Spirituality, Religion, and Social Work:

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Spirituality, Religion, and SocialWorkLaura J. Praglin aa University of Northern IowaPublished online: 10 Oct 2008.

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Spirituality, Religion,and Social Work:

An Effort TowardsInterdisciplinary Conversation

Laura J. Praglin

ABSTRACT. Social work scholars and practitioners have approachedthe question of how to integrate religion and/or spirituality into their pro-fession in one of four typical ways: (1) resistance or avoidance; (2) anoverly-generalized syncretism; (3) radical separation of the terms spiri-tuality and religion; or (4) a genuinely interdisciplinary conversation be-tween the disciplines of social work and religious studies. This latterapproach not only identifies social work’s conflictual founding legacy,but also recognizes broader contemporary intellectual traditions whichdo not easily separate “religion” from “spirituality.” Such awareness andcommon grounding allow social work to more substantively and cre-atively partake in cross-disciplinary research and discussion. [Articlecopies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service:1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <[email protected]> Website:<http://www.HaworthPress.com> © 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rightsreserved.]

KEYWORDS. Spirituality, religion, interdisciplinary conversation,cultural diversity

Laura J. Praglin is Assistant Professor of Social Work, University of Northern Iowa.

Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work, Vol. 23(4) 2004http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JRSSW

© 2004 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J377v23n04_05 67

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INTRODUCTION

Despite social work’s religious roots, in-depth inquiry regarding therelationship of religion and/or spirituality to social work has, until re-cently, been disregarded in light of social work’s ongoing quest forprofessionalization and scientific respectability (Canda, 2002; Cnaan,1999; Marty, 1980, 2001; Trattner, 1989; Hugen, 1994). Less easily in-vestigated than empirically-based data in the social sciences, issues re-garding spirituality and religion have only lately reemerged aslegitimate area of inquiry in social work theory and practice (Canda &Furman, 1999; Van Hook, Hugen, & Aguilar, 2001). Some of this re-newed interest has resulted from heightened awareness that culturallycompetent practice embraces ethnic, class, gender, and age differences,but also spiritual diversity (Gilbert, 2000; Bullis, 1996; Derezotes,1995). Such recognition has proven especially significant in under-standing clients from various ethnic and racial minority groups(Sheridan 2002; Van Hook et al., 2001; Canda & Furman, 1999; Cascio,1999; Lum, 1995). Increasing recognition of the critical influence of re-ligious or spiritual factors in clients’ lives is reflected in the curriculumpolicy statements of the Council on Social Work Education (1994), aswell as by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-IV) of the American Psychiatric Association (2000). For the firsttime, the DSM-IV (V62.89) allows for the possibility of the V-code di-agnosis of “religious or spiritual problem.” This is used when the pre-senting issue includes “distressing experiences that involve loss orquestioning of faith, problems associated with conversion to a newfaith, or questioning of other spiritual values which may not necessarilybe related to an organized church or religious institution.” While such adesignation may never be widely employed among mental health pro-fessionals, the significance of its inclusion as a non-pathological vari-able by the APA cannot be overstated. In addition, this decade haswitnessed the emergence of the Society for Spirituality and SocialWork, as well as a symposia section on Spirituality within the Councilfor Social Work Education’s annual meeting.

In the United States, and increasingly so internationally, social workmirrors a multitude of helping professions which in the past decadehave actively sought to integrate spiritual perspectives into their knowl-edge base. These disciplines also include medicine, nursing, pastoralcounseling, psychiatry, and psychology (Canda, 2002).

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RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY IN HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Some social work professionals applaud the newfound legitimacy ofspiritual content within their discipline. Norman Linzer, for instance,finds the spiritual and religious dimensions of human life “vital areas ofhuman functioning and service to clients is incomplete when they areoverlooked” (Linzer, 1999, p. 171). Likewise, Sermabeikian (1994) as-serts that, spirituality, as an overarching human need, “is too importantto be misunderstood; avoided; or viewed as regressive, neurotic, orpathological in nature” (p. 181). Yet other social work professionals re-main suspicious of such spiritual inclusion. Unlike pastoral counselors,whose social location assumes familiarity with at least one religious tra-dition in addition to counseling techniques, many social workers ques-tion not only whether spirituality and social work mix well, but indeedwhether they should do such stirring (Sanzenbach, 1989; Clark, 1994).For some social work professionals, “religion” is equated narrowly withrigidly dogmatic religious traditions or underlying coercive religio-po-litical agendas which run counter to social work goals and values, suchas respect for personal autonomy and self-determination, non-judgmen-tal attitudes, inclusivity, and equality (NASW Code of Ethics, 1996).Thus they legitimately fear pathological consequences of religious ex-pression, such as passivity, excessive guilt, or gender inequality(Morell, 1996; Joseph, 1988; Cascio, 1998; Loewenberg, 1988). Otherswonder whether spirituality or religion are “private matters” more ap-propriately the domain of the clergy. Some agency practitioners whorely heavily upon government funding, moreover, fear that attention toreligious issues may violate the separation of church and state, and thusthe potential for federal, state, or local support (Cnaan, 1999).

Like religious studies, the field of social work is by nature interdisci-plinary. Social work, however, grapples still with the highly divergentideals of its founders. This hundred-year-old legacy, as SharonFreedberg notes, consists equally of “religious stewardship, scientificprofessionalism, and political idealism” (Freedberg, 1986, p. 95). Suchconflicting ideals have resulted, moreover, in a history of struggles“within, between, and among the Judaeo-Christian value base fromwhich the profession evolved; on the scientific value of the ‘medicalmodel’ and of Freudian theory; and on the political social context of ide-ology and mission.” Such divergent motivations also help explain thecurrent heated debates over how, or whether, social work should engagespirituality and religion.

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Tracing the development of spiritually sensitive social work in theUnited States, Canda (2002) contends that professional social workgrew slowly estranged from its overt religious connections during the1920s through the 1970s. As social work became increasinglyprofessionalized, and also became heavily involved in public socialwelfare, it became more sensitive to “the dangers of religiousproselytization, moralistic judgmentalism, threats to separation ofchurch and state, and theological explanations of human behavior andsocial problems.” Although occasional papers in the social work litera-ture in the post-World War II era through the 1970s concerned existen-tial and humanistic spiritual perspectives and/or the influence ofEastern religions, these perspectives remained still more the exceptionthan the rule. Starting in the 1980s, however, the profession witnessedincreasing interest in and need for diverse approaches to incorporatingspiritual and religious concerns, both in social work publications and atprofessional conferences, corresponding to the wider trend among bothclients and practitioners in exploring their religious roots and spiritualidentities.

SEPARATING RELIGION FROM SPIRITUALITY

In addition to the above-mentioned recognition of the necessity ofrecognizing spirituality as an element of cultural diversity, the resur-gence of interest in dialogue between religion and social work, I pro-pose, is also the result of a particular sociocultural phenomenon withinour current period of history. We now widely question the positivisticstance of the social sciences, while also finding ourselves searching forboth psychological and spiritual meaning apart from religious institu-tions (Luckmann, 1967; Berger, 1965; Roof, 1993; Wuthnow, 1998).Urbanization, modernization, and technological advances have led notonly to increasing anomie, as Emile Durkheim and his successors haveshown, but to the rise of greater psychological introspection (Homans,1989). We now seek quests for psychological as well as spiritual cure apartfrom those institutions which once imparted for many a shared sense ofmeaning (Praglin, 1998). Although the secularization thesis has been seri-ously questioned, especially regarding the gradual removal of “religiousdimension” from public sphere (Ebaugh, 2002), we continue to observe theinstitutional loss of clerical authority by the clergy. So, too, do we witnessthe rise of noninstitutionalized quests for meaning by a generation whichmoves easily across denominational and religious boundaries, mixing “ele-


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ments from various traditions to create their own personal, tailor-mademeaning systems” (Roof, 1993; Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler, &Tipton, 1995).

This current cultural trend has led Robert Fuller to speak of “un-churched religion,” or of being “spiritual but not religious” (Fuller,2001). Forty percent of Americans call themselves “unchurched,” whiletwenty percent of Americans claim to be concerned with spirituality,but are not religious in terms of espousing one particular system of be-lief or doctrine. Many social workers and their clients, moreover, figurevery much into this trend toward a non-institutionalized spirituality,tending more than pastoral counselors to work with clients questioningtheir faith or seeking answers outside of established religious traditions.The emerging social work literature which celebrates spirituality gener-ally refers to this kind of nontraditional religiousness, often reflected infrequent references to alternative religious practices or beliefs, mysti-cism, or new age trends (Cascio, 1998). Such claims of being “spiritualbut not religious” are witnessed widely today, despite the reservationsof some religious studies scholars wary of this generic sense of spiritu-ality, unconnected to particular texts, traditions, or communities. “Somany people,” Martin E. Marty comments, “now speak in terms of, ‘I’mnot religious, but I’m spiritual’ . . . Those of us who study religion saythat this is just one more of the religions that are out there” (Marty,2001). To Marty, many professionals speak of such spirituality as asafer and easier way to dodge the inconveniences of institutional de-mands, and keep controversies over church and state at bay. Yet, asFranz Metcalf has commented, such distinctions have become wide-spread and meaningful for many: “People really use these terms, as youknow. Shall we attempt to retrain them? Who are we to do so? What is itthey are expressing?” (F. Metcalf, personal communication, 2002).

Despite the embrace of noninstitutionalized spiritual currents bysome social work scholars and practitioners, it is significant that socialworkers also claim full-scale adherence to the social justice legacy andclaims of the profession, as delineated in the Code of Ethics of the Na-tional Association of Social Workers (1996; revised 1999; online athttp://www.socialworkers.org). The strong emphasis here upon the soci-etal obligations of the social worker is significant and unique among thehelping professions, reflecting the inherited political idealism of the profes-sion. In contrast, the Code of Ethics of Pastoral Counselors does not as di-rectly tie such social awareness and activism to its Code of Ethics(retrieved 11/06/02 from http://www.aapc.org/ethics.htm), although indi-

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vidual practitioners may very well espouse values similar to those es-poused by the social work Code of Ethics.

The NASW Code has attempted to define social work’s mission, keyvalues, and ethical principles through the following six primary values:service; social justice; dignity and worth of the person; the importanceof human relationships; integrity; and competence. Adherence to suchvalues further develops human well-being within both individual andsocial contexts, assists in meeting fundamental human needs, and em-powers those who are poor, weak, and oppressed.

Social workers accept dual responsibility to clients and the wider so-ciety. They therefore advocate “socially responsible self-determina-tion” in their clients, whether individuals, families, or groups, throughrespectful recognition of differences and strengths in all individuals andcultures. Social workers, moreover, strive to ameliorate oppression,poverty, discrimination, and other types of social injustice by under-standing the nature of both diversity and oppression related to race, eth-nicity, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, age, religion, ordisability. Such work may take the form of direct practice, or it may in-volve social administration, community organization, policy making, oreducation and research.

SPIRITUALITY AND SOCIAL WORK:FOUR RESPONSES

Social work scholars and practitioners have, I suggest, approachedthe question of whether, or how, to integrate religion and/or spiritualityin one of four typical ways: (1) resistance or avoidance; (2) an overly-generalized syncretism; (3) a radical separation of the terms spiritualityand religion for ideological reasons; or (4) a genuinely interdisciplinaryengagement of the two disciplines, based upon solid knowledge of thehistory and conflictual legacies of the profession.

The first response, resistance or avoidance of the dialogue altogether,is typical of those social work professionals who equate “religion” witha narrow, rigid religious traditions, personal pathology, or an underly-ing coercive religio-political agenda. Such incorporation would, there-fore, be antithetical to social work goals and values, such as respect forpersonal autonomy and self-determination, non-judgmental attitudes,and equality. They legitimately fear what they foresee to be the damag-ing consequences of religious expression, such as passivity, excessiveguilt, or gender inequality (Morell, 1996; Joseph, 1988; Cascio, 1998;


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Loewenberg, 1988; Siporin, 1985). Others wonder whether spiritualityand religion are matters more appropriately the domain of the clergy.Some agency practitioners also legitimately fear that attention to reli-gious issues may violate the separation of church and state, and thus thepotential for federal, state, or local support (Cnaan, 1999).

A second response tends to be completely the opposite of the first.Here, there is an overly easy embrace of the spiritual dimension as com-pletely complementary to social work without considering potential dif-ficulties and dangers. Social workers who venture into the spiritualrealm do tend to stress the holistic nature of their discipline, and the im-portance of addressing needs of the total person, rather than simplysymptoms of individual problems. Yet some adapt such insights into anoverly indiscriminate syncretism. A similar sort of consensual, “no con-flict” model is evocative of the post-World War II embrace of psychia-try by U.S. religious leaders who became wholehearted “avatars ofpsychiatry” (Abbott, 1980; Praglin, 1998). Have social workers nowsimilarly become “avatars of spirituality” without acknowledging it?Seemingly unaware of long-standing scholarship about religion andspirituality in other fields, many social work professionals writingabout spirituality, moreover, publish their findings largely in socialwork journals, often citing only one another, without extending theirboundaries to incorporate a broader conceptualization of the topic. Totheir credit, however, some social work scholars are aware of such di-lemmas. William E. Powell’s review of Edward Canda’s 1998 Spiritual-ity in Social Work, for instance, conveys some concern over the book’scontents, which he finds somewhat unsettling due to their lack of focus.The chapters, featuring topics as diverse as “intuition in social work prac-tice and education, Taoism and the strengths perspective, psychospiritualcrisis and death, the relation between church and state, and commentary bythe editor on needed connections between spirituality and social work,”point to social work’s paucity of a broad-reaching, interdisciplinary, yet in-tellectually rigorous literature base on this topic. “There’s perhaps a bit toomuch narrow intellectual inbreeding here and a sign that the professionshould reach outside of its boundaries to incorporate a broader conceptual-ization of spiritual subjects and issues,” concludes Powell. “It seems un-wise to examine one’s own professional literature too exclusively for a‘conceptualization’ of spirituality while largely ignoring the extremely richbody of literature in a multitude of other fields and from a variety of minds”(Powell, 2000, p. 105).

A third recent response to social work and the spirituality issueamong social workers has involved a highly complex terminological ar-

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gument disguised in one-dimensional terms. This third response pro-poses an almost complete separation of the terms “religion” and“spirituality.” While religious studies scholars tend to define religionbroadly as a culturally shared system of values, beliefs and rituals whichinclude spiritual concerns, social work scholars propose that “religion”be considered much more narrowly in terms of specific worship prac-tices, formal denominational affiliation, or explicit participation in afaith organization: the external expression of a compilation of beliefs.Spirituality, on the other hand, is viewed as interiorized religiosity, theinternal expression of a basic human quest for meaning and connect-edness, whether or not experienced within a specifically “religious”context (Cascio, 1998, 1999; Canda & Furman, 1999; Canda, 1997b;Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Derezotes, 1995; Sanzenbach, 1989).

This terminological line of reasoning is well received among those inthe social work field responsive to the non-institutionalized, nontradi-tional quests for meaning and purpose described by Roof, Bellah,Fuller, Wuthnow, and others, cited above. Notably, both Jewish andChristian social work scholars accept such language (Linzer, 1999; Jo-seph, 1988). Yet, such a contention, albeit often fueled by ideologicalreactions to rigid and narrow sectarian interests, is largely conducted ina manner not accountable to the historical and cultural legacy of thoseterms. It is, moreover, largely alien to the academic fields of religiousstudies and to the humanities and social sciences generally. Signifi-cantly, for instance, we find no entry for “spirituality” in the Encyclope-dia of Religion, but can learn much about this concept by turning to articlesabout spirituality within particular religions traditions (King, 1987).

Responding to the current spirituality trend in social work education(Miller, 2001), Marty (2001) helps by contextualizing some of the re-surgent conflicts arising between liberals and conservatives. He re-minds us that many of social work’s roots were religious, before mostprofessionals felt a need to distance themselves from religion. Referringto an earlier article (Marty, 1980), Marty cites the counter-reaction ofreligionists, such as followers of the evangelist Billy Sunday: “the cli-ents of social workers would not stand where the ‘god-less’ wanted toplace them. Those clients often asked religious questions, and not to re-spond to their situations often meant failing them. Social workers couldnot permanently shun these issues” (Marty, 2001).

Addressing the work of Canda, Marty finds that he and his advocates“talk about many of the same things clergy and religionists in generaltalk about: A sense of meaning, purpose, and connectedness”:


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Try doing that without intersecting with the concerns of faith andreligion . . . To Canda’s credit, he is aware of all these difficulties,and he does not promote easy paths to acceptance of his efforts.Perhaps more than he is aware, as chaplains are also finding out,code-naming something ‘spiritual’ . . . is not a way of avoiding thecontroversies that go with ‘religion.’ To anyone concerned aboutreligion, spirituality, or faith in the public sphere, here is one morealert: it is not credible to address profound human needs withouttouching upon ‘meaning, purpose, and connectedness.’ And it isvery difficult to refer to and use those concepts appropriately.(Marty, 2001)

A fourth response to the spirituality and social work conversation hasalso emerged. This fourth approach insists upon a serious interdisciplin-ary engagement of spirituality and religion within social work theoryand practice. It recognizes conceptual and ideological differences be-tween the two disciplines, however, and is wary of easy answers. Suchan approach also identifies the contending ideological motivations ofsocial work’s founders; acknowledges those forces that have disen-gaged religion from social work; and recognizes our broader intellec-tual traditions which do not easily separate the concept of religion fromthat of spirituality. Such awareness and common grounding allow forgenuine engagement in substantive, cross-disciplinary research and dis-cussion. Without these, the academic disciplines of religious studiesand the social work will continue to remain disparate and isolated.

Assuming a basic grounding of the conversation in terms such asthose proposed above, participants might then explore freely and cre-atively a variety of topics from a multiplicity of viewpoints, thus enrich-ing both fields. Canda, moreover, envisions such interdisciplinaryencounters to be “increasingly global, embrac[ing] all people and all be-ings” (Canda, 2002). His approach to spirituality remains highly gener-alized and thematic; one notes that his Spiritual Diversity in Social WorkPractice (Canda & Furman, 1999) includes only 35 pages, and one chapterout of nine, on specific religious traditions and practices. To Canda, how-ever, devoting more attention to separate religions runs the risk of sectari-anism and exclusivity, and encourages “a narrow definition of spiritualitythat limits it to formal religious beliefs and institutions.” Such an approachwould, to Canda, directly counter social work values of empathy, uncondi-tional positive regard, social justice, and realization of human potential(Canda & Furman, 1999, p. 67).

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In contrast to Canda’s volume, Van Hook, Hugen and Aguilar (2002)acknowledge that while spirituality many be considered apart from reli-gion, they choose to anchor their text “in the context of particular reli-gious traditions and in terms of the sense of meaning and connectionthat religion can provide” (Van Hook et al., p. ix). This text is dividedinto fourteen chapters, twelve of which focus upon specific religioustraditions, each with a brief history, an outline of beliefs, rituals andpractices, and a discussion of implications for social work practice. Thebenefits of this approach include its acknowledgment of the broad intel-lectual and historical context of various spiritualities, from which onemay then more readily discuss degrees of variation, acculturation, andalienation within each tradition. Nevertheless, this text unfortunatelydisplays great variability in the quality of its various contributed chap-ters. One hopes that future editions will contain additional scholarshipwhich more uniformly reflects a serious engagement between socialwork and the historical and spiritual dimensions of each religious tradi-tion.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS

Surveys of social work professionals over the past decade show thatthe majority of social workers lack of knowledge of religious subjectmatter, and thus find themselves inadequately trained to undertake spir-itually competent social work practice with clients (Canda & Furman,1999; Sheridan, Wilmer, & Atcheson, 1994). Yet such educationalpreparation, once sorely lacking in the curriculum, is slowly emergingin many programs of social work at both the baccalaureate and master’slevels (Russel, 1998; Miller, 2001; Canda, 1997a; Amato-von Hemert,1994; Dudley & Helfgott, 1990; Netting, Thibault, & Ellor, 1990). Wenow witness educational attempts to introduce social workers to spiri-tual concepts and practice applications, although the content and qualityof such courses vary widely.

Social work departments within religiously-affiliated universities,not surprisingly, tend to have the least difficulty incorporating this in-terdisciplinary undertaking. The Jesuit Saint Louis School of SocialService, for instance, offers a course on spirituality and social work, inwhich the spiritual dimension is justified as integral to the practice ofsocial work:


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The dignity we assign to human life is intrinsically related to a per-son or a society’s values, beliefs, and understanding of the existen-tial meaning of life. Such archetypal experiences as birth anddeath, joy and suffering, alienation and belonging, dishonesty andjustice are core issues in the lives of individuals and communities.Thus, social workers need to be prepared to respond ethically, re-sponsibly, and effectively to the spiritual meanings undergirdingpeople’s human experiences and religious beliefs. (retrieved11/15/02 at http://www.ihpnet.org/ss0.htm)

Roberts Wesleyan, the sole member of the Coalition of ChristianColleges and Universities with an accredited graduate social work pro-gram, similarly finds that the spiritual dimension of human life “unifiesand gives purpose to human encounters within the layers and textures ofthe environment and social interactions with other humans.” The spiri-tual perspective is seen as part of an essential, synergistic dimension ofthe ecological model of social work practice. While finding that “spiri-tuality can be found in religious observance and worldviews that in-volve structure and organization,” the course also acknowledges that forsome individuals, “spirituality is individual and private, but equally im-portant in guiding behavior” (retrieved 10/14/02 from: http://www. rob-erts.edu/_/?path=/Soial%20Work%20and%20Social%20Sciences/Master%20of%20Social%20Work/Acaemic%20Information/&bookark=90 Church %20Social%20Work.htm#).

Other institutions, either public or less overtly sectarian, tend in theirspirituality courses to stress the importance of understanding diversereligio-cultural viewpoints, as well as practitioner self-awareness. Thespirituality and social work course at the University of Pennsylvania,for example, “considers how spiritual and religious systems are relatedto diversity, including gender, social class, ethnicity and culture, andsexual orientation.” The course, moreover, “strives to seek a balance inexploring the universalistic as well as the pluralistic in relationship tospirituality. Some pluralistic religious and/or spiritual traditions arestudied as they exemplify commitments of spirituality and as they inter-sect with a more universalistic spirituality” (retrieved 10/14/02 fromwww.ssw.upenn.edu/home/programs/msw-courses.html)

Similarly, the University of Chicago offers a course in spiritualityand social work practice that employs both theological and current psy-chological texts to consider “the meanings and assumptions practitio-ners and clients bring to the psychotherapy experience”:

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Students are encouraged to examine their own religious beliefsand the ways these elements inform and influence their practice.Clients’ belief systems are highlighted because attitudes and expe-riences regarding spirituality and religion are a significant elementof self-understanding and development. (retrieved 10/14/02 fromwww.ssa.uchicago.edu/programs /approvedhumdiv.shtml)

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS AND GUIDELINES

A recent survey by M. C. Gilbert has found that most social workpractitioners consider recognition of spiritual issues essential to a holis-tic clinical approach (Gilbert, 2000). Likewise, Canda and Furman(1999), who compiled the results of several national surveys on thetopic, found most social workers to be members of religious or spiritualgroups, and already utilize a broad range of spiritually-oriented prac-tices in their work. Less than ten percent of those surveyed, moreover,found that addressing religion and spirituality in social work practiceconflicted with social work’s mission or the NASW Code of Ethics:

Nearly 80% of the respondents believe church/state separationdoes not prevent them from dealing with religion in practice and91% believe it does not prevent them from dealing with non-sec-tarian spirituality in practice. These findings confirm that most so-cial workers are already likely to feel that dealing with spiritualityand religion in practice is consistent with professional values.(Canda & Furman, 1999)

The question for most practitioners, then, is not whether, but how, toincorporate spiritual perspectives into social work practice. Guidancehas come from several writers, suggesting essential competencies, val-ues, skills, and practical strategies for spiritually sensitive and ethi-cally-based intervention. Gilbert’s survey has indicated that the vastmajority believe such practitioners must possess in-depth informationabout spiritual development and assessment; be able to advocate forspiritual diversity in groups; and be well-informed about community re-ligious resources for purposes of consultation, referral, and support(Gilbert, 2000). Above all, however, these surveys convey the wide-spread admonition that social workers dealing with religious and spiri-tual issues be able to recognize clients’ rights to self-determination intheir varied quests for spiritual transformation. To avoid both judgmen-


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talism and the imposition of one’s own values, this means that workersmust first possess solid spiritual grounding and self-awareness, and rec-ognize the influence of inevitable personal biases or unresolved spiri-tual issues (Gilbert, 2000; Cascio, 1998; Anderson & Worthen, 1997;Sheridan et al., 1992). A. C. Kilpatrick and T. P. Holland (1990) observe,moreover, that one is less inclined to be judgmental with clients, or toexperience damaging countertransferential reactions, if one has seri-ously examined his or her own spirituality.

In social work, practitioners tend to follow a stage or task-based ap-proach with clients–whether individuals, families, or groups–which in-cludes the following steps: Defining issues; assessing needs; collectingand assessing data; planning and contracting; selecting and implement-ing appropriate courses of action; monitoring and evaluating outcomes;and termination. These tasks are carried out with a view toward empow-ering the client and building on his or her strengths, which may verywell include religious or spiritual resources (Cascio, 1998; Bullis,1996). The social worker in the assessment stage may employ tech-niques such as genograms and spiritual histories to garner spiritually-re-lated information in the assessment process (McGoldrick & Gerson,1985). The genogram may illumine influences and tendencies throughthe generations, while the spiritual history may help identify the client’sspiritual development, practices, beliefs, and influences of the family oforigin (Bullis, 1996; Sheridan et al., 1992). This spiritual history mayalso help the social worker ascertain current conflicts, as well as poten-tial sources of strength for the client, and thus help in formulating rea-sonable therapeutic objectives (Bullis, 1996).

In the intervention stage of practice, the social worker and client maywork to introduce or further incorporate spiritual practices meaningfulto the client, such as meditation, prayer, or various rituals (Derezotes,1995; Canda, 1999). Whether or not a social worker should pray withthe client remains controversial, however; in such cases, it may be bene-ficial to consult with a clergy member or a pastoral counselor (Canda,1999). Cascio (1998) reminds practitioners to use caution generally inemploying prayer, meditation, or ritual, and to be fully aware of possi-ble boundary implications. She suggests that social service agenciesprovide training and clear guidelines to workers in regard to such prac-tices. Barach (1997) similarly underscores the necessity of in-depthknowledge of religious ritual, and possible collaboration with clergy, toensure that clients’ religious and spiritual needs are addressed appropri-ately. At the same time, therapists need to consult the ethical standardsof their professions to avoid imposing their values upon those with

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whom they work. Clients with dissociative disorders, for instance, maypresent significant struggles around issues of “moral responsibility, themeaning of their pain, the duality of good and evil, the need for justice, andbasic trust in the benevolence of the universe.” Depending upon the reli-gious background, culture, and spiritual practices of the client, such ques-tions may also lead to a consideration of exorcism rituals to rid the self ofdemonic, “not-self” personalities. Such rituals may actually allow certainclients “to rearrange images of their personality systems in a culturally syn-tonic manner,” observes Barach. Yet therapists should exercise extremecaution before even considering such an approach. Such rituals, shestresses, “have not been shown to be an effective treatment for DID[Dissociative Identity Disorder], have not been shown to be effective for‘removing’ alternate personalities, and have been found to have deleteriouseffects in two samples of DID patients that experienced exorcisms outsideof psychotherapy” (Barach, 1977, retrieved 2/22/03 from http://www.issd.orgindexpage/isdguide.htm#diag).

Social workers also find that spiritual dimensions of practice often mani-fest themselves when clients grapple with questions of “why me?” often inrelation to chronic or life-threatening illnesses (Millison, 1988). In fact,Cascio argues, failing to acknowledge a spiritual component at these timesmay mean that the social worker is not handling these situations optimally(Cascio, 1998). Drug and alcohol recovery programs as well often involvegetting in touch with a spiritual dimension and learning to depend on this“higher power” for guidance and strength. Yet, among progressives in theaddictions field, C. Morell notes, there has been a longstanding avoidanceof spirituality. This avoidance has stemmed largely from associations to or-ganized, conservative religion, which Morell and others have perceived aspotentially abusive and exclusive, or overly “otherworldly,” discouragingnecessary political or social action. “These are real concerns, but they arenot factors inherent in recognizing a spiritual dimension in life,” Morellconcludes, pointing out that many recovery programs avoid indoctrinationand proselytizing, and instead encourage a broader concept of spiritualityas a form of liberation. In-depth knowledge of the roots of Christian spiritu-ality, as well as observation about the functional nature of the divine withina particular clinical situation, allows Morell to envision a recovery programwhich employs spirituality in the service of empowerment. She views theincorporation of spirituality within substance abuse programs to “inspireand sustain people to move beyond external and internalized oppression . . .Beliefs and experiences that connect them to others and challenge discour-agement can be thought of as spiritual; they invigorate and empower peo-ple” (Morell, 1996, p. 309).


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CONCLUSION

As mentioned above, a fourth response to the spirituality and socialwork conversation involves a serious interdisciplinary engagement ofspirituality and religion within social work theory and practice. This ap-proach, however, distinguishes conceptual and ideological differencesbetween the two disciplines, and is wary of easy answers. It realizes thatneither social work nor spirituality can be easily identified with one tra-dition or ideology; identifies those forces that have disengaged religionfrom social work; and recognizes that many of our broader intellectualtraditions do not easily detach the concept of religion from that of spiri-tuality. Such awareness and common grounding allow for genuine en-gagement in substantive, cross-disciplinary research and conversation.Without these, religious studies and the social work will continue topersist as separate disciplines, inaccessible to each other.

To be sure, social work will continue to struggle with how to practi-cally integrate incorporate a spiritual perspective into social work’smission. That is where religious studies and related other disciplinesmay be step in to provide perspective and its own war stories. Fieldssuch as religious studies may help social work in clarifying the conceptof spirituality by situating the search for meaning historically and socio-logically. It may suggest methods of incorporating spirituality in prac-tice and in the social work curriculum. It may help social workersdiscern potential ramifications of particular religio-political agendas,especially critical in these times which have eagerly embraced the ideaof faith-based organizations. Finally, it may help identify the ethical dif-ficulties in using spiritual practices in programs receiving federal funds.Although the above represents a complex enterprise, such difficulty initself should not justify abandoning the undertaking.

By further engaging interdisciplinary, intellectual traditions of thewider academy, social work will strengthen itself as an academic field.By acknowledging its own conflicting foundational history, social workpractitioners will be empowered to fully consider the ramifications ofthe sectarian agendas often surrounding the public embrace of spiritual-ity. In return, social work may contribute mightily by reminding us of itsinherited legacy of social justice and client empowerment. In bringingthe disciplines of religious studies and social work into a mutually en-riching, interdisciplinary conversation, we may choose to adopt the so-cial work approach of combining a solid knowledge and skills base,

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alongside the cardinal maxim of client self-determination. As this con-versation continues to grow and evolve, “the meanings of spirituality[will] likely overflow the walls the profession tries to erect around it,”W. E. Powell notes. Therefore, he concludes, “perhaps we should startwhere the client is and define it as broadly and inclusively as it is visitedin the minds and lives of our diverse clients” (Powell, 2000, p. 105).

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Documents

Spirituality, Religion, and Social Work: