -- Luke 13:32 – “Tell that fox” is considerably more forceful than to say, “Tell the king.”

(7) To Move One To Action – “Behold I stand at the door and knock,” gives an emotional impact far beyond the impact of saying, “I am waiting for you to respond.”

(8) Is Effective in Illustrating – John 6:48 -- “I am the bread of life.” An illustration of His relationship with those who believe in Him; He spiritually satisfies and nourishes (Zuck, pp. 144-145; McQuilkin, 136-140).

Grammatical-Historical and Figures of Speech – The grammatical-historical method does not rule out or deny figures of speech, symbols, parables, allegories and types. The very existence of any meaning for a figure of speech depends on the reality of the literal/customary/normal meaning of the terms involved (Ryrie, p. 87). One of the most extensive and best work we have on figures of speech was done by the dispensational literalist E. W. Bullinger in 1898, called Figures of Speech Used in the Bible: Explained and Illustrated.

Unknown Known -- Figures of speech are used as a means of revealing “literal” truth in a concise, creative, and graphic way. What is literally true in a known area is transferred to an unknown area to teach us some particular truth in that unfamiliar area. Quite often the only way that God could communicate and convey truth in an area not understood by us is to make a parallel from the area of which we are familiar. Sometimes this unknown truth can be conveyed more clearly and creatively by using figurative language.

Automotive Repair Manual vs. Love Letter! -- A good example of interpreting different types of writing differently is, interpreting an automotive repair manual as opposed to seeking to understand a love letter. More than likely a repair manual would be devoid of figures of speech but a love letter is to be interpreted figuratively and metaphorically. As you all know we would get into trouble if we interpreted repair manuals figuratively and love letters “literally.” If this were done, a definite lack of communication would result.

Appealing to the mind vs. appealing to the heart -- This example shows that there are two different kinds of language: referential and commissive language. Referential language – its main goal is to pass on information, to describe, is nonemotional in nature, it seeks to pass on facts, and it appeals to the “mind”. Commissive language – has as its main goal to evoke decisions, to convey emotion, to elicit feelings and to arouse our emotion, and it appeals to the “heart.” A repair manual would of course be an example of referential language and a love letter, commissive language. A different set of rules must be used to interpret each type of language. A description of a “0.016 inch gap” for a spark plug would be interpreted differently than a description of missing your sweetheart so much that your heart aches, that you cannot sleep, or telling your wife that her hair is like a flock of goats which descend from Mount Gilead (SS 4:1). The latter is obviously a metaphor, a special type of metaphor which gains much of its meaning from the emotional feelings one associates with it. So the emotional associations of the metaphor are a clue to its overall meaning. So the Shulammite’s hair was long, flowing and had a captivating effect on Solomon (Stein, pp. 73-74; Glickman, pp. 13-15).

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Interpretation of Words

This is an important step in interpreting particular passages. Always remember that words take on their meaning depending on the context in which they are found. Be careful that you don’t put too much emphasis on etymology (i.e., the history of words; the root[s] of words) (see the following excellent books by D.A. Carson (Exegetical Fallacies) and Moises Silva (Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics).

The Proper Use of Etymologies – Here is an example of the possible danger of etymologies in the English language. The word “nice” comes from the Latin word nescius, meaning “ignorant.” As you know, most people don’t know Latin but they still know what the word “nice” means. This word, and all words, take on their meaning depending on how they are used in their contexts (Carson, p. 28).

You can usually ignore etymology and the meanings that words had at an earlier or later point in the history of the language. The correct meaning for both speaker and hearer is one of the possible meanings available at the time of utterance.

The use of etymology in the Hebrew OT -- Etymology plays a bigger role in the Hebrew OT than it does in the Greek NT, since in the Hebrew OT about 25% of the 8,000 words are only used one time (called, hapax legomena). In this case, etymology, along with the use of related Semitic languages and the context are important. So, as a general rule, etymology does not furnish meaning, but if you have no other information about an unknown word, it may help you by giving you direction for your best guess (Silva, 1983, pp. 35-51; Carson, pp. 26-32).

“Words” versus “Ideas” -- When endeavoring to ascertain the meaning of a Hebrew or Greek word, use a standard lexicon (Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the NT or Brown-Driver-Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the OT). Don’t use a theological dictionary (Theological Dictionary of the OT and Theological Dictionary of the NT) when trying to figure out what a word means. So for studying words, a good lexicon is the best. If you are interested in ideas (what the Theological Dictionaries are more concerned with), don’t limit yourselves to just the words. Use a good Bible encyclopedia, or a volume on biblical theology or systematic theology (Silva, 1983, pp. 22-32). If you do use Theological Dictionaries, it is vital as you are reading it to continually ask yourself if a word or concept is being discussed. If these two things are mixed, it can invite distortions of word meanings.

It is important to make a distinction between questions about the meanings of words and from questions about the theological views or commitments of biblical authors (beliefs, “concept,” theology). Beware of appeals to “root” meaning or importing nice-sounding theology that is an illustration or a thought belonging to other passages.

Single Sense -- Each word has a single sense in any one context. Do not overload a word with all the meanings or associations that it has in all its contexts (called, “illegitimate totality transfer”). By overloading the word, the result looks “richer,” but is inaccurate. Look at the list of meanings in the lexicon, and choose the one meaning that best fits the context (Silva, 1983, pp. 25-26, 148-156; Carson, p. 62). When a word does have several distinct senses, use the surrounding context to determine which sense is used in your passage. On the average or in general, narrower contexts (a phrase, sentence, or paragraph) have more weighty influences than broad contexts (a whole book, historical situation) (Silva, 1983, pp. 138-159; Carson, pp. 45-66).

Interpretation of the Context

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Look at the preceding and following context in which the passage occurs. Look at the context of the paragraph, section, chapter and the particular book of the Bible. In other words, look at the immediate and remote context.

The Historical and Cultural Context

The more we understand the immediate historical setting of the passage, the fuller our understanding will be of the particular passage being studied.

We also need to learn more about the way people lived during the time the passage was written. The better we understand the emotions, mindsets and lifestyles of the people that lived in a particular time period, the better we will understand the passage. An ignorance of certain cultural customs may lead to faulty interpretations. The following questions are important in this regard: What was family and home life like? What did people eat and drink in that day? What did they wear? What type of cosmetics did they wear? What type of medicine did they use? How did they treat women in that day? Some other important topics to study are: childbirth, sexual practices, education and literacy, old age, vocations, slavery, poverty, agriculture, travel and communication, religious and political groups, feasts and festivals, music, superstitions and magic, funerals, social conflicts and prejudices, crime and punishment, athletics, the importance of the synagogue, hospitality, government, warfare, leisure, etc.

As Ralph Gower insightfully said, “It is only as we stand in those people’s shoes and understand what God was saying to them that the words can have full meaning for us” (Gower, p. 7). If we fail to understand these matters of culture, then we may be guilty of eisegesis (i.e., bringing a meaning into Scripture as opposed to exegesis, in which the meaning of Scripture is brought out and derived from the Scriptural text itself), reading into the Bible our Western 20th-century ideas.

A good Bible to help you with this area is The NKJV Life & Times Historical Reference Bible. For an excellent chapter on this topic, read chapter 4 of Roy B. Zuck’s Basic Bible Interpretation.

PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETING PROPHECY

Interpret According to the Whole and Harmony of Prophecy/ Interpret By Comparing Prophecy With Prophecy

It is important to interpret prophecy in agreement with all that the Bible says about that particular prophecy. In order to more fully understand a particular prophetic subject and to avoid incorrect conclusions, it is vital to compare prophecy with prophecy. Some passages give light to other passages. Obscure passages in Scripture must give way to clear passages. Martin Luther and John Calvin often said, “Scripture interprets Scripture.”

Foreshortening

Two events or two different persons, widely separated as to the time of their fulfillment, can be combined and placed side by side into the scope of one prophecy. In the passage itself they are blended into one picture, and the time gap between the two persons or events is not indicated in the passage itself. It is only in the progress of God’s revelation that we can understand such intervals of time between prophetic fulfillments.

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This is also called “foreshortening.” Another way of explaining this law is that quite often the prophets saw the two comings of Christ as two mountain peaks, with a valley in between. They could see the peaks but not the valleys.

God’s purpose for giving a near and far view was so that the fulfillment of the one (the near) should be the assurance, certitude, and guarantee of the fulfillment of the other (the far). Sometimes both the near and far prophecies are in the future, from the standpoint of the time of the original writing.

Some examples of this:

(1) Zech. 9:9-10 – verse 9 (Jesus’ 1st Coming), verse 10 (Jesus’ 2nd Coming)

(2) Isaiah 9:6-7 – verse 6 (Jesus’ 1st Coming; cf. Matt. 4:16; Luke 1:79), verse 7 (Jesus’ 2nd Coming)

(3) Isaiah 11:1-5 – verses 1-3 (Jesus’ 1st Coming), verses 4-9 (Jesus’ 2nd Coming)

(4) Isaiah 61:1-2 – when Jesus read in the synagogue in Nazareth from this passage, He stopped reading right in the middle of verse 2 (see Luke 4:16-21; cf. 7:22). He stopped reading here because Is. 61:2b-3 applied to His 2nd Coming; 61:1-2a applies to His 1st Coming. When He comes at His 2nd Coming He will bring judgment on unbelievers (Micah 5:15; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; Rev. 19:15-20) – this will be the day of God’s vengeance. See Is. 61:2b-11 (cf. Rev. 21:2).

(5) Is. 9:1-5 – verses 1-2 (1st Coming), verses 3-5 (2nd Coming)

(6) Is. 59:16-21 – verses 16-17b (1st Coming), verses 17c-21 (2nd Coming)

(7) Jer. 23:5-8 – verse 5 (1st Coming), verses 6-8 (2nd Coming)

(8) Ps. 22:1-31 – verses 1-21 (1st Coming), verses 22-31 (2nd Coming)

(9) Mal. 3:1-3 – verse 1 (1st Coming), verses 2-3 (2nd Coming)

(10) Mal. 4:2 (1st Coming), 4:1, 3, 5-6 (2nd Coming)

(11) Gen. 49:10a (1st Coming), 49:10b (2nd Coming)

(12) Deut. 18:15a, 18 (1st Coming), 18:15b, 19 (2nd Coming)

(13) Zech. 3:8-10 – verse 8 (1st Coming), verses 9-10 (2nd Coming)

(14) Ps. 2:7-8 – verse 7 (1st Coming; cf. Acts 13:33; Heb. 1:5; 5:5), verse 8 (2nd Coming; Rev. 2:26-27) (see Price in Willis and Master, 160).

The Law of Recurrence

This law describes the fact that in some passages of Scripture an event is recorded following by a second recording of the same event, this time filling in additional details from the first. The first block

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of Scripture – a description of an event as it happened in chronological sequence. The second block – deals with the same event and the same period of time, but gives further details.

Some examples of this:

(1) Ezek. 38:1-39:16 – Ezek. 38:1-23 (a complete account of the invasion of Israel from the north and the following destruction of the invading army; 39:1-16 (a repetition of some of the previous account; gives some added details with reference to the destruction of the invading army).

(2) Isaiah 30-31 – chapter 30 (a complete account of the fall of Judah’s alliance with Egypt; chapter 31 (repeats the prophecy adding more detail)

(3) Gen. 1:1-2:25 – a non-prophetic example – chapter 1 (recording of seven days of creation in chronological sequence); chapter 2 (goes back to the sixth day to provide added details as to the way Adam and Eve were created).

Progressive Revelation

This is an orthodox doctrine that evangelicals have held for a long time. It is the belief that “God did not reveal all truth about Himself at one time but revealed Himself ‘piecemeal,’ portion by portion to different people throughout history (cf. Heb. 1:1)” (Enns, p. 20). Progressive revelation is the historic unfolding of the expression of the message that God gave to us in the Bible. Later revelation builds upon earlier revelation. It is complementary and supplementary to it, not contradictory. Remember the way in which Jesus elevated the teachings of the law by expanding, extending, and internalizing them. Biblical theology traces this progress of revelation, focusing on the revelation about Himself that God has given in a particular time period or through a particular writer (Enns, p. 20; Erickson, p. 197).

The Following Sources Were Used in Compiling These Notes:

Benware, Paul N. Understanding End Time Prophecy: A Comprehensive Approach. Chicago: Moody, 1995.

Berkhof, Louis. Principles of Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1950.Campbell, Donald K. Walvoord: A Tribute. Chicago: Moody, 1982. Carson, D.A. Exegetical Fallacies. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996. Coleman, William L. Today’s Handbook of Bible Times & Customs. Minneapolis: Bethany, 1984. Couch, Mal (general editor). Dictionary of Premillennial Theology. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1996.Enns, Paul. The Moody Handbook of Theology. Chicago: Moody, 1989. Erickson, Millard J. Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Baker, 1983. Fee, Gordon D. And Douglas Stuart. How To Read the Bible For All Its Worth, 2nd edition. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 1993. Fruchtenbaum, Arnold G. The Footsteps of the Messiah: A Study of the Sequence of Prophetic Events.

Tustin, CA: Ariel Ministries Press, 1982.Glickman, S. Craig. A Song for Lovers. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1976. Gower, Ralph. The New Manners and Customs of Bible Times. Chicago: Moody, 1987. Hiebert, D. Edmond. The Epistles of John: An Expositional Commentary. Greenville, SC: Bob Jones

University Press, 1991. Ice, Thomas and Timothy Demy (general editors). When the Trumpet Sounds: Today’s Foremost

Authorities Speak Out on End-Time Controversies. Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 1995.

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Kuhatschek, Jack. Taking the Guesswork Out of Applying the Bible. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. LaHaye, Tim. No Fear of the Storm. Sisters, OR: Multnomah, 1992. McQuilkin, J. Robertson. Understanding and Applying the Bible. Chicago: Moody, 1999. Nyquist, James F. and Jack Kuhatschek. Leading Bible Discussions. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity,

1978. Pentecost, J. Dwight. Things To Come: A Study in Biblical Eschatology. Grand Rapids: Zondervan,

1958. Poythress, Vernon S. Class Notes for NT123 Hermeneutics at Westminster Theological SeminaryRamm, Bernard. Protestant Biblical Interpretation, revised. Grand Rapids: Baker, 2000.Ryken, Leland. How To Read the Bible As Literature . . . And Get More Out Of It. Grand Rapids:

Zondervan, 1984. Ryrie, Charles C. Dispensationalism Today. Chicago: Moody, 1965. Silva, Moises. Biblical Words and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics. Grand

Rapids: Zondervan, 1983. __________, General editor. Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation, Six Volumes in One.

Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996. Smith, James E. What the Bible Teaches About The Promised Messiah. Nashville: Thomas Nelson,

1993.Stanton, Gerald B. Kept From The Hour: Biblical Evidence for the Pretribulational Return of Christ.

Miami Spring, FL. Schoettle, 1956, 1991. Stein, Robert H. Playing by The Rules: A Basic Guide to Interpreting the Bible. Grand Rapids:

Baker, 1994. Willis, Wesley R. and John R. Master (general editors). Issues in Dispensationalism. Chicago:

Moody, 1994.Zuck, Roy B. Basic Bible Interpretation: A Practical Guide to Discovering Biblical Truth. Wheaton,

IL: Victor, 1991.

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