Sources of Finance

CHAPTER 8

SOURCES OF BUSINESS FINANCE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

• state the meaning, nature and importance of business finance;

• classify the various sources of business finance;

• evaluate merits and limitations of various sources of finance;

• identify the international sources of finance; and

• examine the factors that affect the choice of an appropriate sourceof finance.

182 BUSINESS STUDIES

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides an overview of thevarious sources from where funds canbe procured for starting as also forrunning a business. It also discussesthe advantages and limitations ofvarious sources and points out thefactors that determine the choice of asuitable source of business finance.

It is important for any person whowants to start a business to know aboutthe different sources from where moneycan be raised. It is also important toknow the relative merits and demeritsof different sources so that choice of anappropriate source can be made.

8.2 MEANING, NATURE AND

SIGNIFICANCE OF BUSINESS

FINANCE

Business is concerned with theproduction and distribution of goodsand services for the satisfaction of needs

of society. For carrying out variousactivities, business requires money.Finance, therefore, is called thelife blood of any business. Therequirements of funds by business tocarry out its various activities is calledbusiness finance.

A business cannot function unlessadequate funds are made available toit. The initial capital contributed by theentrepreneur is not always sufficient totake care of all financial requirementsof the business. A business person,therefore, has to look for different othersources from where the need for fundscan be met. A clear assessment of thefinancial needs and the identificationof various sources of finance, therefore,is a significant aspect of running abusiness organisation.

The need for funds arises from thestage when an entrepreneur makes adecision to start a business. Somefunds are needed immediately say for

Mr. Anil Singh has been running a restaurant for the last two years. The excellentquality of food has made the restaurant popular in no time. Motivated by thesuccess of his business, Mr. Singh is now contemplating the idea of opening achain of similar restaurants at different places. However, the money availablewith him from his personal sources is not sufficient to meet the expansionrequirements of his business. His father told him that he can enter into apartnership with the owner of another restaurant, who will bring in more fundsbut it would also require sharing of profits and control of business. He is alsothinking of getting a bank loan. He is worried and confused, as he has no ideaas to how and from where he should obtain additional funds. He discusses theproblem with his friend Ramesh, who tells him about some other methods likeissue of shares and debentures, which are available only to a company form oforganisation. He further cautions him that each method has its own advantagesand limitations and his final choice should be based on factors like the purposeand period for which funds are required. He wants to learn about these methods.

183SOURCES OF BUSINESS FINANCE

the purchase of plant and machinery,furniture, and other fixed assets.Similarly, some funds are required forday-to-day operations, say to purchaseraw materials, pay salaries toemployees, etc. Also when the businessexpands, it needs funds.

The financial needs of a business canbe categorised as follows:(a) Fixed capital requirements: In

order to start business, funds arerequired to purchase fixed assets likeland and building, plant andmachinery, and furniture andfixtures. This is known as fixedcapital requirements of theenterprise. The funds required infixed assets remain invested in thebusiness for a long period of time.Different business units need varyingamount of fixed capital depending onvarious factors such as the nature ofbusiness, etc. A trading concern forexample, may require small amountof fixed capital as compared to amanufacturing concern. Likewise,the need for fixed capital investmentwould be greater for a largeenterprise, as compared to that of asmall enterprise.

(b) Working Capital requirements:The financial requirements of anenterprise do not end with theprocurement of fixed assets. Nomatter how small or large a businessis, it needs funds for its day-to-dayoperations. This is known as workingcapital of an enterprise, which is usedfor holding current assets such asstock of material, bills receivables andfor meeting current expenses likesalaries, wages, taxes, and rent.

The amount of working capitalrequired varies from one businessconcern to another depending on variousfactors. A business unit selling goods oncredit, or having a slow sales turnover,for example, would require moreworking capital as compared to aconcern selling its goods and services oncash basis or having a speedier turnover.

The requirement for fixed andworking capital increases with thegrowth and expansion of business. Attimes additional funds are required forupgrading the technology employed sothat the cost of production or operationscan be reduced. Similarly, larger fundsmay be required for building higherinventories for the festive season or tomeet current debts or expand thebusiness or to shift to a new location. Itis, therefore, important to evaluate thedifferent sources from where funds canbe raised.

8.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SOURCES OF

FUNDS

In case of proprietary and partnershipconcerns, the funds may be raised eitherfrom personal sources or borrowingsfrom banks, friends etc. In case ofcompany form of organisation, thedifferent sources of business financewhich are available may be categorisedas given in Table 8.1

As shown in the table, the sourcesof funds can be categorised usingdifferent basis viz., on the basis of theperiod, source of generation and theownership. A brief explanation of theseclassifications and the sources isprovided as follows:


Tab

le 8

.1 C

lass

ific

atio

n o

f Sourc

es o

f F

un

ds


8.3.1 Period Basis

On the basis of period, the differentsources of funds can be categorisedinto three parts. These are long-termsources, medium-term sources andshort-term sources.

The long-term sources fulfil thefinancial requirements of an enterprisefor a period exceeding 5 years andinclude sources such as shares anddebentures, long-term borrowings andloans from financial institutions. Suchfinancing is generally required for theacquisition of fixed assets such asequipment, plant, etc.

Where the funds are required for aperiod of more than one year but lessthan five years, medium-term sourcesof finance are used. These sourcesinclude borrowings from commercialbanks, public deposits, lease financingand loans from financial institutions.

Short-term funds are those whichare required for a period not exceedingone year. Trade credit, loans fromcommercial banks and commercialpapers are some of the examples of thesources that provide funds for shortduration.

Short-term financing is mostcommon for financing of current assetssuch as accounts receivable andinventories. Seasonal businesses thatmust build inventories in anticipationof selling requirements often need short-term financing for the interim periodbetween seasons. Wholesalers andmanufacturers with a major portion oftheir assets tied up in inventories orreceivables also require large amountof funds for a short period.

8.3.2 Ownership Basis

On the basis of ownership, the sourcescan be classified into ‘owner’s funds’and ‘borrowed funds’. Owner’s fundsmeans funds that are provided by theowners of an enterprise, which maybe a sole trader or partners orshareholders of a company. Apartfrom capital, it also includes profitsreinvested in the business. Theowner’s capital remains invested in thebusiness for a longer duration and isnot required to be refunded during thelife period of the business. Such capitalforms the basis on which ownersacquire their right of control ofmanagement. Issue of equity sharesand retained earnings are the twoimportant sources from where owner’sfunds can be obtained.

‘Borrowed funds’ on the otherhand, refer to the funds raised throughloans or borrowings. The sources forraising borrowed funds include loansfrom commercial banks, loans fromfinancial institutions, issue ofdebentures, public deposits and tradecredit. Such sources provide funds fora specified period, on certain termsand conditions and have to be repaidafter the expiry of that period. A fixedrate of interest is paid by theborrowers on such funds. At times itputs a lot of burden on the businessas payment of interest is to be madeeven when the earnings are low orwhen loss is incurred. Generally,borrowed funds are provided on thesecurity of some fixed assets.


8.3.3 Source of Generation Basis

Another basis of categorising the sourcesof funds can be whether the funds aregenerated from within the organisation orfrom external sources. Internal sourcesof funds are those that are generated fromwithin the business. A business, forexample, can generate funds internally byaccelerating collection of receivables,disposing of surplus inventories andploughing back its profit. The internalsources of funds can fulfill only limitedneeds of the business.

External sources of funds includethose sources that lie outside anorganisation, such as suppliers,lenders, and investors. When largeamount of money is required to beraised, it is generally done through theuse of external sources. External fundsmay be costly as compared to thoseraised through internal sources. Insome cases, business is required tomortgage its assets as security whileobtaining funds from external sources.Issue of debentures, borrowing fromcommercial banks and financialinstitutions and accepting publicdeposits are some of the examples ofexternal sources of funds commonlyused by business organisations.

8.4 SOURCES OF FINANCE

A business can raise funds fromvarious sources. Each of the source hasunique characteristics, which must beproperly understood so that the bestavailable source of raising funds canbe identified. There is not a single bestsource of funds for all organisations.Depending on the situation, purpose,

cost and associated risk, a choice maybe made about the source to be used.For example, if a business wants toraise funds for meeting fixed capitalrequirements, long term funds may berequired which can be raised in the formof owned funds or borrowed funds.Similarly, if the purpose is to meet theday-to-day requirements of business,the short term sources may be tapped.A brief description of various sources,along with their advantages andlimitations is given below.

8.4.1 Retained Earnings

A company generally does not distributeall its earnings amongst theshareholders as dividends. A portion ofthe net earnings may be retained in thebusiness for use in the future. This isknown as retained earnings. It is asource of internal financing or self-financing or ‘ploughing back of profits’.The profit available for ploughing backin an organisation depends on manyfactors like net profits, dividend policyand age of the organisation.

Merits

The merits of retained earning as asource of finance are as follows:

(i) Retained earnings is a permanentsource of funds available to anorganisation;

(ii) It does not involve any explicit costin the form of interest, dividend orfloatation cost;

(iii) As the funds are generatedinternally, there is a greater degreeof operational freedom andflexibility;


(iv) It enhances the capacity of thebusiness to absorb unexpectedlosses;

(v) It may lead to increase in themarket price of the equity sharesof a company.

Limitations

Retained earning as a source of fundshas the following limitations:

(i) Excessive ploughing back maycause dissatisfaction amongst theshareholders as they would getlower dividends;

(ii) It is an uncertain source of fundsas the profits of business arefluctuating;

(iii) The opportunity cost associatedwith these funds is not recognisedby many firms. This may lead tosub-optimal use of the funds.

8.4.2 Trade Credit

Trade credit is the credit extended byone trader to another for the purchaseof goods and services. Trade creditfacilitates the purchase of supplieswithout immediate payment. Suchcredit appears in the records of thebuyer of goods as ‘sundry creditors’ or‘accounts payable’. Trade credit iscommonly used by businessorganisations as a source of short-termfinancing. It is granted to thosecustomers who have reasonable amountof financial standing and goodwill. Thevolume and period of credit extendeddepends on factors such as reputationof the purchasing firm, financial positionof the seller, volume of purchases, past

record of payment and degree ofcompetition in the market. Terms oftrade credit may vary from one industryto another and from one person toanother. A firm may also offer differentcredit terms to different customers.

Merits

The important merits of trade credit areas follows:

(i) Trade credit is a convenient andcontinuous source of funds;

(ii) Trade credit may be readilyavailable in case the creditworthiness of the customers isknown to the seller;

(iii) Trade credit needs to promote thesales of an organisation;

(iv) If an organisation wants to increaseits inventory level in order to meetexpected rise in the sales volumein the near future, it may use tradecredit to, finance the same;

(v) It does not create any charge onthe assets of the firm whileproviding funds.

Limitations

Trade credit as a source of funds hascertain limitations, which are given asfollows:

(i) Availability of easy and flexibletrade credit facilities may induce afirm to indulge in overtrading,which may add to the risks of thefirm;

(ii) Only limited amount of funds canbe generated through trade credit;

(iii) It is generally a costly source offunds as compared to most othersources of raising money.


8.4.3 Factoring

Factoring is a financial service underwhich the ‘factor’ renders variousservices which includes:(a) Discounting of bills (with or without

recourse) and collection of the client’sdebts. Under this, the receivables onaccount of sale of goods or servicesare sold to the factor at a certaindiscount. The factor becomesresponsible for all credit control anddebt collection from the buyer andprovides protection against any baddebt losses to the firm. There are twomethods of factoring — recourse andnon-recourse. Under recoursefactoring, the client is not protectedagainst the risk of bad debts. On theother hand, the factor assumes theentire credit risk under non-recoursefactoring i.e., full amount of invoiceis paid to the client in the event ofthe debt becoming bad.

(b) Providing information about creditworthiness of prospective client’s etc.,Factors hold large amounts ofinformation about the tradinghistories of the firms. This can bevaluable to those who are usingfactoring services and can therebyavoid doing business with customershaving poor payment record. Factorsmay also offer relevant consultancyservices in the areas of finance,marketing, etc.

The factor charges fees for theservices rendered. Factoringappeared on the Indian financialscene only in the early nineties as aresult of RBI initiatives. Theorganisations that provides such

services include SBI Factors andCommercial Services Ltd., CanbankFactors Ltd., Foremost Factors Ltd.,State Bank of India, Canara Bank,Punjab National Bank, AllahabadBank. In addition, many non-bankingfinance companies and otheragencies provide factoring service.

Merits

The merits of factoring as a source offinance are as follows:

(i) Obtaining funds through factoringis cheaper than financing throughother means such as bank credit;

(ii) With cash flow accelerated byfactoring, the client is able to meethis/her liabilities promptly as andwhen these arise;

(iii) Factoring as a source of funds isflexible and ensures a definitepattern of cash inflows from creditsales. It provides security for adebt that a firm might otherwisebe unable to obtain;

(iv) It does not create any charge onthe assets of the firm;

(v) The client can concentrate on otherfunctional areas of business as theresponsibility of credit control isshouldered by the factor.

Limitations

The limitations of factoring as a sourceof finance are as follows:

(i) This source is expensive when theinvoices are numerous andsmaller in amount;

(ii) The advance finance provided bythe factor firm is generally availableat a higher interest cost than theusual rate of interest;


(iii) The factor is a third party to thecustomer who may not feelcomfortable while dealing with it.

8.4.4 Lease Financing

A lease is a contractual agreementwhereby one party i.e., the owner of anasset grants the other party the rightto use the asset in return for a periodicpayment. In other words it is a rentingof an asset for some specified period.The owner of the assets is called the‘lessor’ while the party that uses theassets is known as the ‘lessee’ (seeBox A). The lessee pays a fixed periodicamount called lease rental to the lessorfor the use of the asset. The terms andconditions regulating the leasearrangements are given in the leasecontract. At the end of the lease period,the asset goes back to the lessor. Leasefinance provides an important meansof modernisation and diversification tothe firm. Such type of financing is moreprevalent in the acquisition of suchassets as computers and electronicequipment which become obsoletequicker because of the fast changingtechnological developments. Whilemaking the leasing decision, the costof leasing an asset must be comparedwith the cost of owning the same.

Merits

The important merits of lease financingare as follows:

(i) It enables the lessee to acquire theasset with a lower investment;

(ii) Simple documentation makes iteasier to finance assets;

(iii) Lease rentals paid by the lessee aredeductible for computing taxableprofits;

(iv) It provides finance withoutdiluting the ownership or controlof business;

(v) The lease agreement does not affectthe debt raising capacity of anenterprise;

(vi) The risk of obsolescence is borneby the lesser. This allows greaterflexibility to the lessee to replacethe asset.

Limitations

The limitations of lease financing aregiven as below:

(i) A lease arrangement may imposecertain restrictions on the use ofassets. For example, it may notallow the lessee to make anyalteration or modification in theasset;

(ii) The normal business operationsmay be affected in case the leaseis not renewed;

(iii) It may result in higher payoutobligation in case the equipmentis not found useful and the lesseeopts for premature termination ofthe lease agreement; and

(iv) The lessee never becomes theowner of the asset. It deprives himof the residual value of the asset.

8.4.5 Public Deposits

The deposits that are raised byorganisations directly from the publicare known as public deposits. Rates ofinterest offered on public deposits are


usually higher than that offered onbank deposits. Any person who isinterested in depositing money in anorganisation can do so by filling up aprescribed form. The organisation inreturn issues a deposit receipt asacknowledgment of the debt. Publicdeposits can take care of both mediumand short-term financial requirementsof a business. The deposits are

beneficial to both the depositor as wellas to the organisation. While thedepositors get higher interest rate thanthat offered by banks, the cost ofdeposits to the company is less thanthe cost of borrowings from banks.Companies generally invite publicdeposits for a period upto three years.The acceptance of public deposits isregulated by the Reserve Bank of India.

Box AThe Lessors

1. Specialised leasing companies: There are about 400-odd large companieswhich have an organisational focus on leasing, and hence, are known asleasing companies.

2. Banks and bank-subsidiaries: In February 1994, the RBI allowed banks todirectly enter leasing. Till then, only bank subsidiaries were allowed to engagein leasing operations, which was regarded by the RBI as a non-banking activity.

3. Specialised financial institutions: A number of financial institutions, atthe Central as well as the State level in India, use the lease instrument alongwith traditional financing instruments. Significantly, the ICICI is one of thepioneers in Indian leasing.

4. Manufacturer-lessors: As competition forces the manufacturer to add valueto his sales, he finds the best way to sell the product on lease. Vendor leasingis gaining increasing importance. Presently, vendors of automobiles, consumerdurables, etc., have alliances or joint ventures with leasing companies to offerlease finance against their products.

The Lessees1. Public sector undertakings: This market has witnessed a good rate of growth

in the past. There is an increasing number of both centrally as well as State-owned entities which have resorted to lease financing.

2. Mid-market companies: The mid-market companies (i.e. companies withreasonably good creditworthiness but with lower public profile) have resortedto lease financing basically as an alternative to bank/institutional financing.

3. Consumers: Recent bad experience with corporate financing has focussedattention towards retail funding of consumer durables. For instance, carleasing is a big market in India today.

4. Government deptts. and authorities: One of the latest entrants in leasingmarkets is the government itself. Recently the Department ofTelecommunications of the central government took the lead by floating tendersfor lease finance worth about Rs. 1000 crores.


Merits

The merits of public deposits are:(i) The procedure of obtaining

deposits is simple and does notcontain restrictive conditions as aregenerally there in a loan agreement;

(ii) Cost of public deposits is generallylower than the cost of borrowingsfrom banks and financialinstitutions;

(iii) Public deposits do not usuallycreate any charge on the assets ofthe company. The assets can beused as security for raising loansfrom other sources;

(iv) As the depositors do not havevoting rights, the control of thecompany is not diluted.

Limitations

The major limitation of public depositsare as follows:

(i) New companies generally find itdifficult to raise funds throughpublic deposits;

(ii) It is an unreliable source of financeas the public may not respondwhen the company needs money;

(iii) Collection of public deposits mayprove difficult, particularly whenthe size of deposits required is large.

8.4.6 Commercial Paper (CP)

Commercial Paper emerged as a sourceof short term finance in our country inthe early nineties. Commercial paper isan unsecured promissory note issuedby a firm to raise funds for a shortperiod, varying from 90 days to 364days. It is issued by one firm to other

business firms, insurance companies,pension funds and banks. The amountraised by CP is generally very large. Asthe debt is totally unsecured, the firmshaving good credit rating can issue theCP. Its regulation comes under thepurview of the Reserve Bank of India.

The merits and limitations of aCommercial Paper are as follows:

Merits

(i) A commercial paper is sold on anunsecured basis and does notcontain any restrictive conditions;

(ii) As it is a freely transferableinstrument, it has high liquidity;

(iii) It provides more funds comparedto other sources. Generally, thecost of CP to the issuing firm islower than the cost of commercialbank loans;

(iv) A commercial paper provides acontinuous source of funds. Thisis because their maturity can betailored to suit the requirementsof the issuing firm. Further,maturing commercial paper canbe repaid by selling newcommercial paper;

(v) Companies can park their excessfunds in commercial paperthereby earning some good returnon the same.

Limitations

(i) Only financially sound and highlyrated firms can raise moneythrough commercial papers. Newand moderately rated firms arenot in a position to raise funds bythis method;


(ii) The size of money that can beraised through commercial paperis limited to the excess liquidityavailable with the suppliers offunds at a particular time;

(iii) Commercial paper is an impersonalmethod of financing. As such if afirm is not in a position to redeemits paper due to financialdifficulties, extending the maturityof a CP is not possible.

8.4.7 Issue of Shares

The capital obtained by issue of sharesis known as share capital. The capitalof a company is divided into small unitscalled shares. Each share has itsnominal value. For example, acompany can issue 1,00,000 sharesof Rs. 10 each for a total value ofRs. 10,00,000. The person holding theshare is known as shareholder. Thereare two types of shares normally issuedby a company. These are equity sharesand preference shares. The moneyraised by issue of equity shares is calledequity share capital, while the moneyraised by issue of preference shares iscalled preference share capital.

(a) Equity SharesEquity shares is the mostimportant source of raising longterm capital by a company. Equityshares represent the ownership ofa company and thus the capitalraised by issue of such shares isknown as ownership capital orowner’s funds. Equity sharecapital is a prerequisite to thecreation of a company. Equityshareholders do not get a fixed

dividend but are paid on the basisof earnings by the company. Theyare referred to as ‘residual owners’since they receive what is left afterall other claims on the company’sincome and assets have beensettled. They enjoy the reward aswell as bear the risk of ownership.Their liability, however, is limitedto the extent of capital contributedby them in the company. Further,through their right to vote, theseshareholders have a right toparticipate in the management ofthe company.

Merits

The important merits of raising fundsthrough issuing equity shares are givenas below:

(i) Equity shares are suitable forinvestors who are willing toassume risk for higher returns;

(ii) Payment of dividend to the equityshareholders is not compulsory.Therefore, there is no burden onthe company in this respect;

(iii) Equity capital serves aspermanent capital as it is to berepaid only at the time ofliquidation of a company. As itstands last in the list of claims, itprovides a cushion for creditors,in the event of winding up of acompany;

(iv) Equity capital provides creditworthiness to the company andconfidence to prospective loanproviders;

(v) Funds can be raised throughequity issue without creating


any charge on the assets of thecompany. The assets of a companyare, therefore, free to be mortgagedfor the purpose of borrowings, if theneed be;

(vi) Democratic control overmanagement of the company isassured due to voting rights ofequity shareholders.

Limitations

The major limitations of raising fundsthrough issue of equity shares are asfollows:

(i) Investors who want steady incomemay not prefer equity shares asequity shares get fluctuatingreturns;

(ii) The cost of equity shares isgenerally more as compared to thecost of raising funds through othersources;

(iii) Issue of additional equity sharesdilutes the voting power, andearnings of existing equityshareholders;

(iv) More formalities and proceduraldelays are involved while raisingfunds through issue of equityshare.

(b) Preference SharesThe capital raised by issue ofpreference shares is calledpreference share capital. Thepreference shareholders enjoy apreferential position over equityshareholders in two ways:(i) receiving a fixed rate of dividend,out of the net profits of thecompany, before any dividend isdeclared for equity shareholders;

and (ii) receiving their capital afterthe claims of the company’screditors have been settled, at thetime of liquidation. In other words,as compared to the equityshareholders, the preferenceshareholders have a preferentialclaim over dividend and repaymentof capital. Preference sharesresemble debentures as they bearfixed rate of return. Also as thedividend is payable only at thediscretion of the directors and onlyout of profit after tax, to that extent,these resemble equity shares.Thus, preference shares have somecharacteristics of both equityshares and debentures. Preferenceshareholders generally do notenjoy any voting rights. A companycan issue different types ofpreference shares (see Box B).

Merits

The merits of preference shares are givenas follows:

(i) Preference shares providereasonably steady income in theform of fixed rate of return andsafety of investment;

(ii) Preference shares are useful forthose investors who want fixedrate of return with comparativelylow risk;

(iii) It does not affect the control ofequity shareholders over themanagement as preferenceshareholders don’t have votingrights;

(iv) Payment of fixed rate of dividendto preference shares may enable a


company to declare higher ratesof dividend for the equityshareholders in good times;

(v) Preference shareholders have apreferential right of repaymentover equity shareholders in the eventof liquidation of a company;

(vi) Preference capital does not createany sort of charge against theassets of a company.

Limitations

The major limitations of preferenceshares as source of business financeare as follows:

(i) Preference shares are not suitablefor those investors who are willingto take risk and are interested inhigher returns;

(ii) Preference capital dilutes theclaims of equity shareholders overassets of the company;

(iii) The rate of dividend on preferenceshares is generally higher than therate of interest on debentures;

(iv) As the dividend on these shares isto be paid only when the companyearns profit, there is no assuredreturn for the investors. Thus,these shares may not be veryattractive to the investors;

(v) The dividend paid is notdeductible from profits as expense.Thus, there is no tax saving as inthe case of interest on loans.

8.4.8 Debentures

Debentures are an importantinstrument for raising long term debtcapital. A company can raise fundsthrough issue of debentures, whichbear a fixed rate of interest. Thedebenture issued by a company is anacknowledgment that the company hasborrowed a certain amount of money,which it promises to repay at a futuredate. Debenture holders are, therefore,termed as creditors of the company.Debenture holders are paid a fixedstated amount of interest at specified

Box BTypes of Preference Shares

1. Cumulative and Non-Cumulative: The preference shares which enjoy theright to accumulate unpaid dividends in the future years, in case the sameis not paid during a year are known as cumulative preference shares. Onthe other hand, on non-cumulative shares, dividend is not accumulated if itis not paid in a particular year.

2. Participating and Non-Participating: Preference shares which have a rightto participate in the further surplus of a company shares which after dividendat a certain rate has been paid on equity shares are called participatingpreference shares. The non-participating preference are such which do notenjoy such rights of participation in the profits of the company.

3. Convertible and Non-Convertible: Preference shares that can be convertedinto equity shares within a specified period of time are known as convertiblepreference shares. On the other hand, non-convertible shares are such thatcannot be converted into equity shares.


intervals say six months or one year.Public issue of debentures requiresthat the issue be rated by a credit ratingagency like CRISIL (Credit Rating andInformation Services of India Ltd.) onaspects like track record of thecompany, its profitability, debtservicing capacity, credit worthinessand the perceived risk of lending. Acompany can issue different types ofdebentures (see Box C and D). Issue ofZero Interest Debentures (ZID) whichdo not carry any explicit rate of interesthas also become popular in recentyears. The difference between the facevalue of the debenture and its purchaseprice is the return to the investor.

Merits

The merits of raising funds throughdebentures are given as follows:(i) It is preferred by investors who

want fixed income at lesser risk;(ii) Debentures are fixed charge funds

and do not participate in profits ofthe company;

(iii) The issue of debentures is suitablein the situation when the sales andearnings are relatively stable;

(iv) As debentures do not carryvoting rights, financing throughdebentures does not dilute controlof equity shareholders onmanagement;

(v) Financing through debentures isless costly as compared to cost ofpreference or equity capital as theinterest payment on debentures istax deductible.

Limitations

Debentures as source of funds hascertain limitations. These are given asfollows:(i) As fixed charge instruments,

debentures put a permanentburden on the earnings of acompany. There is a greater riskwhen earnings of the companyfluctuate;

(ii) In case of redeemable debentures,the company has to makeprovisions for repayment on thespecified date, even during periodsof financial difficulty;

(iii) Each company has certainborrowing capacity. With the issueof debentures, the capacity of acompany to further borrow fundsreduces.

8.4.9 Commercial Banks

Commercial banks occupy a vitalposition as they provide funds fordifferent purposes as well as for differenttime periods. Banks extend loans to

Box CCompanies issuing different Debentures

Mahindra and Mahindra was the first company in India to issue convertibleZero Interest Debentures in January 1990. Recently, the board of Titan Industrieshas approved the issue of partly convertible debentures on a rights basis toraise around Rs. 126.83 crore. The issue will comprise 21 lakh partly convertibledebentures of Rs. 600 each in the ratio of one partly convertible debenture forevery 20 equity shares held in the company to the shareholders.


firms of all sizes and in many ways, like,cash credits, overdrafts, term loans,purchase/discounting of bills, andissue of letter of credit. The rate ofinterest charged by banks dependson various factors such as thecharacteristics of the firm and the levelof interest rates in the economy. Theloan is repaid either in lump sum or ininstallments.

Bank credit is not a permanentsource of funds. Though banks havestarted extending loans for longerperiods, generally such loans are usedfor medium to short periods. Theborrower is required to provide somesecurity or create a charge on the assetsof the firm before a loan is sanctionedby a commercial bank.

Merits

The merits of raising funds from acommercial bank are as follows:

(i) Banks provide timely assistance tobusiness by providing funds asand when needed by it.

(ii) Secrecy of business can bemaintained as the informationsupplied to the bank by theborrowers is kept confidential;

(iii) Formalities such as issue ofprospectus and underwriting arenot required for raising loans froma bank. This, therefore, is an easiersource of funds;

(iv) Loan from a bank is a flexiblesource of finance as the loanamount can be increasedaccording to business needs andcan be repaid in advance whenfunds are not needed.

Limitations

The major limitations of commercialbanks as a source of finance are asfollows:

Box DTypes of Debentures

1. Secured and Unsecured: Secured debentures are such which create a chargeon the assets of the company, thereby mortgaging the assets of the company.Unsecured debentures on the other hand do not carry any charge or securityon the assets of the company.

2. Registered and Bearer: Registered debentures are those which are dulyrecorded in the register of debenture holders maintained by the company.These can be transferred only through a regular instrument of transfer. Incontrast, the debentures which are transferable by mere delivery are calledbearer debentures.

3. Convertible and Non-Convertible: Convertible debentures are thosedebentures that can be converted into equity shares after the expiry of aspecified period. On the other hand, non-convertible debentures are thosewhich cannot be converted into equity shares.

4. First and Second: Debentures that are repaid before other debentures arerepaid are known as first debentures. The second debentures are those whichare paid after the first debentures have been paid back.


(i) Funds are generally available forshort periods and its extension orrenewal is uncertain and difficult;

(ii) Banks make detailed investigationof the company’s affairs, financialstructure etc., and may also ask forsecurity of assets and personalsureties. This makes the procedureof obtaining funds slightlydifficult;

(iii) In some cases, difficult terms andconditions are imposed by banks.for the grant of loan. For example,restrictions may be imposed on thesale of mortgaged goods, thusmaking normal business workingdifficult.

8.4.10 Financial Institutions

The government has established anumber of financial institutions all overthe country to provide finance tobusiness organisations (see Box E).These institutions are established bythe central as well as state governments.They provide both owned capital andloan capital for long and medium termrequirements and supplement thetraditional financial agencies likecommercial banks. As theseinstitutions aim at promoting theindustrial development of a country,these are also called ‘developmentbanks’. In addition to providingfinancial assistance, these institutionsalso conduct market surveys andprovide technical assistance andmanagerial services to people who runthe enterprises. This source of financingis considered suitable when large fundsfor longer duration are required for

expansion, reorganisation andmodernisation of an enterprise.

Merits

The merits of raising funds throughfinancial institutions are as follows:(i) Financial institutions provide long-

term finance, which are notprovided by commercial banks;

(ii) Besides providing funds, many ofthese institutions provide financial,managerial and technical adviceand consultancy to business firms;

(iii) Obtaining loan from financialinstitutions increases the goodwillof the borrowing company in thecapital market. Consequently,such a company can raise fundseasily from other sources as well;

(iv) As repayment of loan can be madein easy instalments, it does notprove to be much of a burden onthe business;

(v) The funds are made available evenduring periods of depression, whenother sources of finance are notavailable.

Limitations

The major limitations of raising fundsfrom financial institutions are as givenbelow:(i) Financial institutions follow rigid

criteria for grant of loans. Too manyformalities make the proceduretime consuming and expensive;

(ii) Certain restrictions such asrestriction on dividend payment areimposed on the powers of theborrowing company by thefinancial institutions;


Box ESpecial Financial Institutions

1. Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI): It was established in July1948 as a statutory corporation under the Industrial Finance CorporationAct, 1948. Its objectives include assistance towards balanced regionaldevelopment and encouraging new entrepreneurs to enter into the prioritysectors of the economy. IFCI has also contributed to the development ofmanagement education in the country.

2. State Financial Corporations (SFC): The State Financial Corporations Act,1951 empowered the State Governments to establish State FinancialCorporations in their respective regions for providing medium and short termfinance to industries which are outside the scope of the IFCI. Its scope is widerthan IFCI, since the former covers not only public limited companies but alsoprivate limited companies, partnership firms and proprietary concerns.

3. Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India (ICICI): This wasestablished in 1955 as a public limited company under the Companies Act.ICICI assists the creation, expansion and modernisation of industrialenterprises exclusively in the private sector. The corporation has alsoencouraged the participation of foreign capital in the country.

4. Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI): It was established in 1964under the Industrial Development Bank of India Act, 1964 with an objective tocoordinate the activities of other financial institutions including commercialbanks. The bank performs three types of functions, namely, assistance toother financial institutions, direct assistance to industrial concerns, andpromotion and coordination of financial-technical services.

5. State Industrial Development Corporations (SIDC): Many state governmentshave set up State Industrial Development Corporations for the purpose ofpromoting industrial development in their respective states. The objectives ofthe SIDCs differ from one state to another.

6. Unit Trust of India (UTI): It was established by the Government of India in1964 under the Unit Trust of India Act, 1963. The basic objective of UTI is tomobilise the community’s savings and channelise them into productiveventures. For this purpose, it sanctions direct assistance to industrialconcerns, invests in their shares and debentures, and participates with otherfinancial institutions.

7. Industrial Investment Bank of India Ltd.: It was initially set up as a primaryagency for rehabilitation of sick units and was known as IndustrialReconstruction Corporation of India. It was reconstituted and renamed as theIndustrial Reconstruction Bank of India in 1985 and again in 1997 its namewas changed to Industrial Investment Bank of India. The Bank assists sickunits in the reorganisation of their share capital, improvement in managementsystem, and provision of finance at liberal terms.

8. Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC): LIC was set up in 1956 under theLIC Act, 1956 after nationalising 245 existing insurance companies. It mobilisesthe community’s savings in the form of insurance premia and makes it availableto industrial concerns, both public as well as private, in the form of directloans and underwriting of and subscription to shares and debentures.


(iii) Financial institutions may havetheir nominees on the Board ofDirectors of the borrowingcompany thereby restricting thepowers of the company.

8.5 INTERNATIONAL FINANCING

In addition to the sources discussedabove, there are various avenues fororganisations to raise fundsinternationally. With the opening up ofan economy and the operations of thebusiness organisations becomingglobal, Indian companies have anaccess to funds in global capital market.Various international sources fromwhere funds may be generated include:(i) Commercial Banks: Commercialbanks all over the world extend foreigncurrency loans for business purposes.They are an important source offinancing non-trade internationaloperations. The types of loans andservices provided by banks vary fromcountry to country. For example,Standard Chartered emerged as amajor source of foreign currency loansto the Indian industry.(ii) International Agencies andDevelopment Banks: A numberof international agencies anddevelopment banks have emerged overthe years to finance international tradeand business. These bodies providelong and medium term loans andgrants to promote the development ofeconomically backward areas in theworld. These bodies were set up by theGovernments of developed countries ofthe world at national, regional andinternational levels for funding various

projects. The more notable among theminclude International FinanceCorporation (IFC), EXIM Bank andAsian Development Bank.(iii) International Capital Markets:Modern organisations includingmultinational companies depend uponsizeable borrowings in rupees as wellas in foreign currency. Prominentfinancial instruments used for thispurpose are:(a) Global Depository Receipts

(GDR’s): The local currency sharesof a company are delivered to thedepository bank. The depositorybank issues depository receiptsagainst these shares. Suchdepository receipts denominated inUS dollars are known as GlobalDepository Receipts (GDR). GDR isa negotiable instrument and can betraded freely like any other security.In the Indian context, a GDR is aninstrument issued abroad by anIndian company to raise funds insome foreign currency and is listedand traded on a foreign stockexchange. A holder of GDR can atany time convert it into the numberof shares it represents. The holdersof GDRs do not carry any votingrights but only dividends andcapital appreciation. Many Indiancompanies such as Infosys,Reliance, Wipro and ICICI haveraised money through issue ofGDRs (see Box F).

(b) American Depository Receipts(ADR’s): The depository receiptsissued by a company in the USAare known as American DepositoryReceipts. ADRs are bought and sold


in American markets like regularstocks. It is similar to a GDR exceptthat it can be issued only toAmerican citizens and can be listedand traded on a stock exchangeof USA.

(c) Foreign Currency ConvertibleBonds (FCCB’s): Foreign currencyconvertible bonds are equity linkeddebt securities that are to beconverted into equity or depositoryreceipts after a specific period. Thus,a holder of FCCB has the option ofeither converting them into equityshares at a predetermined price orexchange rate, or retaining thebonds. The FCCB’s are issued in aforeign currency and carry a fixedinterest rate which is lower than the

rate of any other similar non-convertible debt instrument.FCCB’s are listed and traded inforeign stock exchanges. FCCB’sare very similar to the convertibledebentures issued in India.

8.6 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE

OF THE SOURCE OF FUNDS

Financial needs of a business are ofdifferent types — long term, short term,fixed and fluctuating. Therefore,business firms resort to different typesof sources for raising funds. Short-termborrowings offer the benefit of reducedcost due to reduction of idle capital, butlong – term borrowings are considereda necessity on many grounds. Similarly

Box FCompanies rush to float GDR issues

It’s not the IPO (initial public offer) market alone which is humming with activity.Companies — mostly small and medium-sized — are rushing to the overseasmarket to raise funds through Global Depository Receipts (GDRs). Five firmshave already raised $464 million (around Rs 2,040 crore) from the internationalmarkets through GDR offerings this year. This is almost double of $228.6 mnraised by nine companies in 2004 and $63.09 mn mobilised by four companiesin 2003. Nearly 20 companies are waiting in the wings to launch GDR issuesworth over $1 bn in the coming months. On the other hand, though the numberof companies going for FCCB (Foreign Currency Convertible Bonds) issues hascome down, several companies are still in the FCCB race, thanks to lax rulesand disclosure norms. For example, Aarti Drugs Ltd. has decided to raise$12 mn by issuing FCCBs.

Significantly, small and medium companies are now taking the GDR route toraise funds this time even for a small amount. For example, Opto Circuits hasdecided to go for a GDR issue of $20 mn with a green-shoe option of $5 mn. Theshare price of this company shot up by 370 per cent from Rs 34 on May 17, 2004to around Rs 160 on the BSE recently. Videocon Industries, Lyka Labs, IndianOverseas Bank, Jubilant Organosys, Maharashtra Seamless, MoschipSemiconductors, and Crew BOS are planning GDR issues. Two banks — UTIBank ($240 million) and Centurion Bank ($70 million) — raised funds from theGDR market recently. Companies now prefer GDR over FCCB issues in view ofthe rise in interest rates abroad.


equity capital has a role to play in thescheme for raising funds in thecorporate sector.

As no source of funds is devoid oflimitations, it is advisable to use acombination of sources, instead ofrelying only on a single source. Anumber of factors affect the choice ofthis combination, making it a verycomplex decision for the business. Thefactors that affect the choice of sourceof finance are briefly discussed below:(i) Cost: There are two types of cost viz.,the cost of procurement of funds andcost of utilising the funds. Both thesecosts should be taken into accountwhile deciding about the source offunds that will be used by anorganisation.(ii) Financial strength and stabilityof operations: The financial strengthof a business is also a key determinant.In the choice of source of fundsbusiness should be in a sound financialposition so as to be able to repay theprincipal amount and interest on theborrowed amount. When the earningsof the organisation are not stable, fixedcharged funds like preference sharesand debentures should be carefullyselected as these add to the financialburden of the organisation.(iii) Form of organisation and legalstatus: The form of businessorganisation and status influences thechoice of a source for raising money. Apartnership firm, for example, cannotraise money by issue of equity sharesas these can be issued only by a jointstock company.

(iv) Purpose and time period:Business should plan according to thetime period for which the funds arerequired. A short-term need forexample can be met through borrowingfunds at low rate of interest throughtrade credit, commercial paper, etc. Forlong term finance, sources such asissue of shares and debentures aremore appropriate. Similarly, thepurpose for which funds are requiredneed to be considered so that thesource is matched with the use. Forexample, a long-term businessexpansion plan should not be financedby a bank overdraft which will berequired to be repaid in the short term.(v) Risk profile: Business shouldevaluate each of the source of financein terms of the risk involved. Forexample, there is a least risk in equityas the share capital has to be repaidonly at the time of winding up anddividends need not be paid if no profitsare available. A loan on the other hand,has a repayment schedule for both theprincipal and the interest. The interestis required to be paid irrespective of thefirm earning a profit or incurring a loss.(vi) Control: A particular source offund may affect the control and powerof the owners on the management of afirm. Issue of equity shares may meandilution of the control. For example, asequity share holders enjoy votingrights, financial institutions may takecontrol of the assets or imposeconditions as part of the loanagreement. Thus, business firm shouldchoose a source keeping in mind the


extent to which they are willing to sharetheir control over business.(vii) Effect on credit worthiness: Thedependence of business on certainsources may affect its credit worthinessin the market. For example, issue ofsecured debentures may affect theinterest of unsecured creditors of thecompany and may adversely affecttheir willingness to extend furtherloans as credit to the company.(viii) Flexibility and ease: Anotheraspect affecting the choice of asource of finance is the flexibility andease of obtaining funds. Restrictive

provisions, detailed investigation anddocumentation in case of borrowingsfrom banks and financial institutionsfor example may be the reason that abusiness organisations may notprefer it, if other options are readilyavailable.(ix) Tax benefits: Various sourcesmay also be weighed in terms of theirtax benefits. For example, while thedividend on preference shares is nottax deductible, interest paid ondebentures and loan is tax deductibleand may, therefore, be preferred byorganisations seeking tax advantage.

Key Terms

Finance Owned capital Fixed capital

Working capital Borrowed capital Short term sources

Restrictive conditions Long term sources Charge on assets

Voting power Fixed charge funds Accounts receivable

Bill discounting Factoring GDRs

FCCBs ADRs

SUMMARY

Meaning and significance of business finance: Finance required bybusiness to establish and run its operations is known as business finance.No business can function without adequate amount of funds for undertakingvarious activities. The funds are required for purchasing fixed assets (fixedcapital requirement), for running day-to-day operations (working capitalrequirement), and for undertaking growth and expansion plans in a businessorganisation.

Classification of sources of funds: Various sources of funds available to abusiness can be classified according to three major basis, which are(i) time period (long, medium and short term), (ii) ownership (owner’s fundsand borrowed funds), and (iii) source of generation (internal sources andexternal sources).


Long, medium and short-term sources of funds: The sources that providefunds for a period exceeding 5 years are called long-term sources. Thesources that fulfill the financial requirements for the period of more thanone year but not exceeding 5 years are called medium term sources andthe sources that provide funds for a period not exceeding one year aretermed as short term sources.

Owner’s funds and borrowed funds: Owner’s funds refer to the funds thatare provided by the owners of an enterprise. Borrowed capital, on the otherhand, refers to the funds that are generated through loans or borrowingsfrom other individuals or institutions.

Internal and external sources: Internal sources of capital are those sourcesthat are generated within the business say through ploughing back of profits.External sources of capital, on the other hand are those that are outsidethe business such as finance provided by suppliers, lenders, and investors.

Sources of business finance: The sources of funds available to a businessinclude retained earnings, trade credit, factoring, lease financing, publicdeposits, commercial paper, issue of shares and debentures, loans fromcommercial banks, financial institutions and international sources offinance.

Retained earnings: The portion of the net earnings of the company that isnot distributed as dividends is known as retained earnings. The amount ofretained earnings available depends on the dividend policy of the company.It is generally used for growth and expansion of the company.

Trade credit: The credit extended by one trader to another for purchasinggoods or services is known as trade credit. Trade credit facilitates thepurchase of supplies on credit. The terms of trade credit vary from oneindustry to another and are specified on the invoice. Small and new firmsare usually more dependent on trade credit, as they find it relatively difficultto obtain funds from other sources.

Factoring: Factoring has emerged as a popular source of short-term fundsin recent years. It is a financial service whereby the factor is responsiblefor all credit control and debt collection from the buyer and providesprotection against any bad-debt losses to the firm. There are two methodsof factoring — recourse and non-recourse factoring.

Lease financing: A lease is a contractual agreement whereby the owner ofan asset (lessor) grants the right to use the asset to the other party (lessee).The lessor charges a periodic payment for renting of an asset for somespecified period called lease rent.

Public deposits: A company can raise funds by inviting the public to deposittheir savings with their company. Pubic deposits may take care of both longand short-term financial requirements of business. Rate of interest on depositsis usually higher than that offered by banks and other financial institutions.


Commercial paper (CP): It is an unsecured promissory note issued by afirm to raise funds for a short period The maturity period of commercialpaper usually ranges from 90 days to 364 days. Being unsecured, onlyfirms having good credit rating can issue the CP and its regulation comesunder the purview of the Reserve Bank of India.

Issue of equity shares: Equity shares represents the ownership capital ofa company. Due to their fluctuating earnings, equity shareholders are calledrisk bearers of the company. These shareholders enjoy higher returns duringprosperity and have a say in the management of a company, throughexercising their voting rights.

Issue of preference shares: These shares provide a preferential right tothe shareholders with respect to payment of earnings and the repaymentof capital. Investors who prefer steady income without undertaking higherrisks prefer these shares. A company can issue different types of preferenceshares.

Issue of debentures: Debenture represents the loan capital of a companyand the holders of debentures are the creditors. These are the fixed chargedfunds that carry a fixed rate of interest. The issue of debentures is suitablein the situation when the sales and earnings of the company are relativelystable.

Commercial banks: Banks provide short and medium-term loans to firmsof all sizes. The loan is repaid either in lump sum or in instalments. Therate of interest charged by a bank depends upon factors including thecharacteristics of the borrowing firm and the level of interest rates in theeconomy.

Financial institutions: Both central and state governments haveestablished a number of financial institutions all over the country to provideindustrial finance to companies engaged in business. They are also calleddevelopment banks. This source of financing is considered suitable whenlarge funds are required for expansion, reorganisation and modernisationof the enterprise.

International financing: With liberalisation and globalisation of theeconomy, Indian companies have started generating funds frominternational markets. The international sources from where the fundscan be procured include foreign currency loans from commercial banks,financial assistance provided by international agencies and developmentbanks, and issue of financial instruments (GDRs/ ADRs/ FCCBs) ininternational capital markets.

Factors affecting choice: An effective appraisal of various sources mustbe instituted by the business to achieve its main objectives. The selectionof a source of business finance depends on factors such as cost, financialstrength, risk profile, tax benefits and flexibility of obtaining funds. Thesefactors should be analysed together while making the decision for the choiceof an appropriate source of funds.


EXERCISES

Multiple Choice Questions

Tick ( ) the correct answer out of the given alternatives

1. Equity shareholders are called

(a) Owners of the company (b) Partners of the company(c) Executives of the company (d) Guardian of the company

2. The term ‘redeemable’ is used for

(a) Preference shares (b) Commercial paper(c) Equity shares (d) Public deposits

3. Funds required for purchasing current assets is an example of

(a) Fixed capital requirement (b) Ploughing back of profits(c) Working capital requirement (d) Lease financing

4. ADRs are issued in

(a) Canada (b) China(c) India (d) USA

5. Public deposits are the deposits that are raised directly from

(a) The public (b) The directors(c) The auditors (d) The owners

6. Under the lease agreement, the lessee gets the right to

(a) Share profits earned (b) Participate in theby the lessor management of the

organisation(c) Use the asset for a (d) Sell the assets

specified period

7. Debentures represent

(a) Fixed capital of the company (b) Permanent capital of thecompany

(c) Fluctuating capital of (d) Loan capital of thethe company company

8. Under the factoring arrangement, the factor

(a) Produces and distributes (b) Makes the payment onthe goods or services behalf of the client

(c) Collects the client’s debt (d) Transfer the goods fromor account receivables one place to another

9. The maturity period of a commercial paper usually ranges from

(a) 20 to 40 days (b) 60 to 90 days(c) 120 to 365 days (d) 90 to 364 days


10. Internal sources of capital are those that are

(a) generated through outsiders (b) generated through loanssuch as suppliers from commercial banks

(c) generated through issue (d) generated withinof shares the business

Short Answer Questions

1. What is business finance? Why do businesses need funds? Explain.

2. List sources of raising long-term and short-term finance.

3. What is the difference between internal and external sources of raisingfunds? Explain.

4. What preferential rights are enjoyed by preference shareholders.Explain.

5. Name any three special financial institutions and state their objectives.

6. What is the difference between GDR and ADR? Explain.

Long Answer Questions

1. Explain trade credit and bank credit as sources of short-term financefor business enterprises.

2. Discuss the sources from which a large industrial enterprise can raisecapital for financing modernisation and expansion.

3. What advantages does issue of debentures provide over the issue ofequity shares?

4. State the merits and demerits of public deposits and retained earningsas methods of business finance.

5. Discuss the financial instruments used in international financing.

6. What is a commercial paper? What are its advantages and limitations.

Projects/Assignment

1. Collect information about the companies that have issued debenturesin recent years. Give suggestions to make debentures more popular.

2. Institutional financing has gained importance in recent years. In ascrapbook paste detailed information about various financialinstitutions that provide financial assistance to Indian companies.

3. On the basis of the sources discussed in the chapter, suggest suitableoptions to solve the financial problem of the restaurant owner.

4. Prepare a comparative chart of all the sources of finance.

Documents

Sources of Finance