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AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200426
ON the following pages appearsa variety of information andstatistical material aboutspace—particularly militaryactivity in space. This almanacwas compiled by Air ForceMagazine, with assistance andinformation from SteveGarber, NASA History Office;Phillip S. Clark, Molniya SpaceConsultancy; Joseph J.Burger, Space Analysis andResearch, Inc.; and US Strate-gic Command and Air ForceSpace Command Public Af-fairs Offices.
Figures that appear in thissection will not always agreebecause of different cutoffdates, rounding, or differentmethods of reporting. Theinformation is intended toillustrate trends in spaceactivity.
2004
SpaceAlmanac
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200426
Ph
oto
ill
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Sim
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AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 27
By Tamar A. Mehuron, Associate Editor
2727AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 27
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004282828
Introduction
What’s Up ThereAs of May 31, 2004
Country/Organization
CIS (Russia/former USSR)USEuropean Space AgencyPeople’s Republic of ChinaJapanIndiaIntl. Telecom Sat. Org.GlobalstarFranceOrbcommEuropean Telecom Sat. Org.GermanyUnited KingdomCanadaItalyLuxembourgAustraliaSea LaunchBrazilSwedenIndonesiaIntl. Maritime Sat. Org.NATOSouth KoreaArab Sat. Comm. Org.ArgentinaMexicoSpainCzech RepublicIsraelNetherlandsTurkeyAsiaSat Corp.Intl. Space StationThailandDenmarkMalaysiaNorwaySaudi ArabiaChina/BrazilEgyptFrance/GermanyPhilippinesUAEAlgeriaChileEUMEGreeceNICONigeriaPakistanPortugalPRES (China/ESA)Republic of China (Taiwan)Saudi Arabia/FranceSingapore/TaiwanUS/BrazilTotal
Satellites
1,349903
3540842760523335262022211013
91
1010
9988776655554143333222221111111111111
2,884
Space Probes
3552
4070000002000000000000000000000300000000000000
000000000
103
Debris
2,6182,872
301285
51104
00
1600111302
10000000000000000000000000000000000000000
6,265
Total
4,0023,827
340325142131
6052493526232322131311111010
9988776655554443333222221111111111111
9,252
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 29
Space/Missile Badge
Astronaut Pilot* Missile Badge Missile Badge withOperations Designator
The astronaut designator indicates a USAF rated officerqualified to perform duties in space (50 miles and up)and who has completed at least one operational mission.Pilot wings are used here only to illustrate the position ofthe designator on the wings.
Space and Missile Badges
*
DefenseUS Strategic Command
Air Force Space Command
21st Space Wing
30th Space Wing
45th Space Wing
50th Space Wing
Space & Missile Systems Ctr.
IndustryBoeing Integrated Defense Systems
Lockheed Martin Space Systems Co.
Northrop Grumman Space Technology
Orbital Sciences
NASAIntegrated Launch Schedule
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
NASA Human Spaceflight
Science @ NASA
Space Center Houston
OtherFlorida Today
Space.com, Inc.
Spaceweather.com
Web addresswww.stratcom.mil
www.peterson.af.mil/hqafspc
www.peterson.af.mil/21sw
www.vandenberg.af.mil
https://www.patrick.af.mil
www.schriever.af.mil
www.losangeles.af.mil
www.boeing.com/ids
www.ast.lmco.com
www.st.northropgrumman.com
www.orbital.com
www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/schedule/mixfleet.htm
www.jpl.nasa.gov
spaceflight.nasa.gov
science.nasa.gov
spacecenter.org
www.floridatoday.com/news/space/index.htm
www.space.com
www.spaceweather.com
Space on the Web(Some of the space-related sites on the World Wide Web)
Launch Site
Plesetsk
Tyuratam/Baikonur, Kazakhstan
Vandenberg AFB, Calif.
Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla.
Kourou, French Guiana
JFK Space Center, Fla.
Kapustin Yar
Tanegashima
Xichang
Shuang Cheng-tsu/Jiuquan
Kagoshima
Wallops Flight Facility, Va.
Edwards AFB, Calif.
Sriharikota
Taiyuan
Pacific Ocean Platform
Indian Ocean Platform
Palmachim
Hammaguir, Algeria
Svobodny
Woomera, Australia
Alcantara
Barents Sea
Gando AB, Canary Islands
Kodiak, Alaska
Kwajalein, Marshall Islands
Musudan ri
Total
Owner
Russia
Russia
US
US
ESA
US
Russia
Japan
China
China
Japan
US
US
India
China
Sea Launch
US
Israel
France
Russia
Australia
Brazil
Russia
Spain
US
US
North Korea
Total Launches
1,542
1,204
626
599
170
134
101
37
36
32
31
30
20
18
18
11
9
5
4
4
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
4,643
Worldwide Orbital Launch Sites, 1957-2003
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200430
The Year in SpaceJuly 15, 2003US Broadcasting Board of Governorsclaims Cuba jammed Voice of Americasatellite TV broadcasts into Iran.Jamming was first detected July 6, andTelstar 12 service providers quicklyfound the source of the jamming to belocated near Havana. Cuba issued adenial but said it would investigate.Aug. 29USAF launches last Defense SatelliteCommunications System III spacecraftinto orbit aboard a Boeing Delta IVEvolved Expendable Launch Vehicle(EELV) from Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla.Sept. 29Lockheed Martin announces NorthropGrumman has joined with it and OrbitalSciences to compete for full-scaledevelopment of NASA’s OrbitalSpaceplane. Boeing is also vying for theOSP project.Oct. 1Air Force Reserve Command activatesthe 26th Space Aggressor Squadron,Schriever AFB, Colo., the third AFRCspace squadron and first to serve in thespace control mission area. It works withthe active duty 527th SAS in Air ForceSpace Command’s Space WarfareCenter.Oct. 16China completes a manned spacemission and joins the exclusive club ofthe US and Russia when it becomes thethird country to send a person intospace. Chinese officials said China plansto conduct space walks and spacevehicle docking, establish a space lab,and begin exploring the moon withinthree years.Oct. 18USAF launches its final Titan II fromVandenberg AFB, Calif. The booster,which carried a Defense MeteorologicalSatellite Program spacecraft into orbit,was the 13th of 14 Cold War Titan IIICBMs Lockheed Martin refurbished forspace launch. The 14th is expected to gointo a museum.Nov. 4The 45th Space Wing announcestransfer of Launch Complex 47 to theFlorida Space Authority. The pad wasslated for deactivation, but a licensingagreement under the Commercial SpaceTransportation Act permitted its contin-ued operation and upkeep by FSA.Nov. 19The National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA) declaresoperational the first fully upgraded Block5D-3 DMSP spacecraft, dubbed F16,after it undergoes a 30-day checkout,following its Oct. 18 launch (see above).NOAA is the designated operator forDMSPs, which provide data for strategic
toward automated availability of spaceinformation for air operations centersworldwide and machine-to-machine dataexchange for more cohesive planningbetween air and space commandcenters.Feb. 14A Boeing inertial upper stage launchedatop a Titan IVB from Cape Canaveralboosts DSP-22 into orbit. It is the lastlaunch in the 22-year run of the IUSprogram. The Titan IV-IUS combinationis being replaced by EELVs.March 20The 50th GPS launches into orbit aboarda Boeing Delta II rocket from CapeCanaveral. The launch of GPS IIR-11was dedicated to the late Ivan A.Getting, considered the father of GPS.March 30Boeing and Ball Aerospace announcewin of the Space Based SurveillanceSystem (SBSS) contract to develop asatellite and ground segment, providelaunch services, and initially operate thenew system. Northrop Grumman, asSBSS prime contractor, made the awardto the Boeing-Ball team.April 16USAF begins first major step towardcreation of the Space Based Radar(SBR) system by awarding conceptdevelopment contracts to LockheedMartin and Northrop Grumman. USAFexpects to make final selection in 2006.May 6USAF Maj. James P. Dutton Jr., an F/A-22 test pilot, is named as one of two newspace shuttle pilots. NASA also selectsthree other military personnel as newastronauts: Marine Maj. Randolph J.Bresnik, Lt. Cmdr. Christopher J.Cassidy, and Army Maj. Robert S.Kimbrough.May 18A space-based launch range moves astep closer to reality when USAF andLockheed Martin successfully use arange instrumentation payload carried onan unmanned aircraft to track a Delta IIrocket launched from Vandenberg.Lockheed’s Range Systems Transforma-tional Laboratory (RSTL) programtracked and recorded several minutes oftelemetry data. USAF hopes the RSTLwill prove the mobile launch rangeconcept and lead to a space-basedrange that will eliminate the need forcostly fixed range infrastructures.June 23US and European Union officialsannounce they have agreed on terms tomake the EU’s new Galileo satellitenavigation system compatible with GPS.The agreement ended a long-runningdispute. (See “Aerospace World: US, EUSet for NavSat Deal,” March, p. 15.) ■
and tactical weather prediction for USmilitary forces.Nov. 24The National Imagery and MappingAgency changes its name to the NationalGeospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA).Dec. 1The 30th Space Wing, Vandenberg, and45th SW, Patrick AFB, Fla., undergorealignments to streamline launchoperations at each wing. The movesalign former acquisition detachments ateach base with some wing operationsunits to form the 30th Launch Group and45th Launch Group, respectively.Dec. 2Lockheed Martin’s final Atlas IIAS rocketcarries a classified NRO payload intoorbit from Vandenberg’s Space LaunchComplex-3 East, slated to undergorefurbishment to launch the new Atlas VEELV, beginning in fall 2005.Dec. 2NASA taps a USAF Reservist, Lt. Col.Michael E. Fossum, as a missionspecialist for space shuttle flight STS-121, slated to fly no earlier than Novem-ber 2004.Jan. 5, 2004USAF advances work toward the nextgeneration Global Positioning Satellite,called GPS III, by awarding two systemrequirement contracts, one to Boeingand one to Lockheed Martin. Space andMissile Systems Center, Los AngelesAFB, Calif., expects to select onecontractor in December 2005 for theGPS III development contract.Jan. 14President Bush unveils a new spaceexploration program with three majorgoals: first, completion of the ISS by2010; second, development and testingof the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)by 2008, with a manned flight by 2014;third, return to the moon by 2015, ifpossible, but not later than 2020. TheCEV is expected to transport astronautsto the ISS after the space shuttle retires,but its main purpose is to carryspacefarers to other worlds.Jan. 15Schriever Air Force Base officialsdeclare GPS IIR-10, launched Dec. 21,2003, from Cape Canaveral Air ForceStation, to be fully operational. The newsatellite has an enhanced antenna panelto increase power output of the naviga-tion signal, making it less susceptible tointerference.Jan. 30USAF receives a prototype integrated airand space command and control (C2)capability developed by LockheedMartin. The prototype, delivered to theC2 Transformation Center at LangleyAFB, Va., provides a significant step
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200432
Figures may not sum due to rounding. NASA totals represent space activities only. “Other” category includes the Departments of Energy, Commerce, Agriculture, Interior, and Transportation and the National Science Foundation.
Military & Civilian Space Budgets
FY NASA DOD Other Total
1959 $1,705 $3,202 $222 $5,129 1960 2,968 3,604 276 6,849 1961 5,891 5,178 433 11,501 1962 11,318 8,175 1,253 20,746 1963 22,544 9,637 1,598 33,779 1964 30,786 9,814 1,307 41,908 1965 31,039 9,509 1,456 42,003 1966 29,735 9,916 1,256 40,907 1967 27,503 9,475 1,213 38,191 1968 24,209 10,503 952 35,664 1969 19,797 10,427 883 31,107 1970 17,382 8,223 691 26,296 1971 14,556 7,097 760 22,413 1972 13,968 6,400 607 20,974 1973 13,247 6,951 631 20,829 1974 10,645 6,814 610 18,069 1975 10,309 6,691 558 17,558 1976 10,780 6,629 563 17,972 1977 10,797 7,571 607 18,975 1978 10,568 7,987 659 19,214 1979 10,562 7,957 650 19,169 1980 10,807 8,886 534 20,226 1981 10,451 10,107 490 21,049 1982 10,897 13,166 616 24,680 1983 12,087 17,228 625 29,940 1984 12,560 18,671 723 31,954 1985 12,242 22,571 1,032 35,844 1986 12,430 24,506 827 37,763 1987 16,425 27,273 780 44,478 1988 13,387 28,438 1,192 43,016 1989 15,498 27,484 860 43,841 1990 16,689 22,741 736 40,166 1991 18,233 19,819 1,079 39,130 1992 17,909 20,384 1,082 39,375 1993 17,210 18,582 963 36,755 1994 16,720 16,904 812 34,436 1995 15,666 13,294 948 29,908 1996 15,241 13,962 1,004 30,207 1997 14,766 13,900 936 29,602 1998 14,375 14,419 979 29,773 1999 14,223 15,072 1,121 30,416 2000 13,823 14,287 1,165 29,276 2001 14,288 15,385 1,141 30,814 2002 14,662 16,638 1,264 32,564 2003 14,838 20,033 1,348 36,219 Total $675,736 $595,509 $39,443 $1,310,688
US Space Funding, Current Dollars (In millions)
FY
1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
NASA
$261 462 926
1,797 3,626 5,016 5,138 5,065 4,830 4,430 3,822 3,547 3,101 3,071 3,093 2,759 2,915 3,225 3,440 3,623 4,030 4,680 4,992 5,528 6,328 6,858 6,925 7,165 9,809 8,322
10,097 11,460 13,046 13,199 13,064 13,022 12,543 12,569 12,457 12,321 12,459 12,521 13,304 13,871 14,360
$319,077
DOD
$490 561 814
1,298 1,550 1,599 1,574 1,689 1,664 1,922 2,013 1,678 1,512 1,407 1,623 1,766 1,892 1,983 2,412 2,738 3,036 3,848 4,828 6,679 9,019
10,195 12,768 14,126 16,287 17,679 17,906 15,616 14,181 15,023 14,106 13,166 10,644 11,514 11,727 12,359 13,203 12,941 14,326 15,740 19,388
$342,490
Total
$785 1,066 1,808 3,294 5,433 6,828 6,953 6,968 6,707 6,526 6,005 5,366 4,775 4,611 4,863 4,683 4,965 5,376 6,046 6,587 7,314 8,759
10,054 12,520 15,674 17,448 20,277 21,768 26,562 26,742 28,563 27,582 27,999 29,020 27,901 26,820 23,946 24,911 24,973 25,519 26,644 26,518 28,692 30,807 35,053
$681,711
Other
$34 43 68
199 257 213 241 214 213 174 170 141 162
133 147 158 158 168 194 226 248 231 234 313 327 395 584 477 466 741 560 506 772 798 731 632 759 828 789 839 982
1,056 1,062 1,196 1,305
$20,144
US Space Funding, Constant FY05 Dollars (In millions)
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200434
Space Leaders
(As of July 9, 2004)
US Space Command*
Gen. Robert T. HerresGen. John L. PiotrowskiGen. Donald J. KutynaGen. Charles A. HornerGen. Joseph W. AshyGen. Howell M. Estes IIIGen. Richard B. MyersGen. Ralph E. Eberhart
Sept. 23, 1985-Feb. 5, 1987Feb. 6, 1987-March 30, 1990April 1, 1990-June 30, 1992June 30, 1992-Sept. 12, 1994Sept. 13, 1994-Aug. 26, 1996Aug. 27, 1996-Aug. 13, 1998Aug. 14, 1998-Feb. 22, 2000Feb. 22, 2000-Oct. 1, 2002
Air Force Space Command
Gen. James V. Hartinger
Gen. Robert T. Herres
Maj. Gen. Maurice C. Padden
Lt. Gen. Donald J. Kutyna
Lt. Gen. Thomas S. Moorman Jr.
Gen. Donald J. Kutyna
Gen. Charles A. Horner
Gen. Joseph W. Ashy
Gen. Howell M. Estes III
Gen. Richard B. Myers
Gen. Ralph E. Eberhart
Gen. Lance W. Lord
Sept. 1, 1982-July 30, 1984
July 30, 1984-Oct. 1, 1986
Oct. 1, 1986-Oct. 29, 1987
Oct. 29, 1987-March 29, 1990
March 29, 1990-March 23, 1992
March 23, 1992-June 30, 1992
June 30, 1992-Sept. 13, 1994
Sept. 13, 1994-Aug. 26, 1996
Aug. 26, 1996-Aug. 14, 1998
Aug. 14, 1998-Feb. 22, 2000
Feb. 22, 2000-April 19, 2002
April 19, 2002-
People & Organizations
US Strategic Command
Adm. James O. Ellis Jr.Gen. James E. Cartwright, USMC
Oct. 1, 2002-July 9, 2004July 9, 2004-
*US Space Command was inactivated Oct. 1, 2002, and its mission transferred to USStrategic Command.
Army Space & Missile Defense Command*
*Army Space and Missile Defense Command was the Army Strategic Defense Com-mand until August 1992 and the Army Space and Strategic Defense Command untilOctober 1997.
RAdm. John P. Cryer
Naval Network & Space Operations Command
July 12, 2002-
RAdm. Richard H. Truly
Col. Richard L. Phillips, USMC (acting)
RAdm. D. Bruce Cargill
RAdm. Richard C. Macke
RAdm. David E. Frost
Col. Charles R. Geiger, USMC (acting)
RAdm. L.E. Allen Jr.
RAdm. Herbert A. Browne Jr.
RAdm. Leonard N. Oden
RAdm. Lyle G. Bien
RAdm. Phillip S. Anselmo
RAdm. Katharine L. Laughton
RAdm. Patrick D. Moneymaker
Col. Michael M. Henderson, USMC (acting)
RAdm. Thomas E. Zelibor
RAdm. J.J. Quinn
RAdm. Richard J. Mauldin
RAdm. John P. Cryer
Naval Space Command*
Oct. 1, 1983-Feb. 28, 1986
March 1, 1986-April 30, 1986
April 30, 1986-Oct. 24, 1986
Oct. 24, 1986-March 21, 1988
March 21, 1988-April 2, 1990
April 2, 1990-May 31, 1990
May 31, 1990-Aug. 12, 1991
Aug. 12, 1991-Oct. 28, 1993
Oct. 28, 1993-Jan. 31, 1994
Jan. 31, 1994-Dec. 13, 1994
Dec. 13, 1994-April 18, 1995
April 18, 1995-Feb. 28, 1997
Feb. 28, 1997-Sept. 10, 1998
Sept. 10, 1998-Oct. 1, 1998
Oct. 1, 1998-June 8, 2000
June 8, 2000-March 31, 2001
March 31, 2001-Dec. 10, 2001
Dec. 10, 2001-July 12, 2002
*Naval Space Command and Naval Network Operations Command merged July 12,2002.
Joseph V. Charyk
Brockway McMillan
Alexander H. Flax
John L. McLucas
James W. Plummer
Thomas C. Reed
Hans Mark
Robert J. Hermann
Edward C. Aldridge Jr.
Martin C. Faga
Jeffrey K. Harris
Keith R. Hall (acting)
Keith R. Hall
Peter B. Teets
Sept. 6, 1961-March 1, 1963
March 1, 1963-Oct. 1, 1965
Oct. 1, 1965-March 11, 1969
March 17, 1969-Dec. 20, 1973
Dec. 21, 1973-June 28, 1976
Aug. 9, 1976-April 7, 1977
Aug. 3, 1977-Oct. 8, 1979
Oct. 8, 1979-Aug. 2, 1981
Aug. 3, 1981-Dec. 16, 1988
Sept. 26, 1989-March 5, 1993
May 19, 1994-Feb. 26, 1996
Feb. 27, 1996-March 27, 1997
March 28, 1997-Dec. 13, 2001
Dec. 13, 2001-
National Reconnaissance Office
Lt. Gen. John F. Wall
Brig. Gen. Robert L. Stewart (acting)
Lt. Gen. Robert D. Hammond
Brig. Gen. William J. Schumacher (acting)
Lt. Gen. Donald M. Lionetti
Lt. Gen. Jay M. Garner
Lt. Gen. Edward G. Anderson III
Col. Stephen W. Flohr (acting)
Lt. Gen. John Costello
Brig. Gen. John M. Urias (acting)
Lt. Gen. Joseph M. Cosumano Jr.
Lt. Gen. Larry J. Dodgen
July 1, 1985-May 24, 1988
May 24, 1988-July 11, 1988
July 11, 1988-June 30, 1992
June 30, 1992-July 31, 1992
Aug. 24, 1992-Sept. 6, 1994
Sept. 6, 1994-Oct. 7, 1996
Oct. 7, 1996-Aug. 6, 1998
Aug. 6, 1998-Oct. 1, 1998
Oct. 1, 1998-March 28, 2001
March 28, 2001-April 30, 2001
April 30, 2001-Dec. 16, 2003
Dec. 16, 2003-
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 35
CommanderGen. Lance W. Lord
Air Force Space Command, Peterson AFB, Colo.(As of July 1, 2004)
Space Warfare CenterSchriever AFB, Colo.Cmdr.: Maj. Gen. (sel.) Daniel J. Darnell
Space and Missile Systems CenterHq., Los Angeles AFB, Calif.Cmdr.: Lt. Gen. Brian A. Arnold
DMSP Program Office
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle PO
Launch Programs PO
MILSATCOM Joint Program Office
Navstar Global Positioning System JPO
Satellite and Launch Control PO
Space Based Infrared Systems PO
Space Based Radar JPO
Space Superiority System Program Office 90th Space Wing, F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo.
91st Space Wing, Minot AFB, N.D.
341st Space Wing, Malmstrom AFB, Mont.
20th Air ForceHq., F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo.Cmdr.: Maj. Gen. Frank G. Klotz
14th Air ForceHq., Vandenberg AFB, Calif.Cmdr.: Maj. Gen. Michael A. Hamel
21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, Colo.
30th Space Wing, Vandenberg AFB, Calif.
45th Space Wing, Patrick AFB, Fla.
50th Space Wing, Schriever AFB, Colo.
460th Air Base Wing, Buckley AFB, Colo.
Major Military Space CommandsUnified Command
US Strategic CommandOffutt AFB, Neb.
Service Commands
Air Force Space CommandPeterson AFB, Colo.
Naval Network & SpaceOperations CommandDahlgren, Va.
Army Space & MissileDefense CommandArlington, Va.
Personnel
3,738
26,550
4,834
1,832
FY05 Budget
$497 million
$9.4 billion
$273 million
$678.5 million
Functions
Establishes and provides full-spectrum global strike, coordinatedspace and information operations capabilities to meet bothdeterrent and decisive national security objectives. Providesoperational space support and integrated missile defense. Providesglobal C4ISR, as well as specialized planning expertise to the jointwarfighter.
Operates military space systems, ground-based missile-warningradars and sensors, missile-warning satellites, national launchcenters, and ranges; tracks space debris; operates and maintainsthe USAF ICBM force.
Operates and maintains the Navy’s space and global telecommuni-cations systems and services, directly supports warfightingoperations and command and control of naval forces, and promotesinnovative technological solutions to warfighting requirements.
Manages Army space and information operations and global strike,integrated missile defense, and C4ISR capabilities; provides world-wide space support, including employment of satellite communicationsand theater missile warning to warfighters; oversees Army space andmissile R&D and development of Army space doctrine and concepts.
Undersecretary of the Air Force andDirector, National Reconnaissance Office
Peter B. Teets
USECAF/DNRO Organization(As of July 1, 2004)
Deputy, Military SpaceRobert S. Dickman
Deputy Director of NRODennis D. Fitzgerald
Program Executive Officerfor Air Force SpaceLt. Gen. Brian A. Arnold
Director, National SecuritySpace OfficeMaj. Gen. C. Robert Kehler
Director, Space AcquisitionMaj. Gen. Craig R. Cooning
NationalReconnaissanceOffice
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200436
Major US Agencies in Space
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)Headquarters: McLean, Va.Established: 1947Director: John E. McLaughlin (acting)
Mission, Purpose, OperationsThe CIA’s Directorate for Science andTechnology includes the Office of Devel-opment and Engineering, which developssystems from requirements definitionthrough design, testing, and evaluationto operations. Works with systems notavailable commercially. Disciplines in-clude laser communications, digitalimagery processing, real-time data col-lection and processing, electro-optics,advanced signal collection, artificialintelligence, advanced antenna design,mass data storage and retrieval, andlarge systems modeling and simulations.Work includes new concepts and sys-tems upgrades.StructureClassified.PersonnelClassified.
National Geospatial-IntelligenceAgency (NGA)Headquarters: Bethesda, Md.Established: Nov. 24, 2003Director: James R. Clapper Jr.
Mission, Purpose, OperationsNGA is both a national intelligence and acombat support agency whose mission isto provide timely, relevant, and accurategeospatial intelligence in support ofnational security. Geospatial intelligenceis the exploitation and analysis of imag-ery and geospatial information to de-scribe, assess, and visually depict physi-cal features and geographicallyreferenced activities on the Earth.StructureMajor facilities in Washington D.C., North-ern Virginia, and St. Louis areas, withNGA support teams worldwide.PersonnelClassified.
Formerly National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA).
National Reconnaissance Office(NRO)Headquarters: Chantilly, Va.Established: September 1961Director: Peter B. Teets
Mission, Purpose, OperationsDesign, build, and operate reconnais-sance satellites to support global informa-tion superiority for the US. It has operatedhundreds of satellites since it was formedin 1960 and officially recognized in 1961.Responsible for innovative technology;systems engineering; development, ac-quisition, and operation of space recon-naissance systems; and related intelli-gence activities. Supports monitoring ofarms control agreements, military opera-tions and exercises, natural disasters,environmental issues, and worldwideevents of interest to the US.
StructureNRO is a DOD agency, funded throughpart of the National Foreign IntelligenceProgram, known as the National Recon-naissance Program. Both the Secretaryof Defense and Director of Central Intelli-gence have approval of the program.The NRO has one office (space launch)and four directorates (signals intelligencesystems acquisition and operations,communications systems acquisition andoperations, imagery intelligence systemsacquisition and operations, and ad-vanced systems and technology) thatreport to the director.PersonnelStaffed by CIA (41 percent), USAF (49percent), Navy/Marines (nine percent),Army (one percent). Exact personnelnumbers are classified.
National Security Agency (NSA)Headquarters: Ft. Meade, Md.Established: 1952Director: USAF Lt. Gen. Michael V.Hayden
Mission, Purpose, OperationsProtect US communications and produceforeign intelligence information. Taskedwith two primary missions: an informationassurance mission and a foreign signalsintelligence mission. To accomplish thesemissions, the director’s responsibilitiesinclude: prescribing security principles,doctrines, and procedures for the govern-ment; organizing, operating, and manag-ing certain activities and facilities toproduce foreign intelligence information;and conducting defensive informationoperations.StructureEstablished by a Presidential directive in1952 as a separately organized agencywithin DOD under the direction, authority,and control of the Secretary of Defense,who serves as the executive agent of theUS government for the foreign signalsintelligence and communications securityactivities of the government. A 1984Presidential directive charged the agencywith an additional mission: computersecurity. An operations security trainingmission was added in 1988. The CentralSecurity Service was established in 1972by a Presidential memorandum to providea more unified cryptological organizationwithin DOD. The NSA director also servesas chief of the CSS.PersonnelApprox. 30,000 worldwide.
A Titan IVB rocket launches aclassified payload for USAF and NROfrom Complex-4 East at VandenbergAFB, Calif.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 37
Military Sites (Orbital)
Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla.Location: 28.5° N, 80° W.Mission/operations: USAF’s East Coastlaunch site. Launches satellites intogeosynchronous orbit via ELVs. Hub ofEastern Range operations for civil,military, and commercial space launchesand military ballistic missile tests.Launches: 599.Launch vehicles: Athena I, II; Atlas II,III, V; Delta II, III, IV; Titan IV.History: Designated simply as OperatingSub-Division #1 in 1950, it became CapeCanaveral Missile Test Annex and, for atime, Cape Kennedy Air Force Station,then Cape Canaveral Air Force Stationin 1974.Acres: 15,700.
Vandenberg AFB, Calif.Location: 35° N, 121° W.Mission/operations: USAF’s WestCoast launch site. Launches satellitesinto polar orbits via ELVs; sole site fortest launches of USAF ICBM fleet; basicsupport for R&D tests for DOD, USAF,and NASA space, ballistic missile, andaeronautical systems; facilities andessential services for more than 60aerospace contractors on base.Launches: 626.Launch vehicles: Athena I; Atlas II, III,V; Delta II, III, IV; Pegasus; Taurus;Titan II, IV.History: Originally Army’s Camp Cooke,turned over to Air Force January 1957.Renamed Vandenberg Oct. 4, 1958.Acres: 98,400.
Civil/Commercial Sites (Orbital)
Alaska SpaceportLocation: 57.5° N, 153° W.Mission/operations: Commercial launchfacility for polar and near-polar launchesof communications, remote sensing, andscientific satellites up to 8,000 pounds.Launches: Six.Launch vehicles: Athena I, suborbital.History: Established in 1998; fundedthrough Alaska Aerospace DevelopmentCorp.Acres: 3,100.
Florida Space AuthorityLocation: 28.5° N, 80° W.Mission/operations: Various launchcomplexes and support facilitiesdeveloped, operated, or financed by thestate of Florida at the Cape CanaveralSpaceport (comprising Cape CanaveralAir Force Station and Kennedy SpaceCenter). FSA developed or ownsinfrastructure at launch complexes 37,41, 46, and 47 and manages a multiuserlaunch control facility, space experi-ments research and processing labora-tory, and other facilities.Launches: N/ALaunch vehicles: Athena I, II; Minotaur;Minuteman III; Taurus; Terrier.History: Established in 1989.
John F. Kennedy Space Center, Fla.Location: 28° N, 80° W.Mission/operations: NASA’s primarylaunch base for space shuttle.Launches: 134.Launch vehicles: Pegasus, spaceshuttle, Taurus.History: NASA began acquiring landacross the Banana River from CapeCanaveral in 1962. By 1967, its firstlaunch complex—Complex 39—wasoperational. KSC facilities were modifiedin the mid to late 1970s to accommodatethe space shuttle program.Acres: 140,000 (land and water).
Mid-Atlantic Regional SpaceportLocation: 38° N, 76° W (at NASAWallops Flight Facility).Mission/operations: State-ownedlaunch facility cooperatively operated byVirginia and Maryland for access toinclined and sun-synchronous orbits;recovery support for ballistic and guidedre-entry vehicles; vehicle and payloadstorage and processing facilities; twocommercially licensed launchpads andsuborbital launch rails for commercial,
military, scientific, and experimentallaunch customers.Operator: CSC-DynSpace.Launches: 13 (since 1995).Launch vehicles: Athena I, II; BlackBrant; Falcon; Lockheed Martin HYSR;Minotaur; Orion; Pegasus; Taurus;Terrier.
Sea LaunchLocation: Equator, 154° W, PacificOcean.Mission/operations: Provide heavy liftGTO launch services for commercialcustomers worldwide. Sea Launch isowned by an international partnership:Boeing, RSC Energia, Ango-NorwegianKvaerner Group, and SDO Yuzhnoye/POYuzhmash.Launches: 11.Launch vehicles: Zenit-3SL.History: Established in April 1995;demonstration launch March 1999.
Spaceport Systems Intl., L.P.Location: 34.70° N, 120.46° W.Mission/operations: Polar and near-polarLEO launches from Vandenberg; payloadprocessing and launches for commercial,NASA, and USAF customers; small tomedium launch vehicles up to one millionpound thrust; payload processing facilityfor small and heavy satellites.Launches: Two.Launch vehicles: MM II class.History: SSI, a limited partnershipformed by ITT and California CommercialSpaceport, Inc., achieved full operationalstatus of the spaceport in May 1999.
Wallops Flight Facility, Va.Location: 38° N, 76° W.Mission/operations: East Coast launchsite and research airport.Launches: 30.Launch vehicles: 14 suborbitalsounding rockets.History: Established in 1945, it is one ofworld’s oldest launch sites.Acres: 6,166.
Note: Launches 1957-2003, except where noted.
US Space Launch Sites
Space Operations
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200438
Military Functions in Space
where on or above the Earth’s surface, inany weather. Enable weapons guidance.Provide a common time reference fornetwork and communications synchroni-zation. Provide precise timing andlocation information aids in navigation,situational awareness, and combatsearch and rescue.
On-Orbit SupportTrack and control satellites, operate theirpayloads, and disseminate data fromthem.
Reconnaissance and SurveillanceObservation of space, air, and surfaceareas through visual, electronic,photographic, or other means to providesituational awareness of a given area oractivity. Access to specific targets,allowing data collection focused onspecific events of interest. Enhance thereaction time of information users andcue other systems. Support the full rangeof intelligence activities and operationalmission planning and execution.
Space ControlControl and exploit space using offensiveand defensive measures to ensure thatfriendly forces can use space capabili-ties, while denying their use to theenemy. The ability to execute offensiveand defensive measures is predicated onprecise space situational awareness.Space situational awareness is anunderstanding of all space-relatedactivity, both on the ground and inspace. This mission is assigned to
The Florida coastline is visible below this Delta II rocket as its solid-fuel boostersfall away while the launch vehicle continues on. This photo, taken from a Boeingvideo, depicts the launch of NASA’s Mars Odyssey payload.
Bo
ein
g p
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to
CommunicationsProvide communications from nationalleaders to joint force commander andfrom JFC to squadron-level commanders.Allow beyond-line-of-sight command andcontrol of forces. Support transmission ofsituational awareness and imagery totactical-level operations. Permit rapidtransmission of JFC intent, ground forceobservations, and adaptive planning.
Environmental/Remote SensingUse space systems to create topographi-cal, hydrographic, and geological mapsand charts and to develop systems oftopographic measurement.
Force ApplicationUS Strategic Command is identifyingpotential future roles, missions, andsystems, which, if authorized by civilianleadership for development and deploy-ment, could attack terrestrial and spacetargets from space in support of nationaldefense.
Missile DefenseEmploy space assets to support identifi-cation, acquisition, tracking, and destruc-tion of ballistic and cruise missileslaunched against forward deployed USforces, allied forces, or US territory.
Navigation and TimingProvide highly accurate time and three-dimensional position and velocityinformation to an unlimited number ofsuitably equipped military users any-
commander, STRATCOM, in the UnifiedCommand Plan.
Space-Based Global EnvironmentalMonitoringCollect global high-resolution cloudimagery and other critical air, land, sea,and space environment data to optimizewar planning and execution.
SpaceliftOversee satellite and booster prepara-tion and integration. Conduct launchcountdown activities. Operate Easternand Western Ranges to support the safeconduct of spacelift missions, ballisticmissile test and evaluations, andaeronautical/guided weapons test andevaluations.
Strategic and Theater Early WarningOperate satellites to give nationalleaders early warning of all strategicmissile events and combatant command-ers/warfighters early warning of alltheater ballistic missile events. Providetimely, accurate data on launch times,locations, and predicted impact areas.Cue passive and active missile defensesystems.
Tactical Warning/Attack AssessmentExecute the NORAD mission calling foruse of all sensors to detect and charac-terize an attack on US or Canadianterritory. STRATCOM carries out similartactical warning in other theaters.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 39
Launch
Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Total
Military
0
6
12
20
35
33
44
49
52
51
35
32
23
26
18
14
11
12
17
14
16
10
12
7
8
16
17
13
7
10
11
15
22
17
12
12
18
15
16
10
7
8
12
8
2
11
816
Civil*
7
5
5
12
20
22
25
39
47
34
26
27
8
18
14
10
8
16
12
6
17
7
4
10
9
12
16
17
4
1
9
9
16
18
17
18
19
24
24
82
90
73
40
23
25
12
957
Total
7
11
17
32
55
55
69
88
99
85
61
59
31
44
32
24
19
28
29
20
33
17
16
17
17
28
33
30
11
11
20
24
38
35
29
30
37
39
40
92
97
81
52
31
27
23
1,773
US Satellites Placed in Orbit and Deep Space(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
*Includes some military payloads.
Launch
Year
1958
1959
1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Total
Military
0
6
11
19
32
25
33
34
35
29
23
17
18
16
14
11
8
9
11
10
14
8
8
7
6
8
11
4
4
6
8
11
11
6
11
12
11
9
11
9
5
7
11
7
1
11
578
Civil*
7
5
5
10
20
13
24
29
38
29
22
23
11
16
17
12
16
19
15
14
18
8
5
11
12
14
11
13
2
2
4
7
16
12
17
11
15
18
22
28
29
23
17
14
16
16
706
Total
7
11
16
29
52
38
57
63
73
58
45
40
29
32
31
23
24
28
26
24
32
16
13
18
18
22
22
17
6
8
12
18
27
18
28
23
26
27
33
37
34
30
28
21
17
27
1,284
US Military/Civil Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Note: Data changes in prior years in the table above are based on recategorization ofcivil to military launches.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200440
US Military Payloads by Mission, 1958-2003(Orbital only)
Year
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Total
Flights
2
3
1
0
5
5
0
2
4
1
2
2
3
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
2
3
4
5
9
1
0
2
5
6
6
8
7
7
7
7
8
5
3
5
6
5
1
143
Persons
2
3
1
0
10
10
0
6
12
3
6
6
9
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
4
8
20
28
58
7
0
10
25
32
35
53
42
42
42
43
53
33
19
32
38
34
7
736
US Manned Spaceflights
Month/Year*
March 2005
TBD
TBD
TBD
Name
Discovery
TBD
TBD
TBD
Mission
STS-114
STS-121
STS-115
STS-116
Upcoming Shuttle Flights
*Flight dates beyond March 2005 are under review following the February 2003 loss ofColumbia and its crew.
Category
ApplicationsCommunicationsWeatherNavigationLaunch vehicle/spacecraft testsOther military
Weapons-Related ActivitiesSDI testsAntisatellite targetsAntisatellite interceptors
ReconnaissancePhotographic/radar imagingElectronic intelligenceOcean surveillanceNuclear detectionRadar calibrationEarly warning
Total
Number
345125
4491
382
4611
233
436250
4946124039
827
A Titan IVB rocket is unloaded from a C-5 at Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla. Thisbooster is scheduled for launch in late 2004.
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AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 41
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
Orbits
Orbits result from the mutual attraction of any two bodies with a forceproportional to the product of their individual masses and inverselyproportional to the square of the distance between them. The curvature ofthe Earth, on average, drops 16 feet below the horizontal over a distance ofabout five miles. A spacecraft circling above would “fall” that same amountover the same distance. It travels five miles in one second if gravitationalpull equals one G. Therefore, spacecraft velocity of five miles per second(18,000 mph) produces perpetual orbit at sea level, unless the spacecraft’sflight is upset by perturbations, such as solar wind or mechanical anoma-lies.
LEO60-300 mi.
MEO300-22,300 mi.
HEO 22,300–60,000 mi.
Orbital Altitude
LEO Low Earth orbitMEO Medium Earth orbitGEO Geosynchronous Earth orbitHEO High Earth orbit
GEO 22,300 mi.
Transferellipse
LEO,parkingorbit
Targetorbit
Apogee burn
Perigeeburn Illustrations are not drawn to scale.
It is common procedure topick an initial “parking” or-bit, usually at LEO, thenboost payloads to higher al-titude. Engines are fired first(at perigee) to reach the apo-gee of an elliptical transferorbit and then are fired againto put the spacecraft into acircular orbit at that higheraltitude.
Orbital Inclinations
1 Equatorial2 Sun synchronous3 Polar
3
2
100 mi.
5 mi.
5 mi.
100 mi.
16 ft.
16 ft.
1
This Boeing Delta II rocket is liftingoff from Cape Canaveral AFS inFlorida. It carries into orbit a re-placement satellite for USAF’s Glo-bal Positioning System.
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AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200442
Space Shuttle Flights, 1981-2004(As of June 19, 2004)
MissionSTS-1STS-2STS-3STS-4*STS-5STS-6STS-7STS-8STS-9STS-10STS-11STS-12STS-13STS-14STS-15*STS-16STS-17STS-18STS-19STS-20STS-21*STS-22STS-23STS-24STS-25STS-26STS-27*STS-29STS-30STS-28*STS-34STS-33*STS-32STS-36*STS-31STS-41STS-38*STS-35STS-37STS-40STS-43STS-48STS-44*STS-39*STS-42STS-45STS-49STS-50STS-46STS-47STS-52STS-53*STS-54STS-56STS-55STS-57STS-51
Launch4/12/81
11/12/813/22/826/27/82
11/11/824/4/83
6/18/838/30/83
11/28/832/3/844/6/84
8/30/8410/5/8411/8/841/24/854/12/854/29/856/17/857/29/858/27/8510/3/85
10/30/8511/26/85
1/12/861/28/869/29/8812/2/883/13/89
5/4/898/8/89
10/18/8911/22/89
1/9/902/28/904/24/9010/6/90
11/15/9012/2/90
4/5/916/5/918/2/91
9/12/9111/24/91
4/28/911/22/923/24/92
5/7/926/25/927/31/929/12/92
10/22/9212/2/921/13/93
4/8/934/26/936/21/939/12/93
Flight123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657
Return4/14/81
11/14/813/30/82
7/4/8211/16/82
4/9/836/24/83
9/5/8312/8/832/11/844/13/84
9/5/8410/13/8411/16/84
1/27/854/19/85
5/6/856/24/85
8/6/859/3/85
10/7/8511/6/8512/3/851/18/86
No Landing10/3/8812/6/883/18/89
5/8/898/13/89
10/23/8911/27/89
1/20/903/4/90
4/29/9010/10/9011/20/9012/10/90
4/11/916/14/918/11/919/18/9112/1/91
5/6/911/30/92
4/2/925/16/92
7/9/928/8/92
9/20/9211/1/9212/9/921/19/934/17/93
5/6/937/1/93
9/22/93
Return11/1/93
12/13/932/11/943/18/944/20/947/23/949/20/94
10/11/9411/14/94
2/11/953/18/95
7/7/957/22/959/18/9511/5/95
11/20/951/20/96
3/9/963/31/965/29/96
7/7/969/26/9612/7/961/22/972/21/97
4/8/975/24/977/17/978/19/9710/6/9712/5/971/31/98
5/3/986/12/9811/7/98
12/15/986/6/99
7/27/9912/27/99
2/22/005/29/009/19/00
10/24/0012/11/00
2/20/013/20/01
5/1/017/24/018/22/01
12/17/013/9/02
4/19/026/19/02
10/18/0212/7/02
No Landing
Launch10/18/93
12/2/932/3/943/4/944/9/947/8/949/9/94
9/30/9411/3/94
2/3/953/2/95
6/27/957/13/95
9/7/9510/20/9511/12/95
1/11/962/22/963/22/965/19/966/20/969/16/96
11/19/961/12/972/11/97
4/4/975/15/97
7/1/978/7/97
9/25/9711/19/97
1/22/984/17/98
6/2/9810/29/98
12/4/985/27/997/22/99
12/19/992/11/005/19/00
9/8/0010/11/0011/30/00
2/7/013/8/01
4/19/017/12/018/10/0112/5/01
3/1/024/8/026/5/02
10/7/0211/23/02
1/16/03
MissionSTS-58STS-61STS-60STS-62STS-59STS-65STS-64STS-68STS-66STS-63STS-67STS-71STS-70STS-69STS-73STS-74STS-72STS-75STS-76STS-77STS-78STS-79STS-80STS-81STS-82STS-83STS-84STS-94STS-85STS-86STS-87STS-89STS-90STS-91STS-95STS-88STS-96STS-93*STS-103STS-99STS-101STS-106*STS-92STS-97STS-98*STS-102*STS-100STS-104*STS-105*STS-108STS-109STS-110STS-111STS-112STS-113STS-107
Flight585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113
*DOD payload.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 43
Major Military Satellite Systems
Advanced Extremely High Fre-quency Satellite CommunicationsSystemCommon name: AEHFIn brief: successor to Milstar, AEHF willprovide assured strategic/tactical,worldwide C2 communications with atleast five times the capacity of Milstar IIbut in a smaller package.Function: EHF communications.Operator: MILSATCOM JPO (acquisi-tion); AFSPC.First launch: December 2006, planned.Constellation: three-five.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin, NorthropGrumman team for system developmentand demonstration.Power plant: N/A.Dimensions: N/A.Weight: approx 13,000 lb.
Advanced Polar SystemCommon name: APSIn brief: next generation polar commu-nications to replace interim polarsystem (see Polar Military SatelliteCommunications, p. 44), whichprovides only a fraction of the polarcommunications capability required byaircraft, submarines, and other forcesoperating in the high northern latitudes.Pre-acquisition, system definition, andrisk reduction efforts started in Fiscal2004.Function: EHF communications.Operator: MILSATCOM JPO (acquisi-tion); AFSPC.First launch: circa 2010.Constellation: two.Orbit altitude: 22,300+ miles.Contractor: TBD.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
Advanced Wideband SystemCommon name: AWSIn brief: successor to the Defense SatelliteCommunications System (see at right) andthe Wideband Gap-Filler System (see p.44). Current concept calls for commercial-like satellites, with high-capacity SHF,Internet protocols, and laser crosslink(possible), to provide greatly increasedtactical communications capability foraircraft and mobile ground forces.Function: wideband communications.Operator: MILSATCOM JPO (acquisi-tion); AFSPC.First launch: 2009, planned.Constellation: three-six, planned.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: TBD.Power plant: TBD.
Space Systems
Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
Defense Meteorological SatelliteProgramCommon name: DMSPIn brief: satellites that collect air, land,sea, and space environmental data tosupport worldwide strategic and tacticalmilitary operations. Operational controltransferred to NOAA in 1998; backupoperation center at Schriever AFB, Colo.,manned by Air Force Reserve Commandpersonnel.Function: environmental monitoring.Operator: NPOESS Integrated ProgramOffice.First launch: May 23, 1962.Constellation: two (primary).Orbit altitude: approx 575 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin, NorthropGrumman.Power plant: solar arrays, 1,200-1,300watts.Dimensions: 4 x 20.2 ft deployed.Weight: 2,545 lb (including 592-lbsensor).
Defense Satellite Communica-tions System IIICommon name: DSCSIn brief: nuclear-hardened and jam-resistant spacecraft used to transmithigh-priority C2 messages to battlefieldcommanders.Function: SHF communications.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: October 1982.Constellation: five.On orbit: 13.Orbit altitude: 22,000+ miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, avg. 1,269watts (pre-system life enhancementprogram); avg. 1,500 watts (SLEP; firstSLEP satellite launched Jan. 20, 2000).Dimensions: 6 x 6 x 7 ft; 38 ft de-ployed.Weight: 2,580 lb (pre-SLEP); 2,716 lb(SLEP).
Defense Support ProgramCommon name: DSPIn brief: early warning spacecraft whoseinfrared sensors detect heat generatedby a missile or booster plume.Function: strategic and tactical missilelaunch detection.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: November 1970.Constellation: classified.On orbit: classified.Orbit altitude: 22,000+ miles.Contractor: Northrop Grumman.Power plant: solar array, 1,485 watts.
Dimensions: 22 x 32.8 ft deployed.Weight: approx 5,000 lb.
Global Broadcast SystemCommon name: GBSIn brief: wideband communicationsprogram, initially using leased commer-cial satellites, then military systems, toprovide digital multimedia data directly totheater warfighters.Function: high-bandwidth data imageryand video.Operator: Navy.First launch: March 1998 (Phase 2payload on UHF Follow-On).Constellation: three; commercialaugmentation.On orbit: three.Orbit altitude: 23,230 miles.Contractor: Raytheon (Phase 2).Power plant: (interim host satellite: UHFFollow-On) 3,800 watts.Dimensions: numerous items integratedthroughout host.
Global Positioning SystemCommon name: GPSIn brief: constellation of satellites usedby military and civilians to determine aprecise location and time anywhere onEarth. Block IIR began replacing olderGPS spacecraft in mid-1997; firstmodified Block IIR-M with military (M-code) on two channels launches in 2004.Next generation Block IIF with extendeddesign life, faster processors, and newcivil signal on third frequency launches in2006. Generation after next GPS III withadvanced antijam and higher quality datais slated for initial launch in 2012.Function: worldwide navigation.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: Feb. 22, 1978 (Block I).Constellation: 28.Orbit altitude: 12,600 miles.Contractor: Boeing (II, IIA, IIF);Lockheed Martin (IIR, IIR-M).Power plant: solar array, 1,136 watts(IIR/IIR-M); up to 2,900 watts (IIF).Dimensions: 5 x 6.3 x 6.25 ft; 38 ftdeployed (IIR/IIR-M); 12.9 x 43.1 ftdeployed (IIF).Weight: 2,370 lb (IIR/IIR-M); 3,407 lb (IIF).
Milstar Satellite CommunicationsSystemCommon Name: MilstarIn brief: joint communications satellitethat provides secure, jam-resistantcommunications for essential wartimeneeds.Function: EHF communications.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: Feb. 7, 1994.Constellation: five.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200444
On orbit: five.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin (prime),with Boeing, Northrop Grumman.Power plant: solar array, 8,000 watts.Dimensions: 51 ft; 116 ft deployed.Weight: approx 10,000 lb.
Mobile User Objective System(also known as Advanced NarrowbandSystem)Common name: MUOSIn brief: next generation narrowbandUHF tactical communications satellite toreplace the UHF Follow-On Satellite (seebelow at right). Concept study contractsawarded in 1999; production awardexpected in summer 2004; initial launch in2007.Function: UHF tactical communications.Operator: Navy.First launch: 2009, planned.Constellation: four, plus spare.On orbit: none.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: TBD.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
Polar Military Satellite Communi-cations(also known as Interim Polar and AdjunctPolar)Common name: Polar MILSATCOMIn brief: USAF deployed a modifiedNavy EHF payload on a host polar-orbiting satellite to provide an interimsolution to ensure warfighters haveprotected polar communicationscapability. Polars 2 and 3 slated forlaunch in 2004 and 2006, respectively.Function: EHF polar communications.Operator: Navy.First launch: 1997.Constellation: three.On orbit: one.Orbit altitude: 25,300 miles (apogee).Contractor: classified.Power plant: 410 watts consumed bypayload (power from host solar array).Dimensions: numerous items integratedthroughout host.Weight: 470 lb.
Space Based Infrared SystemHighCommon name: SBIRS HighIn brief: advanced surveillance systemfor missile warning, missile defense,battlespace characterization, andtechnical intelligence. System initiallywill complement, then replace, DefenseSupport Program spacecraft (see p. 43).Function: infrared space surveillance.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: 2007, planned.Constellation: four GEO sats, plus oneon-orbit spare, and two sensors in highlyelliptical orbit.On orbit: none.Contractor: Lockheed Martin, NorthropGrumman.Power plant: solar array, 2,435 watts.Dimensions: 6 x 7 x 17 ft.Weight: 5,442 lb.
Space Based Radar
Common name: SBRIn brief: spaceborne capability to trackmoving targets in operational theater.Function: track moving ground targets.Operator: SMC/NRO JPO (development/acquisition); AFSPC.First launch: 2012, planned.Constellation: TBD.On orbit: none.Contractor: Lockheed Martin andNorthrop Grumman leading conceptdevelopment efforts. Final selectionplanned for 2006.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
Space Tracking and SurveillanceSystem(formerly SBIRS Low).Common name: STSSIn brief: infrared surveillance andtracking satellites to detect and trackballistic missiles from launch to impact.System is sensor component of layeredballistic missile defense system and willwork with SBIRS High (see above).Function: infrared surveillance.Operator: MDA (acquisition); AFSPC.First launch: 2007 for R&D, planned.Constellation: two.On orbit: none.Contractor: Northrop Grumman,Raytheon.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
Transformational Satellite Com-munications SystemCommon name: TSATIn brief: joint communications satellitebeing designed to provide Internet-likeconnectivity to warfighters at thetactical level. It will feature lasercrosslink and greatly reduced transmis-sion time to users on the ground.Intended to replace Advanced Ex-tremely High Frequency system (see p.43), it is slated for launch around 2012.
Currently in design and risk-reductionphase.Function: EHF communications.Operator: MILSATCOM JPO (acquisi-tion); AFSPC.First launch: 2012, planned.Constellation: five.On orbit: none.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: TBD.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
UHF Follow-On SatelliteCommon name: UFOIn brief: new generation satellitesproviding secure, antijam communica-tions; replaced FLTSATCOM satellites.Function: UHF and EHF communica-tions.Operator: Navy.First launch: March 25, 1993.Constellation: four primary, fourredundant.On orbit: nine.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Boeing Satellite Systems.Power plant: solar array, 2,500-3,800watts.Dimensions: 60 ft deployed (F-2-F-7);86 ft deployed (F-8-F10).Weight: 2,600-3,400 lb.
Wideband Gap-Filler SystemCommon name: WGSIn brief: high data rate satellitebroadcast system (primarily commer-cial product) meant to bridge thecommunications gap between currentsystems—DSCS and GBS—and AWS(see above).Function: wideband communicationsand point-to-point service (Ka-band, Ku-band, X-band frequencies).Operator: AFSPC.First launch: 2006, planned.Constellation: three-five.Orbit altitude: GEO.Contractor: Boeing.
Pictured is an artist’s conception of the Wideband Gap-Filler System, meant tobridge the gap between current and future communication satellites.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 45
Major Civilian Satellites in US Military Use
Geostationary Operational Envi-ronmental SatelliteCommon name: GOESIn brief: in equatorial orbit to collectweather data for short-term forecasting.Function: storm monitoring andtracking, meteorological research.Operator: NOAA.First launch: Oct. 16, 1975 (GOES-1).Constellation: two, with on-orbit spare.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral.Power plant: solar array, 1,050 watts.Dimensions: 6.6 x 6.9 x 7.5 ft; 15.8 x8.9 ft deployed. (GOES-10).Weight: 4,600 lb.
GlobalstarCommon name: GlobalstarIn brief: mobile communications withprovision for security controls.Function: communications.Operator: Globalstar L.P.First launch: February 1998.Constellation: 48.Orbit altitude: 878 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral.Power plant: solar array, 1,100 watts.Dimensions: 4.9 x 35.3 ft deployed.Weight: 990 lb.
IkonosCommon name: IkonosIn brief: one-meter resolution Earthimaging. Slated for shutdown in 2007.Function: remote sensing.Operator: Space Imaging, Inc.First launch: Sept. 24, 1999.Constellation: one.Orbit altitude: 423 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array.Dimensions: 5.9 x 5.9 x 5.2 ft.Weight: 1,600 lb.
InmarsatCommon name: InmarsatIn brief: peacetime mobile communica-tions services, primarily by US Navy.Function: communications.Operator: International MaritimeSatellite Organization.First launch: February 1982 (firstlease), Oct. 30, 1990 (first launch).Constellation: nine.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin (Inmarsat 3).Power plant: solar array, 2,800 watts.Dimensions: 6.9 x 5.9 x 57.8 ft deployed.Weight: 4,545 lb (Inmarsat 3).
IntelsatCommon name: IntelsatIn brief: routine communications anddistribution of Armed Forces Radio andTV Services network.Function: communications.Operator: International Telecommunica-tions Satellite Organization.First launch: April 6, 1965 (Early Bird).Constellation: 20.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral(Intelsat 9 series).Power plant: solar array, 8,500 watts(Intelsat 902).Dimensions: 9.2 x 11.55 x 18.5 ft; 102.3ft deployed (Intelsat 902).Weight: 10,390 lb (Intelsat 902).
IridiumCommon name: IridiumIn brief: voice, fax, data transmission.Function: handheld, mobile communica-tions.Operator: Iridium L.L.C.First Launch: May 5, 1997.Constellation: 66 (six on-orbit spares).Orbit: 485 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin, Motorola.Power plant: solar array, 590 watts.Dimensions: 3.3 x 13.5 ft.Weight: 1,516 lb.
LandsatCommon name: LandsatIn brief: imagery use includes mappingand planning for tactical operations.Function: remote sensing.Operator: NASA.First launch: July 23, 1972.Constellation: one.Orbit altitude: 438 miles (polar).Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 1,550 watts.Dimensions: 9 x 14 ft.Weight: 4,800 lb.
National Polar-orbiting OperationalEnvironmental Satellite SystemCommon name: NPOESSIn brief: advanced joint civil-militarypolar environmental satellite thatprovides weather, atmosphere, ocean,land, and near-space data. Managed bytri-agency (DOD, Department ofCommerce, and NASA) integratedprogram office. Designed to replaceUSAF’s DMSP and NOAA’s Polar-orbiting Operational EnvironmentalSatellite (POES) (see below).
Function: worldwide environmentalforecasting.Operator: IPO (AFSPC for acquisitionand launch; NOAA for operations).First launch: 2008, planned.Constellation: two.On orbit: none.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Northrop Grumman.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.
OrbcommCommon name: OrbcommIn brief: potential military use understudy in Joint Interoperability WarfighterProgram.Function: mobile communications.Operator: Orbcomm Global L.P.First launch: April 1995.Constellation: 35.Orbit altitude: 500-1,200 miles.Contractor: Orbital Sciences.Power plant: solar array, 160 watts.Dimensions: 7.3 x 14.2 ft.Weight: 90 lb.
Pan Am SatCommon name: Pan Am SatIn brief: routine communicationsproviding telephone, TV, radio, and data.Function: communications.Operator: Pan Am Sat.First launch: 1983.Constellation: 21.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Boeing.Power plant: solar array, 4,800 watts.Dimensions: 16.2 x 8.8 x 12 ft; 86 ftdeployed (Galaxy III-R).Weight: 6,760 lbs (Galaxy III-R).
Polar-orbiting Operational Envi-ronmental Satellite(also known as NOAA-K, L, and M beforelaunch; NOAA-15, 16, and 17, respectively,once on orbit).Common name: POESIn brief: two advanced third generationenvironmental satellites (one morningorbit and one afternoon orbit) providelonger-term weather updates for allareas of the world. Final two spacecraftin this series are NOAA-N (slated forlaunch in 2005) and N Prime. To bereplaced by NPOESS.Function: extended weather forecasting.Operator: NOAA (on-orbit); NASA(launch).
Power plant: solar arrays, 9,934 watts.Dimensions: based on Boeing 702 bus.Weight: 13,000 lb.
Dark and SpookyA number of intelligence satellites are
operated by US agencies in cooperationwith the military. The missions and,especially, the capabilities are closelyguarded secrets. Using a page from theSoviet book on naming satellites, the USgovernment started in the 1980s calling allgovernment satellites “USA” with a
sequential number. This allowed them tokeep secret the names of satellites whichmonitor the Earth with radar, opticalsensors, and electronic intercept capability.
Most of the names of satellites, suchas White Cloud (ocean reconnaissance),Aquacade (electronic ferret), andTrumpet (Sigint), are essentially opensecrets but cannot be confirmed by theIntelligence Community. However, themove to declassify space systems hasled to the release of selected informationon some systems. Pictures of the
Lacrosse radar imaging satellite havebeen released without details on thesystem.
Recently, NRO revealed that it isdeveloping a new satellite system, dubbedORCA for Optical Relay CommunicationsArchitecture. ORCA will be a nextgeneration communications satellite withlaser and radio frequency communica-tions, providing at least 10 times thecapacity of current systems. Specificdetails, including a launch time frame,currently are classified, but DOD and NROinclude ORCA in the TransformationalCommunications Architecture, as acomplement to TSAT and other nextgeneration systems.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200446
First launch: May 13, 1998 (NOAA-15).Constellation: two.Orbit altitude: 517 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 1,000+ watts.Dimensions: 6.2 x 13.8 ft (NOAA-15).Weight: approx 4,900 lb (NOAA-15).
Quickbird 2Common name: Quickbird 2In brief: high-resolution imagery formapping, military surveillance, weatherresearch, and other uses.Function: remote sensing.Operator: DigitalGlobe.First launch: Oct. 18, 2001.Constellation: one.Orbit altitude: 279 miles.Contractor: Ball Aerospace.Power plant: solar array.Dimensions: 9.8 x 5.2 x 5.2 ft.Weight: 2,088 lb.
Satellite Pour l’Observation dela TerreCommon name: SPOTIn brief: terrain images used for mission-planning systems, terrain analysis, andmapping.Function: remote sensing.Operator: SPOT Image S.A. (France).First launch: Feb. 22, 1986.Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: 509 miles.Contractor: Matra Marconi Space France.Power plant: solar array, 2,100 watts(SPOT 4).Dimensions: 6.6 x 6.6 x 18.4 ft (SPOT 4).Weight: 5,940 lb (SPOT 4).
TelstarCommon name: TelstarIn brief: commercial satellite-based,rooftop-to-rooftop communications for
Delta IIFunction: lift medium weights.First launch: Feb. 14, 1989.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Boeing.
Delta IIIFunction: lift medium weights.First launch: Aug. 26, 1998.Launch site: CCAFS.Contractor: Boeing.
Delta IVFunction: lift medium to heavy weights.First launch: Nov. 20, 2002.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Boeing.
EELVFunction: lift medium to heavy weights.Note: Atlas V and Delta IV (see individualentries) are participating in USAF’sevolved expendable launch vehicle(EELV) modernization program to cutlaunch costs by 25 to 50 percent. Thesesystems will eventually replace Delta II,Atlas II, Titan II, and Titan IV launchvehicles.
PegasusFunction: lift low weights.
Athena IFunction: lift low to medium weights.First launch: Aug. 22, 1997.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Athena IIFunction: lift low to medium weights.First launch: Jan. 6, 1998.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Atlas IIFunction: lift medium weights.Variants: IIA and IIAS.First launch: Dec. 7, 1991.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Atlas IIIFunction: lift medium to heavy weights.Variants: IIIA and IIIB.First launch: May 24, 2000 (IIIA).Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Atlas VFunction: lift medium to heavy weights.First launch: Aug. 21, 2002.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Major US Launchers in US Military Use
Variants: Standard and XL.First launch: (Standard) April 5, 1990;(XL) June 27, 1994.Launch site: dropped from L-1011 aircraft.Contractor: Orbital Sciences, Alliant.
Space shuttleFunction: lift heavy weights.First launch: April 12, 1981.Launch site: Kennedy Space Center, Fla.Contractor: Boeing (Launch).
TaurusFunction: lift low weights.Variants: Standard and XL.First launch: March 13, 1994.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB, WallopsIs.Contractor: Orbital Sciences.
Titan IIFunction: lift low to medium weights.First launch: April 8, 1964 (NASA).Launch site: VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
Titan IVBFunction: lift heavy weights.First launch: (IVB) Feb. 23, 1997.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.
US Army and other DOD agencies.Function: communications.Operator: Loral Skynet.First launch: November 1994.Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral.Power plant: solar array, 7,000 watts.Dimensions: 28.3 x 18.5 x 102.6 ftdeployed (Telstar 12).Weight: 3,514 lb (Telstar 12).
Tracking and Data Relay SatelliteSystemCommon name: TDRSSIn brief: global network that allows other
A Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System spacecraft undergoes factorytesting, prior to shipment to Cape Canaveral, Fla.
spacecraft in LEO to communicate with acontrol center without an elaboratenetwork of ground stations.Function: communications relay.Operator: NASA.First launch: April 1983.Constellation: six.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Boeing.Power plant: solar array, 2,042 watts(TDRSS H, I, J).Dimensions: 43.5 x 68.1 ft (H, I, J).Weight: approx 3,300 lb (H, I, J).
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 47
Foreign Orbital Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Year196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000200120022003Total
France112
21
3
10
China
11
32
1
11131224
51415236645146
76
Japan
121
1212322313322322321121122
132
59
ESA
1
2
243227758776
111012111012
811
4152
India
11
1
1
2
11
1
212
14
Israel
1
1
1
1
4
Russia4844667470818374868189999888878998
101989798919590747559544748322528242835252524
2,628
UK
1
1
Russian Military vs. Civil Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Total21336
2017304844667470818374868189999888878998
101989798919590747559544748322528242835252524
2,710
Year19571958195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000200120022003Total
Military0000057
1525274649515560535852607469606064596858636463625342453032262615
810
967977
1,659
Civilian21336
151015231720251926232128292925292827253933403434283337323029222122171718152228161817
1,051
Russian Military Launches for 2003
Communications
Early warning
Electronic intelligence (ocean recon)
Navigation
Photoreconnaissance
Total
Launches
3
1
0
2
1
7
Spacecraft
4
1
0
4
1
10
Foreign Space Activities
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200448
Russian Launch Site Activity for 2003
Vehicle
Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, KazakhstanProton-K/Blok DM-2Proton-K/Blok DM-2MProton-K/Briz-MSoyuz-FGSoyuz-FG/FregatSoyuz-UStrela 1Total
Odyssey Platform, Pacific Ocean (Sea Launch)Zenit-3SLTotal
Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Plesetsk, RussiaKosmos-3MMolniya-MRokot/Briz-KMTotal
Number of launches
1222241
14
33
3227
Antisatellite target tests 18Antisatellite interceptor tests 20Communications 334Early warning 83Earth orbital science 212Earth resources 100Electronic intelligence 133Fractional orbital bombardment system tests 18General engineering and materials processing 16Geodesy 34Navigation 236Ocean electronic intelligence 85Photographic reconnaissance 809Theater communication 535Undefined military operations 162Weather 75Total 2,870
Russian Military/Civil Payloads byMission, 1957-2003
(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Number1
6
5
5
6
3
1
1
10
6
MissionCommunications
Early warning
Electronic intelligence
Navigation
TypeKosmos (Geizer)
Kosmos (Strela-3)
Molniya-1T
Molniya-3
Raduga/Raduga-1
Kosmos (Oko)
Kosmos (Prognoz)
Kosmos (Tselina-2)
Kosmos (GLONASS)*
Kosmos (Parus)
*Kosmos (GLONASS) is both civilian and military.
Russian Operational Military Spacecraft(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
*Total number of persons who flew in space in a given year.Some individuals made multiple flights.
Year1961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000200120022003Total
Flights2221101151202343352633232133132223222212222
96
Persons*22232011
1126046866
104
1368595289276658655635665
222
Russian Manned Spaceflights(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
USAF Lt. Col. Edward Fincke (left), a Russian cosmonaut, anda Dutch astronaut arrive for a training session in preparationfor a mission on the International Space Station.
AP
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oto
/Mik
ha
il M
etz
el
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 49
Nation
AfghanistanAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCanadaChinaCubaCzechoslovakiaFranceGermanyHungaryIndiaIsraelItalyJapanMexicoMongoliaNetherlandsPolandRomaniaRussiaSaudi ArabiaSlovakiaSouth AfricaSpainSwitzerlandSyriaUkraineUnited KingdomUnited StatesVietnamTotal
Persons
11228111991114511111
9711111111
2741
432
Spacefarers(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Payloads in Orbit(As of Dec. 31, 2003)
Launcher/operator
RussiaUnited StatesJapanIntl. TelecommunicationsSatellite Orgn.FranceChinaESAUnited KingdomIndiaGermanyCanadaLuxembourgItalyAustraliaBrazilSaudi ArabiaSwedenIndonesiaNATOSouth KoreaArgentinaMexicoSpainCzechoslovakiaIsraelNetherlandsTurkeyInternational Space StationThailandDenmarkMalaysiaNorwayEgyptFrance/GermanyPhilippinesUnited Arab EmiratesAlgeriaChileGreeceNigeriaPakistanPortugalSingaporeSouth AfricaTaiwanTotal
Objects
1,3681,054
88
6056464332272221131110101010
9887665555443332222111111111
2,979
China’s first manned spacecraft,Shenzhou 5, lifts off at the JiuquanSatellite Launch Center on Oct. 15,2003. China is only the third countryto launch a human being into orbit.
AP
-Xin
hu
a p
ho
to/L
i G
an
g
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200450
118.3 miles on the second Mercurymission.
Feb. 20, 1962. Project Mercury astronautLt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr., aboard Friend-ship 7 capsule, completes first US mannedorbital flight.
April 23, 1962. The 6555th AerospaceTest Wing launches an Atlas D/Agena Bvehicle that carries NASA’s Ranger 4, thefirst US instrument package to reach themoon.
May 23 1962. US deploys first DMSPspacecraft.
July 17, 1962. Air Force Capt. Robert M.White earns astronaut wings when hereaches altitude of nearly 60 miles inrocket-powered X-15, first aircraft to beflown to lower edge of space, consideredto be 50 miles.
May 15, 1963. USAF Maj. L. GordonCooper Jr. makes nearly 22 orbits inspacecraft Faith 7, becoming the firstAmerican astronaut to spend a completeday in orbit, first to perform an entirelymanual re-entry, and last to go into spacealone.
Oct. 17, 1963. Vela Hotel satellite per-forms first space-based detection ofnuclear explosion.
March 22, 1946. First US rocket to leaveEarth’s atmosphere, JPL-Ordnance WAC,reaches 50-mile height after launch fromWhite Sands Proving Ground, N.M.
Feb. 24, 1949. Bumper-WAC Corporaltwo-stage rocket, first with fully tankedsecond stage, reaches record altitude of244 miles and velocity of 5,150 mph.
July 24, 1950. Bumper No. 8 becomesfirst missile launched from CapeCanaveral, Fla.
Sept. 20, 1956. US Jupiter C rocket, partof the Army’s 1954 Project Orbiter,achieves record first flight, reaching alti-tude of 682 miles and landing 3,400 milesfrom Cape Canaveral.
Oct. 4, 1957. USSR launches Sputnik 1,first man-made satellite, into Earth orbit.
Dec. 17, 1957. USAF Atlas ICBM makesfirst successful test flight.
Jan. 31, 1958. US launches its first satel-lite, Explorer 1.
Dec. 18, 1958. Project Score spacecraftconducts first US active communicationfrom space.
Feb. 28, 1959. In test, USAF successfullylaunches Discoverer 1 (of then-classifiedCorona program), world’s first polar-orbiting satellite, from Vandenberg AFB,Calif..
April 6, 1959. The first military unit to becharged with conducting military satelliteoperations, USAF’s 6594th Test Wing, isestablished at Palo Alto, Calif.
April 13, 1959. Air Force Thor/Agena Aboosts into orbit the Discoverer 2 satellite,the first satellite to be stabilized in orbit inall three axes, to be maneuvered oncommand from Earth, to separate a re-entry vehicle on command, and to send itsre-entry vehicle back to Earth.
Aug. 7, 1959. US carries out first satelliteintercontinental relay of a voice message.
Aug. 7, 1959. Explorer 6 spacecraft trans-mits first television pictures from space.
April 1, 1960. TIROS 1 is first US weathersatellite to go aloft.
April 13, 1960. Transit 1B becomes firstUS navigation satellite in space.
May 24, 1960. MIDAS II is first earlywarning satellite in orbit.
Military Space Firsts
Military Space Lore
June 22, 1960. US launches GalacticRadiation and Background (GRAB)satellite, the nation’s first successfulreconnaissance spacecraft. It collectselectronic intelligence (Elint) from Sovietair defense radars.
Aug. 18, 1960. Discoverer/Coronasatellite takes first image of Soviet territoryever snapped from space.
Aug. 19, 1960. Capsule containing firstsatellite photographs of Soviet Unionejected from Discoverer 14 becomesfirst orbital payload recovered in midairby C-119 Flying Boxcar.
April 12, 1961. Soviet cosmonaut YuriGagarin pilots Vostok 1 through nearlyone orbit to become first human in space.
May 5, 1961. Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. ShepardJr., aboard Freedom 7 Mercury capsule,becomes first American in space, climbingto 116.5 miles during suborbital flightlasting 15 minutes, 28 seconds.
July 12, 1961. First Atlas D/Agena Bbooster lifts MIDAS III satellite, theheaviest US spacecraft to date, into arecord 1,850-mile-high orbit.
July 21, 1961. Capt. Virgil I. “Gus”Grissom becomes the first Air Forceastronaut in space, reaching an altitude of
Bumper No. 8 lifts off from Cape Canaveral on July 24, 1950, as members ofthe media record the event a few hundred feet from the launchpad. Pictured inthe lower right corner is the “control center,” which was nothing more than awooden shack.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 51
Aug. 14, 1964. First Atlas/Agena D stan-dard launch vehicle successfully fired fromVandenberg.
March 18, 1965. First space walk con-ducted by Alexei Leonov from SovietVoskhod 2.
June 4, 1965. Gemini 4 astronaut USAFMaj. Edward H. White II performs firstAmerican space walk.
June 18, 1965. USAF accepts Titan III,first Air Force vehicle specifically designedand developed as a military spacebooster.
Dec. 15, 1965. In a first for the US spaceprogram, crews of Gemini 6 and Gemini 7rendezvous in space. Navy Capt. WalterM. Schirra and USAF Maj. Thomas P.Stafford in Gemini 6 maneuver to within afoot of Gemini 7.
Dec. 16, 1965. Astronauts Schirra andStafford conduct the first controlled re-entry of a manned spacecraft to apredetermined landing point on Earth.
Jan. 25, 1967. Soviet Kosmos 139antisatellite weapon carries out first frac-tional orbital bombardment system test.
Jan. 27, 1967. First deaths in US space-craft occur in flash fire in Apollo 1 com-mand module, killing astronauts Lt. Cmdr.Roger B. Chaffee and USAF Lt. Cols.Virgil I. Grissom and Edward H. White II.
July 3-4, 1967. Air Force, Army, and Navyconduct first satellite-based tacticalcommunications.
Oct. 20, 1968. Soviet Kosmos 248 andKosmos 249 spacecraft carry out first co-orbital antisatellite test.
Dec. 21-27, 1968. Apollo 8 astronauts—USAF Col. Frank Borman, Navy Cmdr.James A. Lovell Jr., and USAF Maj.William A. Anders—become the firsthumans to orbit the moon.
July 20, 1969. At 10:56 p.m. EDT, Apollo11 astronaut Neil A. Armstrong puts hisfoot on the surface of the moon, becomingthe first human to do so. He and lunarmodule pilot, USAF Col. Edwin E. “Buzz”Aldrin Jr., spend just under three hourswalking on the moon, while the commandmodule pilot, USAF Lt. Col. MichaelCollins, orbits overhead.
November 1970. USAF launches firstclassified DSP satellite, whose infraredsensors provide space-based earlywarning of missile launches.
April 19, 1971. First space station, Salyut1, goes aloft.
Nov. 2, 1971. Titan IIIC launches firstDSCS Phase II satellites into GEO.
Feb. 9, 1978. Atlas booster launched atCape Canaveral carries Navy’s first Fleetcommunications satellite, dubbedFLTSATCOM, into orbit.
Feb. 22, 1978. Atlas booster carries firstGPS Block I satellite into orbit.
Dec. 13, 1978. Successful launch of twoDSCS II satellites puts full four-satelliteconstellation at users’ disposal for firsttime.
April 12-14, 1981. First orbital flight ofspace shuttle and first landing from orbitof reusable spacecraft.
Dec. 20, 1982. First DMSP Block 5D-2satellite launched.
May 1, 1983. USAF enlisted satellite controlspecialists officially begin operations at AirForce Space Command, marking the firsttime in its history that noncomissioned AirForce personnel have been permitted to “fly”spacecraft on a regular basis.
Aug. 30, 1983. USAF Col. Guion S.Bluford Jr. becomes the first AfricanAmerican in space, as a mission specialistaboard Challenger.
Jan. 24-27, 1985. On the 15th shuttlemission, the crew of Discovery carries outthe first dedicated DOD flight, deploying aclassified payload, believed to be asignals intelligence (Sigint) satellite.
Sept. 13, 1985. First US antisatelliteintercept test destroys Solwind scientificsatellite by air-launched weapon.
Oct. 3, 1985. Shuttle Atlantis performsfirst launch of pair of DSCS III satellitesfrom space shuttle using inertial upperstage (IUS).
Jan. 28, 1986. Space shuttle Challengerexplodes after liftoff, killing seven astro-nauts.
Feb. 14, 1989. Launch of first Block II GPSsatellite begins operational constellation.
June 14, 1989. First Titan IV heavy-liftspace booster is successfully launchedfrom Launch Complex 40 at CapeCanaveral. The booster, nearly 20 storiestall, carries a classified military payload.
April 24, 1990. Marine Col. Charles F.Bolden becomes the first African Ameri-can to pilot a US spacecraft, shuttleDiscovery. He would later be the firstAfrican American commander of a shuttlemission, aboard Discovery on Feb. 3,1994.
Aug. 5, 1990. Over Edwards AFB, Calif.,a B-52 carrier aircraft drops an air-launched Pegasus space booster on itsfirst flight, which is a success.
Jan. 17, 1991. What USAF calls “the firstspace war,” Operation Desert Storm,opens with air attacks.
Feb. 11, 1992. First military launch of anAtlas II/Centaur takes place at CapeCanaveral.
Jan. 13, 1993. USAF Maj. Susan J.Helms, flying aboard Endeavour, becomesfirst US military woman in space.
July 19, 1993. Launch of DSCS Phase IIIsatellite into GEO provides first full five-satellite DSCS III constellation.
Feb. 7, 1994. First Titan IV Centaurbooster launches first Milstar Block Isatellite into orbit.
March 13, 1994. First launch of Taurusbooster places two military satellites inorbit.
Feb. 6, 1995. USAF Lt. Col. Eileen M.Collins is the first woman to pilot anAmerican spacecraft, doing so whenshuttle Discovery and space station Mirperform the first US-Russian space
Astronaut and USAF Maj. Edward White II became the first American to walk inspace during the Gemini 4 mission on June 4, 1965. White was attached to thespacecraft by a 25-foot umbilical line and a 23-foot tether line, both wrappedin gold tape to form one cord.
AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200452
Aerospace. A physical region made up ofEarth’s atmosphere and the spacebeyond.
Aerospace plane. A reusable spacecraftable to operate effectively in both theatmosphere and space. Also known as a“transatmospheric vehicle” or, morecurrently, “spaceplane.”
Apogee. The point of greatest distancefrom Earth (or the moon, a planet, etc.)achieved by a body in elliptical orbit.Usually expressed as distance fromEarth’s surface.
Atmosphere. Earth’s enveloping sphereof air.
Boost phase. Powered flight of a ballisticmissile—i.e., before the rocket burns out.
Burn. The process in which rocketengines consume fuel or other propellant.
Circumterrestrial space. “Inner space” orthe atmospheric region that extends from60 miles to about 50,000 miles fromEarth’s surface.
Constellation. A formation of satellitesorbiting for a specific combined purpose.
Deep space. All space beyond the Earth-moon system, or from about 480,000miles altitude outward.
Eccentric orbit. An extremely elongatedelliptical orbit.
Ecliptic plane. The plane defined by thecircle on the celestial sphere traced by thepath of the sun.
Elliptical orbit. Any noncircular, closedspaceflight path.
Exosphere. The upper limits of Earth’satmosphere, ranging from about 300 milesaltitude to about 2,000 miles altitude.
Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV). Alaunch vehicle that cannot be reused afterone flight.
Ferret. A satellite whose primary functionis to gather electronic intelligence, such asmicrowave, radar, radio, and voiceemissions.
Geostationary Earth orbit. A geosyn-chronous orbit with 0° inclination in whichthe spacecraft circles Earth 22,300 milesabove the equator and appears from Earthto be standing still.
Geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO). Anorbit at 22,300 miles that is synchronizedwith Earth’s rotation. If a satellite in GEOis not at 0° inclination, its ground pathdescribes a figure eight as it travelsaround Earth.
Geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).An orbit that originates with the parkingorbit and then reaches apogee at theGEO.
Ground track. An imaginary line onEarth’s surface that traces the course ofanother imaginary line between Earth’scenter and an orbiting satellite.
High Earth orbit (HEO). Flight pathabove geosynchronous altitude (22,300 to60,000 miles from Earth’s surface).
High-resolution imagery. Detailedrepresentations of actual objects thatsatellites produce electronically oroptically on displays, film, or other visualdevices.
Inertial upper stage (IUS). A two-stagesolid-rocket motor used to propel heavysatellites into mission orbit.
Ionosphere. A region of electricallycharged thin air layers that begins about30 miles above Earth’s atmosphere.
Low Earth orbit (LEO). Flight pathbetween Earth’s atmosphere and thebottom of the Van Allen belts, i.e., fromabout 60 to 300 miles altitude.
Magnetosphere. A region dominated byEarth’s magnetic field, which trapscharged particles, including those in theVan Allen belts. It begins in the upperatmosphere, where it overlaps theionosphere, and extends several thousandmiles farther into space.
Medium Earth orbit (MEO). Flight pathbetween LEO, which ends at about 300miles altitude, and GEO, which is at anaverage altitude of 22,300 miles.
Space Terms
Mesosphere. A region of the atmosphereabout 30 to 50 miles above Earth’ssurface.
Orbital decay. A condition in whichspacecraft lose orbital altitude and orbitalenergy because of aerodynamic drag andother physical forces.
Orbital inclination. Angle of flight path inspace relative to the equator of aplanetary body. Equatorial paths are 0° forflights headed east, 180° for those headedwest.
Outer space. Space that extends fromabout 50,000 miles above Earth’s surfaceto a distance of about 480,000 miles.
Parking orbit. Flight path in whichspacecraft go into LEO, circle the globe ina waiting posture, and then transferpayload to a final, higher orbit.
Payload. Any spacecraft’s crew or cargo;the mission element supported by thespacecraft.
Perigee. The point of minimum altitudeabove Earth (or the Moon, a planet, etc.)maintained by a body in elliptical orbit.
Period. The amount of time a spacecraftrequires to go through one complete orbit.
Polar orbit. Earth orbit with a 90°inclination. Spacecraft on this path couldpass over every spot on Earth as Earthrotates under the satellite’s orbit (seeorbital inclination).
Remote imaging. Images of Earthgenerated from a spacecraft that providedata for mapping, construction, agricul-ture, oil and gas exploration, news mediaservices, and the like.
Reusable launch vehicle (RLV). Alaunch vehicle that can be reused afterflight.
Rocket. An aerospace vehicle that carriesits own fuel and oxidizer and can operateoutside Earth’s atmosphere.
Semisynchronous orbit. An orbit set atan altitude of 12,834 miles. Satellites inthis orbit revolve around Earth in exactly12 hours.
rendezvous in 20 years. She later wouldbe the first woman to command a shuttlemission, aboard Columbia on July 23,1999.
Feb. 23, 1997. The first Titan IVB launchvehicle lifts off from Launch Complex 40 atCape Canaveral using an IUS. It launchesa DSP satellite.
May 29, 1998. First transfer of anoperational military space system tocivilian agency occurs when Air Force
hands over primary control of the DMSPon-orbit assets to NOAA.
Nov. 1, 2000. For the first time, a singleDelta II rocket, lifting off from Vanden-berg, launches two different primarypayloads.
Jan. 22-26, 2001. AFSPC’s SpaceWarfare Center conducts Schriever 2001,the first wargame to explore requirementsfor space control, counters to enemyspace capabilities, and the ability of an
enemy to deny the US and its allies theuse of space assets.
March 10, 2003. Delta IV boosts into orbita DSCS III satellite, marking the firstlaunch of a military payload aboard anEELV.
April 22, 2003. AFSPC’s 14th Air Forceactivates first-of-its-kind space intelligencesquadron, the 614th SIS, whose missionis to identify and devise means to respondto threats to US space systems.
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AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2004 53
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Single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) system. Areusable single-stage rocket that can takeoff and land repeatedly and is able toboost payloads into orbit.
Stratosphere. That section of atmosphereabout 10 to 30 miles above Earth’ssurface.
Sun synchronous orbit. An orbitinclined about 98° to the equator and atLEO altitude. At this inclination andaltitude, a satellite’s orbital plane always
maintains the same relative orientation tothe sun.
Thermosphere. The thin atmosphereabout 50 to 300 miles above Earth’ssurface. It experiences dramaticallyincreased levels of heat compared to thelower layers.
Transfer. Any maneuver that changes aspacecraft orbit.
Transponder. A radar or radio set that,
upon receiving a designated signal, emitsa radio signal of its own.
Troposphere. The region of the atmo-sphere from Earth’s surface to about 10miles above the equator and five milesabove the poles. This is where most clouds,wind, rain, and other weather occurs.
Van Allen belts. Zones of intenseradiation trapped in Earth’s magneto-sphere that could damage unshieldedspacecraft.