SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE PIRAMALAI KALLARS

OF MADURAI DISTRICT

THESIS SUBMITTED TO MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY

BY

P.M. JOTHI REG. NO.2123

DEPARTMENT OF P.G. & RESEARCH CENTRE IN HISTORY, NESAMONY MEMORIAL CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,

MARTHANDAM.

OCTOBER, 2008.

Dr. C. SELVARAJ, M.A.(His.), M.A.(Ind. Cul.), M.Phil., Ph.D. Senior Lecturer & Research Guide, Research Centre in History, Nesamony Memorial Christian College, Marthandam.

CERTIFICATE

This thesis entitled "SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE

PIRAMALAI KALLARS OF MADURAI DISTRICT" submitted by

P.M. JOTHI for the award of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History of

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University is a record of bonafide research work done

by her and it has not been submitted for the award of any degree, diploma,

associateship, fellowship of any University or Institution.

Place: Marthandam Signature of the Guide

Date:

Acknowledgement

The following pages are the fruits of research undertaken under

F.I.P., X Plan period of the U.G.C., in the Research Centre in History, Nesamony

Memorial Christian College, Marthandam during 2005-2007.

At the outset I thank the Lord Almighty for having blessed me to

undertake this venture and submit this thesis successfully.

I would like to extend my special and heartfelt thanks to my learned

guide Dr. C. Selvaraj of N.M.C. College for his valuable pieces of advice,

guidelines and corrections. But for him I could not have completed this work. His

cordial and prompt response deserves much appreciation.

I express my sincere gratitude to the University Grants Commission

as well as Manonmaniam Sundaranar University for having provided me with an

opportunity to pursue my studies. I also express my gratitude to the Principal and

the Head and other staff of the Research Centre in History, Nesamony Memorial

Christian College, Marthandam and also to the Principal and the staff of the

Department of History of Lekshmipuram College, Neyyoor.

I am deeply indebted to PHF. Dr. A.D. Shobanraj, former Principal

of our college, who left no stone unturned to get me this opportunity and proved to

be a driving force and also to Mr. N. Martin Daniel Dhas, the author of several

books on Church History settled at Nagercoil, for having been instrumental in

myself choosing this topic.

I am particularly grateful to Rev. D. Chellappa, himself a Piramalai

Kallar and also elder brother of Mr. D. Pandiyan, CPI(M) General Secretary, for

having provided me with valuable information regarding the community despite

his old age and ill health. I am also grateful to other pastors Rev. Kanagu

Nelson, Rev. Arthur Jeya Kumar, Rev. Daniel Monoharan, Rev. Duraisamy,

Rev. Fr. Anto, Rev. Sisters Chandra and Syria Pushpam, and Pastor Prabhakar for

their spontaneous and unhesitating response in providing much information about

the community under study.

I am quite obliged to the librarians of the TTS, Madurai

Rev. J.Augustine and Mr.John ; Mrs.Rita Wesley and Mr.Stanley of the UTC,

Bangalore, Mr. Stephenson Manuel of the SABC, Bangalore ; Mr. Yesan Sellan of

the SAIACS of Bangalore ; Prof. Thirumurugan of the Madurai Kamaraj

University ; Dr. M. Sundararaj and Prof. M. Namasivayam of the Archives

Library Chennai, Mr. Manickavasagam of S.T. Hindu College, Nagercoil and

Mr. Paulson of N.M.C.C. Marthandam and also the other librarians who were

intent to help me in the true sprit of their profession by providing me with the

needed records.

I am equally grateful to Mr. Chinnasamy Thevar, Mr. George

Virumandi, Mr. Navamony of Thevar Sinthanai Mantram, my erstwhile Student

Dr. N. Austin John Manohar, Dr. J.M. Chellappa and Lalitha Chellappa,

Mr. Mathuram, Correspondent of the TELC School Usilampatti,

Mrs. Kanagavalli Asirvatham, the retired H.M. of the TELC School, Miss Krenapu Kalarani,

the present day H.M. of the same School, and also Rev. D. Justin Devadhasan, the

Presbyter and District Minister, C.S.I. Home Church, Neyyoor for their

magnanimity in getting me some valuable materials at their disposal. I also thank

all those who were kind enough to give interviews.

I am also grateful to late Mr. Cheembi Thomas and late Rev. Titus

Kadappaisamy for their friendly disposition and sincerity in getting me the needed

information and materials. Their untimely demise was a matter of great sorrow.

It will be a lapse on my part if I fail to recognise the valuable

services rendered by Dr. V. John of the Department of English, St. Xaviers

College, Palayamkottai and Mr.G. Haribaskar, my colleague, in giving this thesis a

proper shape.

For lack of space I have not mentioned many of the reputed

Institutions and Scholars who helped me in many ways in the completion of this

work. I acknowledge their services and thank them warmly.

I express my heartfelt thanks to our family friends Mrs. Merlin Lloyd

and family, Bangalore and Mrs. Joy and family, Nagercoil and Dr. V.

Geetha of Madurai for their genuine affection and logistic support in my venture.

I am extremely thankful for the moral and logistic support provided

by my sister Mrs. Helen and my brother-in-law Mr. I. Dhanapaul and family, my

sister-in-law Mrs. Nalini and brother Chandra Sekaran and family, my cousin

Mr. P.M. Mani and family, my niece Mrs. Annie and her husband Vinoth, my

nephew Arasu and family and my relative Adv. Edward and Family which went a

long way in making this attempt a real success. I express my heartfelt gratitude to

them.

Last but not the least is the involvement of my husband Mr.T.Sam

Thilagaraj and my daughters Sylvia and Cynthia who stood by me through thick

and thin by extending immense moral support to achieve my goal.

P.M. Jothi

CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS

Chapter No

Title Page. No

Chapter I Introduction 1

Chapter II Historical background of the Kallar community

16

Chapter III Life of the Piramalai Kallar Prior to the

Introduction of Christianity 53

Chapter IV Entry of Christian Missions into Madurai

106

Chapter V The Kallars and Christianity 143

Chapter VI Impact of Christianity on the Piramalai Kallars

220

Chapter VII Conclusion 253

Bibliography

Annexure

ABBREVIATION

ABCFM : American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.

AG : Assemblies of God.

AMM : American Madura Mission.

CGMM : Church Growth Missionary Movement .

CHAI : Church History Association of India.

CLS : Christian Literature Society.

CMM : Catholic Madura Mission.

CMS : Church Missionary Society

CPM : Ceylon Pentecostal Mission.

CSI : Church of South India.

CSM : Church of Sweden Mission.

CTA : Criminal Tribes Act.

FELC : Federal Evangelical Lutheran Church.

H.S.S. : Higher Secondary School.

HM : Head Mistress.

ICHR : Indian Church History Review.

ICGM : India Church Growth Mission.

IPC : Indian Pentecostal Church

ISPCK : Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

LELM : Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission.

LMS : London Missionary Society.

MNNR : Madras Native Newspaper Report.

NCCI : National Christian Council of India.

RC : Roman Catholic.

SDA : Seventh Day Adventist.

SPCK : Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

SPG : Society for the Propagation of the Gospel.

TELC : Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church.

TTS : Tamil Nadu Theological Seminary.

UTC : United Theological College.

YMCA : Young Men Christian Association

ABSTRACT Title of the thesis: SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE PIRAMALAI

KALLARS OF MADURAI DISTRICT Name & Address of the Scholar P.M. JOTHI S.G. Lecturer in History & Tourism, Lekshmipuram college of Arts & Science, Neyyoor.

Name & Address of the Guide Dr. C. SELVARAJ, M.A. (His.), M.A. (Ind. Cul.), M. Phil., Ph.D. Senior Lecturer & Research Guide, Research Centre in History, Nesamony Memorial Christian College, Marthandam.

This thesis is an attempt to bring to light the unwritten pages of the history of a valiant community living in large numbers in western part of Madurai in Tamil Nadu, South India. The main objective of this thesis is to unravel the reasons and causative factors which led this untamable, aggressive and egoistic community towards Christianity, a religion with a diametrically opposite philosophy. This topic has been analyzed by following a methodology which is partly historical and partly analytical. This thesis has been arranged in seven chapters including Introduction and Conclusion. In the II and III chapters the historical background of the Kallar community and their socio-economic, cultural and religious life prior to the introduction of Christianity has been dealt with. While the IV chapter deals with the entry of the Christian missions in to Madurai, the V chapter deals with the Kallars and Christianity which forms the nucleus of the thesis and the VI chapter is about the impact of Christianity on them. This study has proved that they were attracted towards Christianity mainly because they believed that the missionaries through education, a magic wand, could show them a way for a better and a dignified life and not for bread and butter or simply to escape the punitive measures of the Criminal Tribes Act. The missionaries through their unstinted love, compassion and dedication and an agenda of social reforms were able to win over them. Though the number is relatively small, the impact of Christianity on their mind set and over all development is immeasurable. With the service of the modern missionary organizations, the spread of Christianity among them is an on-going process.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

2

3

CCHHAAPPTTEERR -- II

IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

Several new trends in historical thinking have emerged with the passage

of time. The entire spectrum of recent writings in history throws up a challenge to the

conventional methods where readymade corpus of sources is available. Retelling

history in a mere descriptive way has already been rendered an anachronism and has

been replaced with an analytical approach. History is anthropocentric and charm has

been added by Subaltern Study which gives much importance to the every day life of

the working masses. The German term subaltern as a theoretical concept describes the

identity of an oppressed and exploited group. Hence it has opened up new vistas of

exploration and has accelerated the growth of many a branch of study such as

Anthropology, Sociology, History, Economics and Politics.

In tune with this modern trend of increasing interest in subaltern studies,

this topic Spread of Christianity Among the Piramalai Kallars of Madurai

District, dealing with one of the early settlers in Madurai in TamilNadu, South India,

has been selected with a view to bring to light the dark pages of the history of a valiant

community which once enjoyed a time honoured status but later on was reduced to the

level of a despised community with the stigma of criminal tribe. The European

prejudices are deeply embedded in the history of the Kallars. Owing to the inherent

4

limitations of their attitude, distortions are very commonly found. Hence the need to

examine this old cultural complex dispassionately arises so that the community which

deserves a special place in Tamilnadu history could be rendered justice. This

community which could have been regarded as 'South Indian Rajputs' has been

relegated to the background in the history of Tamilnadu despite their important role

played during the South Indian rebellion and the Indian National movement. Hence an

unbiased probe into this dark area of Tamilnadu history becomes necessary to bring it

to light and this aspect makes this work unique in character. In fact the "Spread of

Christianity among the Piramalai Kallars of Madurai district" is perhaps the least

studied subject by any historian as such. Dr. Hugald Grafe, a present day church

historian, says that scholarly investigations on the openness of this community to

Christianity are still wanting. It is mainly because the available works on these Kallars

are either secular or non-Christian in character. Hence with the scope for a diligent

examination this topic has been selected for a pioneering rather maiden effort on this

religious aspect with historical and analytical approaches.

At the outset it should be kept in mind that even though Kallars are

called by different names like Esanattu Kallars, Visangunattu Kallars, Seruvasal

Kallars, Ambalakara Kallars, Piramalai Kallars etc. no special significance can be

attached to their names except for the regions they live in. In Madurai alone, the

Kallars are divided into two endogamous groups territorial in origin.

5

(i) Kilnadu Kallars or the eastern country Kallars commonly known as

Melur Kallars.

(ii) MelNadu Kallars or the western country Kallars commonly known as

Piramalai Kallars.

Hence in this Thesis the word Kallar would refer to the Piramalai Kallar as well.

SSttaatteemmeenntt ooff PPrroobblleemm

A rare grafting, an incredible reality, but a true phenomenon that the

Kallars, known for their martial character, untamable nature and aggressive behaviour

with a flair for knives and sickles, had been attracted towards a religion with

diametrically opposite values and principles such as love, compassion, sacrifice,

forgiveness etc. These contradictory values and views of both Christianity and this

community which made them stand poles apart, kindled the curiosity in the researcher

to analyse the factors which were responsible for their conversion.

It is a common dictum that Christianity flourishes where there is

oppression, poverty or deprivation. But this does not seem to be too true with the

Kallars. The Kallars were / are known for their high sense of social superiority,

irrespective of their economic status, and pride in the dignity of their community

whose independence was tantamount to truculence in earlier times. Traditionally the

6

Kallars served the rulers in times of war as a corps of reconnaissance and harassment

and engaged themselves in cattle raid which was a conventionalized signal for

warfare. At other times they served them as spies and guerilla troopers. As skilled

vanguards, risking their lives for the sake of their masters, they commanded respect in

society so much so that the term Kallar was used in singular number honorifically.

During times of peace and settlement some of them were employed as kavalkarars

(village guards) of domestic and public property in villages. Thus they settled down in

society as semi-warriors and semi-agriculturists. They had organized themselves into

a village federation and were never in tune with the rulers of Madurai right from the

Nayak period to the British rule. The rulers including the British found it an arduous

task to subdue them and exact tribute from them. Thus they had never been a

suppressed lot.

In due course this community was reduced to poverty which

synchronized with the fall of the ruling dynasties. With their occupation as soldiers

gone the Kallars fell into evil days. Owing to the inhospitable nature of their land

agriculture was rendered insufficient for their maintenance and hence they felt

justified to employ their expertise to earn their livelihood. The recidivism of the

Kallars went on unabated and at times it appeared as though the British Raj was

powerless against the Kallar Raj. To bring these people to naught with calculated

moves the British cut across the very basis of their subsistence living through their

7

enforcement of denudation of arms and abolition of kaval system. Despite their

poverty stricken and hapless situation, this community which was exceedingly zealous

of rites, rituals and Hindu traditions was much averse to Christianity in view of the

persecutions which was sure to follow every conversion. They feared ostracism more

than death itself. Had they embraced Christianity for the sake of bread and butter,

there ought to have taken place a mass conversion. But on the contrary only a few

responded positively to the call of the missionaries in the beginning and only

gradually the number swelled. Hence it could very well be deduced that they had not

embraced Christianity just due to poverty.

The only factor left behind is deprivation. A few questions as to the

nature, causation and effect of deprivation may arise. These are some of the moot

questions to be analysed. There ought to have been a driving force that made this

setting of the Thames on fire possible. Hence a probe into the possible reasons and

motives behind becomes imperative and that forms the nucleus of this Thesis.

RReevviieeww ooff lliitteerraattuurree

Louis Dumont, a French Sociologist, in his book A South Indian Sub-

Caste: Social Organisation and Religion of the Piramalai Kallars, available in

8

many libraries, has made a professional and sophisticated analysis of their social

concept and has contributed much to a better understanding of their complex social

institutions. However its focal area is confined to just two villages of the Piramalai

Kallars and is out and out non- Christian in character.

C.N. Natarajan's, Piramalai Kallars of Tamilnadu - A study of their

Marriage, Kinship and Clan System, a Ph.D. Thesis of 1978 housed in Madurai

Kamaraj University Library, Madurai, is highly informative regarding their social

concepts since it has dealt with the subject from the sociological point of view.

A.Ganapathy's The History of the Kallars of Melur Region, a Ph.D.

Thesis of 1987, also available in Madurai Kamaraj University Library, Madurai, is a

wonderful piece of work but it deals mainly with the Melur Kallars and is also out and

out non-Christian in character. However with regard to the origin and etymology of

the Kallars in general, it gives substantial information.

The Piramalai Kallars - Their Social, Moral and Religious

Background and the Presentation of the Christian Gospel, is a B.D. Thesis by

Rev. G.J.R. Athistam, submitted in 1950 and housed in United Theological College

(UTC) Bangalore. This small work of less than 35 pages is very much general in

character giving much importance to the missiological aspect only. However its value

cannot be undermined as it does supply some useful pieces of information about the

9

life of the Kallars which have been incorporated and duly acknowledged in this

Thesis.

So also a recent work, an M.Th. Thesis in Missiology by P.Ramanathan

under the title Spiritual Warfare Among the Kallars, submitted in 2005 and housed

in South Asian Institute of Advanced Christian studies (SAIACS) Bangalore, is

nothing but a missional appraisal, giving importance to their vision and mission

among the Kallars.

Though all these works have supplied useful information, they are very

much limited and highly superficial and have no direct bearing with this topic is

concerned, thus adding to its uniqueness.

SSoouurrcceess ooff IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn

Primary Sources

The Primary sources consist of the official documents of the

Government of Madras and the private accounts of the missionaries.

For the secular (non-Christian) aspect of the Kallar history, the official

records of the Madras Presidency form the most important source of information.

Preserved in the State Archives, Chennai, these records such as Gazetteers, Census

Reports, Manuals, Newspaper Reports, various Government Orders connected with

10

Criminal Tribes Act and Kallar Reclamation, Working Reports of the Criminal Tribes

Act, Administration Reports on Kallar Reclamation and Settlements, Assembly

Proceedings, Petitions and Telegrams prove to be of great help for the reconstruction

of the history of the Kallars prior to the introduction of Christianity among them.

For the ecclesiastical aspect, the Annual Reports of the AMM published

from Pasumalai, Madurai, for various years (1834 - 1921) housed in Tamilnadu

Theological Seminary Archives (TTS) at Arasaradi (Madurai); the Missionary Herald

published annually from Boston, available in American College Library, Madurai;

Minutes of the meetings of the AMM, Personal Letters of the missionaries, Comity

arrangement among Missions all kept preserved in the UTC archives, Bangalore;

Caritas, a family magazine of the Jesuit Order found in the Seminary at St. Joseph's

College, Trichy, and the Seminary at Arul Anandar College, Karumathur (Madurai)

all these furnish valuable information, though limited, on the activities of their

respective mission among the Kallars. Written in simple English, these records throw

profuse light not only on the religious activities of the missionaries but also on the

then socio-economic and political scenario in an interesting way. Undeniably the

accounts of the missionaries prove to be very reliable and valuable since corroborated

by official records.

Personal interviews with elders of the Kallar community and pastors

connected with the community also have helped in the reconstruction of this history.

11

These interviews provided extensive opportunities for interaction with people who

were eye witnesses and had direct contact with the missionaries as beneficiaries. In

fact it was nothing more than an attempt of rescuing from oblivion the information

possessed by living characters before it should be lost for ever. Since it is permissible

for any researcher to rely upon less important but equally compelling sources like

tradition, myth or even distorted information in the absence of written records all these

had been taken into account. However bias has been eliminated in order to arrive at

bare truths.

SSeeccoonnddaarryy SSoouurrcceess

Many secondary sources are available in Tamil also for the study of the

life of the Kallars. Important among them are Venkatasamy Nattar's Kallar

Charithram, Muthu Thevar's Muvendra Kula Thevar Samuga Varalaru and

Sivanandi Servai's Muvendra Kula Charithai. All these furnish a good deal of

information about the origin, development and the life of the Kallar community.

However all these are very general in character and no trace of the Kallar contact with

Christianity could be seen in them. These books are available in so many libraries

such as Central Library, Madurai, Regal Talkies Library, Madurai, Thevar Sinthanai

Mantram, Madurai, and in the private collections of many Kallars.

12

There are ever so many published works in English to throw light on the

non-Christian side of the Kallar history. Important among them are Edgar Thurston's

Castes and Tribes of Southern India in 7 volumes which is a scholarly field work in

the history of social organization, available in S.T. Hindu College Library, Nagercoil

and Roy Burman & Co.s Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes and Castes in 24

volumes, available in Madurai Kamaraj University Library, Madurai. History of the

Madras Police Centenary 1859 1959, Mullaly's Notes on Criminal Classes of the

Madras Presidency, Muhammad Abdul Ghani's Notes on the Criminal Tribes of

the Madras Presidency all available with T.N. Archives Library, Chennai, explain

vividly Kallar crimes and their criminal activities.

For the study of the religious aspect a number of valuable books are

available. Important among them are History of Christianity in India from CHAI

Publication in 5 volumes, J.S. Chandler's Seventy Five Years in the Madura

Mission, J.J. Banninga's Notes on the American Madura Mission since its Seventy

Fifth Anniversary, Houpert C. Joseph's The Madura Manual, M.X. Miranda's The

Jesuit Experience in Tamilnadu, J.S. Ponniah's The Christian Community of

Madura, Ramnad and Tirunelveli, Fenger J. Ferd's History of the Tranquebar

Mission etc. These books, available in Tamilnadu State Archives Library, UTC

Library, TTS Library and Gurukul (TELC) Library at Purasawalkam, Chennai, supply

13

valuable information, though limited, about Christianity in connection with the Kallar

community and thus have a direct bearing with the topic.

LLiimmiittaattiioonnss

At the outset, it must be confessed that the search for original, often

unpublished sources, was not crowned with a grand success. The transition of the

Kallars from ferocity to a community has not been recorded properly and housed in

any of the archives. In spite of running from pillar to post enough of primary records

could not be obtained. There are many reasons for this.

The first and foremost reason is the lack of historical sense among the

Kallars. Recording of events had never been their practice. Even their cultural,

religious and clan-behaviour had been passed on from generation to generation

through oral transmission only. Even today they are not in the habit of recording their

panchayat proceedings. The tragicomedy is that most of them are not even aware of

the names of their fore fathers and the first converts of their family. So it is but natural

that they could not recall the names of the missionaries who were instrumental for the

conversion of their ancestors. The questionnaire supplied to them failed miserably as a

source of information since they had not taken it up seriously. This lapse on their part

made this study an arduous task entailing much research in libraries and archives.

14

Secondly the non-availability of adequate primary records was a major

handicap. The temporary closure of the Jesuit archives at Shenbaganur, one of the

probable places for scholars for getting Christian records about the Kallars, added to

the difficulty.

As far as TELC is concerned, the desperate search for records of their

missionary activities among the Kallars in their Seminary (Gurukul) at

Purasawakkam, Chennai, Tranquebar Bishop House at Trichy, T.B.M.L. College

Library at Poraiyar and TELC Higher Secondary School Library at Usilampatti

(Madurai) etc. ended in terrible disappointment. Except for some photographs of the

missionaries concerned no worth while record could be collected from those places.

This fact gets vouchsafed by an incident that took place when Rev. Dr. D.

Winkler, a missionary cum professor of the LELM was asked to contribute some

materials to the Golden Jubilee Souvenir of the TELC. As nothing was available in

India he had to depend on a selection of records sent from Leipzig. Even among the

available Christian literature about the Kallars most of them are either in German or

Swedish thus making it unattainable. To make matters worse, most of the records are

in a dilapidated and brittle condition.

Even with the available Christian sources in English no adequate records

pertaining to different castes could be found. Moreover for the missionaries, Kallar or

Piramalai Kallar or Maravar all meant one and the same and were all referred to as

15

thief caste or robber caste only. Even in churches no caste wise records of the

members are available. Hence furnishing of precise statistics on the conversion of the

Piramalai Kallar could not be thought of.

Finally there was the problem of authenticity of information. Some of

the informers preferred to narrate what was good and pleasant for them rather than the

truth. Hence the researcher had to sift the grain from the chaff from the available

information.

In spite of some of these factors which proved to be stumbling blocks

for the reconstruction of a comprehensive and cogent history of the Kallars and

Christianity, with unflinching determination and perseverance a bold step has been

taken towards unveiling this aspect of the Kallar history which is otherwise likely to

be forgotten or not taken notice of.

Hence with the available materials this topic Spread of Christianity

among the Piramalai Kallars of Madurai District has been analyzed to the best of

ability by following a methodology which is partly historical and partly analytical not

out of any fascination for complexity but out of necessity. This Thesis is a sincere

attempt to research in the real sense of the term and present a continuous and

systematic account of the spread of Christianity among the Piramalai Kallars which

has not so far received the attention it deserves.

16

CChhaapptteerriissaattiioonn

This Thesis has been arranged in seven chapters including Introduction

and Conclusion.

In the Introductory chapter statement of problem, review of literature,

sources, limitations and methodology are analyzed.

The Second chapter Historical background of the Kallar community

deals with the different theories of origin of the Kallars, the etymology of the term

Kallar and their settlement in Madurai.

In the third chapter Life of the Piramalai Kallars prior to the

introduction of Christianity the socio-economic, cultural and religious background

of the Kallars has been described elaborately. The general traits of the Kallars, their

customs and tradition which were tied up with every stage of their life cycle such as

birth, puberty, marriage and death, their clan system, their crimes and their cults are

given due importance.

The fourth Chapter Entry of Christian Missions into Madurai is

mainly about the advent of Christianity and Christian Missions in India in general and

Madurai in particular. In this chapter the then prevailing socio-religious conditions at

Madurai as seen by the missionaries, the establishment of the three Missions

17

connected with the life of these Kallars and their services to the society in general are

dealt with elaborately.

The fifth Chapter the Kallars and Christianity forms the nucleus of the

Thesis. It focuses on the attitude of the Kallars towards Christianity in different stages,

the methodology adopted by the missionaries to win over them and their hardships,

analysis of the reasons for conversion, the persecutions the converts endured and the

various activities of the missions are explained vividly.

The sixth Chapter Impact of Christianity on the Piramalai Kallars

analyses the change in their attitude, mind-set and their over all development in

various walks of life.

In the concluding chapter the summary of the findings and suggestions

are included.

16

CHAPTER II

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF

THE KALLAR COMMUNITY

17

CCHHAAPPTTEERR -- IIII

HHIISSTTOORRIICCAALL BBAACCKKGGRROOUUNNDD OOFF TTHHEE KKAALLLLAARR CCOOMMMMUUNNIITTYY

Situated principally between 70 571 and 110 101 of north latitude and

between 770 301 and 790 851 of east longitude, Madurai lies entirely within the

tropics.1It extends from the Western Ghats in the west to the Bay of Bengal in the

east. On the north, it was bounded by the state of Pudukkottai and the districts of

Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli and Thanjavur and on the south by the district of

Tirunelveli.2 Because of hot climate, scanty and faulty rainfall, absence of

perennial rivers and irrigational facilities, poor productivity of the soil etc., the life

of the people of Madurai was becoming highly miserable. Dravidian by race,

people were divided in to numerous communities of whom the prominent were the

Mukkulathor and of the three the Kallar alone formed about 1/3 of the total

population of the district.3

1. K. Rajayyan, History of Madurai (1736-1801), Madurai University Historical Series, No.1,Madurai, 1974, p. 18. 2. Hamilton Walter, A Geographical, Statistical and Historical Description of Hindostan, vol. I, Delhi,

1971, p. 466. 3. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteer, Madurai, Govt. Press, Madras, 1906, p.88.

18

Many theories have been put forward with regard to the origin of the

Kallar community legendary, historical, analytical and logical. In this chapter an

overall view of the origin of the Mukkulathor, etymology and settlement of the

Kallars in general and the Piramalai Kallars in particular have been dealt with.

Mukkulathor4 is the common term to denote the cluster of three identical clans of

the Dravidian stock viz, Kallar, Maravar and Agamudaiyar. These three Tamil-

speaking communities consider themselves as brethren and take pride in calling

themselves Mukkulathor in recent times. These people were one of the earliest

settlers in southern peninsula. They are known for their valour, courage and

independent nature. They are numerically strong in the southern districts of

Tamilnadu. They claim to be the offspring of same parents. The origin of the

Mukkulathor is mythologically traced to Lord Indra, the General of the Holy forces

in Heaven and Aghalia, the wife of Rishi Gautama.

F.S. Mullaly narrates the mythological origin in the following way.

Indra and Rishi Gautama were, among others, rival suitors for Aghalia. Somehow

Rishi Gautama was the successful one. This so incensed Indra that he was

4. To exhibit the solidarity of the three clans was founded "All India Mukkulathor Sangam" on January 28th, 1934, under the Presidentship of Rajaram Pandiyan, the Sethupathy of Ramnad. Thence forth the term Mukkulathor came into vogue.

P. Muthu Thevar , Muvendra Kula Thevar Samuga Varalaru, (Tamil) III ed.,R.K.K. & sons, Thirumangalam, (Madurai) 1994, p. 309.

19

determined to win Aghalia at all hazards. By means of a cleverly devised ruse he

succeeded and Aghalia bore him three sons, who respectively took the names

Kalla, Marava and Ahamudya. The three castes have the agnomen Theva or God,

and claim to be descendants of Thevan (Indra).5

According to another version of the same legend, once upon a time,

Rishi Gautama left his house to go abroad on business. Devendra, taking

advantage of his absence, debauched his wife and three children were born. When

the Rishi returned, one of the three hid himself behind a door, and as he thus acted

like a thief, he was henceforth called Kallan. Another climbed on a tree and was

therefore called Maravan from maram, a tree whilst the third brazened it out and

stood his ground, thus earning for himself the name of Ahamudaiyan, or the

possessor of pride which name was corrupted into Ahambadiyan.6

According to another legend, quoted by Louis Dumont,7 the three

sons later went with their mother to meet their father Indra in order to obtain a

position for themselves. Since it was impossible to get them a share in the

heavenly institutions, Indra created village occupations for them so that they could

5. F.S. Mullaly, Notes on Criminal Classes of the Madras Presidency, Govt. Press, Madras, 1892, p. 85. 6. Edgar Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol III, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi,

1987, p. 63. 7 . Louis Dumont, A South Indian Sub-Caste: Social Organisation and Religion of the Piramalai Kallar,

Oxford University Press, New York, 1986,p. 12.

20

dispense with justice and recover lost objects. He distributed them geographically -

the Kallar to the north, the Maravar in the centre and the Agambadiyar to the

south.

It would be sagacious to set aside all these, since mythological

concepts can have no currency in this world of science and technology. As

Ganapathy suspects,8 it might have been from the orthodox elite with a fertile

brain of invention to maintain their superiority over the native tribes by branding

them as immoral offshoots of Devendra.

Nevertheless almost all Mukkulathor have a belief in the concept of

their origin from Indra, the 'Warrior God', and hence they style themselves Indra

Kulathavar (People of the clan of Indra) and adorn their names with the common

agnomen Thevar (sons of God). There is a very close connection among the three

clans in their appearance, customs, manners, traditions and war like qualities.

According to tradition, these people formed the important and strategic sections of

the armies of the Tamil Kings and Chiefs in olden days when fighting was even

more an important profession than agriculture and supported a larger population.9

But at present all the three have taken up farming. In spite of the alleged common

8. A. Ganapathy, History of the Kallars of Melur Region, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, 1987, p. 33.

9. A. Ramaswami, Gazetteer of India, Ramanathapuram District, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 1972, pp. 137 - 138.

21

ancestry, these three classes in early times formed themselves in to distinct castes

and inter-marriage between the Kallars and the other two was not allowed.

However this trend has changed to a great extent in the twentieth century mainly

due to the concept of Mukkulathor.

It would be highly apt to deal with these three clans separately in a

nut shell.

TThhee MMaarraavvaarrss

The Maravars were found in the present Ramnad and Tirunelveli

districts and the Arantangi taluk of the present Pudukkottai district at the beginning

of the eighteenth century. The Ramnad district, then known as the Marava country,

was the place where the Maravas originally settled and from there they had

migrated to Tirunelveli country of the Nayak kingdom of Madura. The head of the

Maravas was the Sethupathi or the Raja of Ramnad.10 According to the traditional

stories the Maravas of the Ramnad region helped Sri Rama in his war against the

demon Ravana and as a token of gratitude for their services, Rama gratefully

exclaimed in Tamil Maraven (I will never forget) and that they have ever since

been called Maravans and thenceforth they were hailed as Deva or Theva meaning

gods.11

10. S. Kadhirvel, A History of the Maravas, Madurai Publishing House, Madurai, 1977, pp 6-7. 11. Ibid.,p. 6.

22

With more probability, the name may be connected with the word

maram which means killing, ferocity, bravery and the like as pointing to their

unpleasant profession of robbing and slaying their neighbours. Being noted for

their military prowess, they assisted the Pandyas and the Nayaks and were a

nightmare to the British.12 They were essentially a community doing military

service to the chiefs or were rendering police duties.13 To this class belonged most

of the poligars or feudal chieftains like the Marudu brothers. They did not evince

any interest in agriculture, trade or industry as they considered themselves superior

people whose solemn duty was to protect others and not to till or toil.14

As F.S. Mullaly writes," a Marava of today as a member of a

caste which is numerous and influential, as a man of superior physique and bold

independent spirit, thief and robber, village policeman and detective combined is

an immense power in the land."15

AAggaammuuddaaiiyyaarrss

The Agamudaiyars are found in Thanjavur, Madurai and Tirunelveli

districts. Since their profession is agriculture, they are found in most of the

12. B.K. Roy Burman, K.K. Misra, Buddhadeb Choudhuri and Subhadra , ed., Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes and Castes, Vol. XIV, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 2004, p. 4340.

13. S. Kadhirvel, Op. cit., p. 13. 14. Ibid. 15. Roy Burman, et al., Op. cit., Vol. XIV, p. 4342.

23

districts of Tamilnadu such as Chingelput, North Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore and

Trichirappalli. They are much less in number than they were some thirty years ago

may be due to the fact that they have risen in the social hierarchy and have

identified themselves as Vellalas. But in Thanjavur, the number has nearly doubled

due to the assumption of the name by the Maravans and Kallans. In their manners

and customs they closely follow the Vellalas.16

This fact has been corroborated by Dumont when he says that from

the point of view of typical customs, an Agamudaiyan is closer to an orthodox

Vellalan than to a Kallan.17 Of the three clans, the Agamudaiyars alone are said to

have been greatly influenced by contact with Brahmanism. They engage Brahmin

priests and perform their birth, marriage and death ceremonies like the Vellalas.18

The ordinary agnomen or titular name of an Agamudaiyar is Servaikkaran, but

many of them even call themselves Pillai, Adhigari and Mudaliar.19 Agamudaiyars

are not so ferocious and martial as the Maravars or Kallars. Because of their

economic prosperity, they have adopted a more respectable attitude to life. They

are comparatively a peace loving people.20

16. Ibid., Vol. I, p. 20. 17. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 10.

18. Roy Burman , et al., Op. cit., Vol .I, p. 21.

19. Ibid. 20. S. Kadhirvel , Op. cit., p. 14.

24

KKaallllaarrss

The Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes and Castes describes the Kallars

as a dark race of small stature and of many distinctive peculiarities pointing them

out as having sprung from an aboriginal tribe.21 Here it would be more appropriate

to take into account the view of B.S. Guha regarding the term aborigines. He feels

that the term aboriginal population of India is not usually applied to the tribal

population of India, not in any derogatory sense but to indicate their being the

earliest among the present inhabitants of the country.22

The Kallars are known for the retention of their customs and

traditions. Hence they attract the attention of sociologists, anthropologists and

historians alike. According to Nelson, the Kallars are in many respects the most

remarkable of all the castes in the Madurai district and have played an important

part in history.23 The Kallars are numerically large and form the primary unit in

the jati-cluster of Mukkulathor. An estimate made by T.N.B.C. Commission in

1971 shows that the population of the Kallars was 9.75 lakh, the Maravars and the

21. Roy Burman , et al ., Op. cit., Vol. IX, p . 2765. 22. B.S. Guha , Indian Aborigines and Who They Are? Adi Vasis, In Ministry of Information and

Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 1960, p. 28. 23. J.H. Nelson, The Madura Country-A Manual, Part II, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1868,

p. 44.

25

Agamudaiyars were 8.31 lakh and 6.70 lakh respectively.24 In view of their

concentration in the districts of Thanjavur, Trichirappalli, Pudukkottai and

Madurai, this area is sometimes referred to as Kallarnadu or Kallaham. They are

also found settled in certain portions of Ramanathapuram and Tirunelveli districts.

The life of the Kallars is principally governed by geographic and

economic factors. Because of the inflow of the river Cauvery, the districts of

Thanjavur and Trichirappalli are blessed with fertile soil and copious water. Hence

the Kallars of these wet land areas have mostly taken to agriculture and a settled

living whereas the Kallars of Madurai district where large portions of land remain

dry, have continued to remain with their primitive agriculture, subsistence living

and with no scope for socio-economic betterment.25

The following table shows the district wise distribution of the Kallars

in Tamil Nadu.

24. Backward Class Commission, Tamil Nadu Pirpattor Nalakkuzhu Arikkai, Part II, Govt. of Tamil Nadu, 1974. p. 5.

25. K. Bose, Forward Bloc, Tamil Nadu Academy of Political Science, Madras, 1988, p. 54.

26

District Number of People Percentage

Thanjavur 3,81,660 39.1

Madurai 3,43,157 35.2

Trichirappalli

(including Pudukkottai) 1,44,327 14.8

Ramanathapuram 83,444 8.5

Tirunelveli 23,124 2.4

Total 9,75,712 100.0

Source: T.N.B.C. Commission, Report, Part-II, Govt. of Tamilnadu, 1974, P.5.

The demographic constitution of Madurai is such that the Vellala

community constitutes nearly 12% and the Kallar community, about 10% of the

total population.26

OOrriiggiinn ooff tthhee KKaallllaarrss

H.A. Stuart is of strong opinion that the Kallars must have been one

of the first of the Dravidian tribes that penetrated into the southern peninsula, thus

were the oldest among the South Indian tribes. Hence the origin of this ancient

tribe poses to be a baffling question to the historians. Many theories have been

26. P.K. Nambiar, Census of India, 1961, District Census Hand Book, Madurai, Vol. IX, Govt. of Madras, 1966, p. 19.

27

advanced by learned historians, identifying them with so many tribes/clans. The

most important among them have been classified here below.

11.. NNaaggaa tthheeoorryy

V. Kanagasabhai, a Tamil savant, identifies the Kallars as the

descendants of Eyinar or Vedar, the most lawless branch of the Naga tribe who

were a primitive people of the early Tamil land. His theory rests on the basis of the

commonality of their profession viz. cattle lifting, pillaging and murder and also of

their worship of the dreaded goddess Kali with animal sacrifices, to secure her

favour in their plundering raids and justifies that their descendants are now known

by the appropriate title of Kallars or thieves. He tries to adduce that one Dhirataran

Murti Eyinar, the great chief of Viramangalam, referred to in the Plates of Jatila

Varman, a Pandya King of the 12th century A.D., appears to have belonged to this

tribe.27

However linking a group with another on the basis of mere

semblance of profession and worship cannot be an astute derivation.

22.. KKuurruummbbaa tthheeoorryy

This theory is propounded by Gustav Oppert who links the Kallars

with the Kurumbas, the martial clan of Tondaimandalam, who were the very old

27. V. Kanagasabhai, The Tamils 1800 Years Ago, rpt., Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1979, p. 43.

28

inhabitants of Tamilaham. He firmly believes that on the capture of

Tondaimandalam by Adonda Chola, they took to marauding and thereby earned

the notorious title Kallan or thief as a tribal appellation.28

Oppert cannot be wrong when he states that the Kurumbas must be

regarded as the very old inhabitants of this land who could contest with their

Dravidian kinsmen the priority of the occupation of the Indian soil. His view has

been ratified by one S. Radha Krishna Iyer who opines that the earliest settlers in

the Pudukkottai region must have been Kurumbars, the modern representatives of

the ancient Pallavas who were once so powerful in Southern India. They were

found in Tondaimandalam, the land of the Pallavas, in large numbers and must

have drifted to these parts from that tract or directly come over here from the

Canarese country through the Palani Hills.29 Moreover the relics of the Pallava

rule, found in Pudukkottai region which could be assigned to the 8th century A.D.,

has made Rev. Taylor surmise that the Kurumbars might have settled in the

Pudukkottai region in the earliest centuries of the Christian era, after driving out

the Veduvars or Vedars, the aborigines from there.30

28. Gustav Oppert , On the Original Inhabitants of Bharatvarsha or India, Oriental Publishers, Indian rpt., Delhi, 1972, pp. 257-258.

29. S. Radha Krishna Iyer, A General History of the Pudukkottai State, Brihadamba State Press, Pudukkottai, 1916, p. 43.

30. William Taylor, Catalogue of Oriental Manuscripts in the Tamil Language, trans., Vol. III, Madras, 1857-62, p. 409.

29

Hence it is proved beyond doubt that the Kurumbars were the very

old inhabitants of Tamil land. However, the validity of Oppert's findings is

objectionable when it comes to the question of identifying these Kurumbars with

the Kallars, on the basis of references of Kallars as Kurumbars in some documents

and the worship of the Kurumba goddess Viralakshmi by the Kallars of the

Pudukkottai district.31

After all, Tamil words are elastic and susceptible of diverse

interpretations. According to Tamil Lexicon the word Kurumban means a wicked

person. No wonder the Kallars who would have proved wicked to their neighbours

might have been referred to as Kurumbans. Regarding the worship of the goddess

of the Kurumbas, it would not have been a matter at all to the Kallars, since they

being poly-theistic in character.

PPaallllaavvaa tthheeoorryy

This theory is advanced by scholars, no less than the Tamil savant

N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar, A. Soma Sundaram and the eminent historian,

V.A. Smith. N.M.Venkatasamy Nattars History of the Kallars is based

essentially on the identification of a Kalvar Koman Pulli of Venkatagiri (modern

Tirupathi in Andhra Pradesh) appeared in Sangam literature as a Kallar. He

31. Gustav Oppert , Op. cit., p. 257.

30

inclines to the view that the Kallars had a regal status in northern Tondaimandalam

from ancient times and were reduced to the status of feudatories when the Pallavas

conquered their territory. To him the similarity of the Pallava titles and those of

certain modern Kallar clans especially of the Kallars of Thanjavur district such as

Thondaiman, Pallavarayar, Kadavar, Sethibar etc. go a long way in proving the

link between the two.32 A. Somasundaram supplements it by his claim that on the

fall of the Pallava dynasty, their descendants lost their occupation as soldiers and

took to other occupations. While the fortunate settlers of the fertile areas took to

farming, their unfortunate brethrens who settled in dry and infertile areas took to

pillage, undeniably an easier means of livelihood.33

As far as V.A. Smith is concerned, he holds the view that the

Pallavas were a tribe, class or caste which was formed in the Northern part of the

existing Madras Presidency possibly in the Vengi country between the Krishna and

the Godavari. The persistent hostility of the Pallavas to the territorial Tamil states

and the fact that tradition does not assign any territorial limits to the Pallava

dominion are clear indications that the Pallavas were distinct in race from the

Tamils. According to constant tradition their rule was super-imposed upon that of

32. N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar, Kallar Charithram (Tamil), Nadukkaveri, Tiruchirappalli, 1923, pp. 20-42. 33. A. Soma Sundaram, Kallarum, Kallar Abhiviruthiyum (Tamil), Vittuvan A. Shanmuga Sundaram,

Thanjavur, 1956, pp. 8-9.

31

the Rajas of the Pandya, Chola and Chera countries, which covered the whole area

of the South. In the subsequent lines, the point Smith tries to drive home is that

the Pallavas were a mixed race of many predatory clans who governed and welded

them together into an aggressive force.34 Thus the Pallava race must have been

cosmopolitan in character just like the Rajput race which included all those who

had war as their profession i.e., the Kshatriyas. This hypothesis is testified by the

view of Sir Walter Elliot who feels that the Kallars, a predatory clan, with their

bold, indomitable and martial habits resembled more the ancient Pallavas in their

characteristics.35 Perhaps that could have been the reason for the cultural and

religious semblance between the Kallars and the other predatory clans such as the

Nagas, the Kurumbas, the Kalabhras etc. The Raja of Pudukkottai, a tributary

principality, who was the recognised head of the Kallars styled himself Raja

Pallava (Tondaman), claiming descent from the ancient royal family.36 Gradually

the Pallava power declined and the later Pallava Chiefs sank into the position of

mere feudatory nobles and officials in the service of the territorial kingdoms. By

the close of the 17th century, all traces of the Pallavas as a distinct race disappeared

and their blood is now merged in that of the Kallars, Palli, Vellalar castes.37

34. V.A. Smith, The Early History of India, IV ed., Oxford University Press, London, 1967, p. 466. 35. V.A. Smith, Op. cit., p. 492. 36. Ibid., p. 493. 37. Ibid.

32

The last sentiment partakes of the nature of an ex cathedra utterance

and Smith nowhere elucidates how he has arrived at that positive conclusion.

Regarding the foregoing, only two remarks seem necessary. Firstly the mere fact

that there had been persistent hostility between the Pallavas and the Tamil

Kingdoms need not necessarily connote different racial origins where there is no

other testimony on the point. Secondly it has not been shown of the Pudukkottai

Raja claiming lineal or racial descent from the Pallavas. But it would appear that

the name Pallava must have had its origin still further south than imagined by

Smith and implied a ruling dynasty and not a mere tribe or clan. It is difficult to

assert if the Vellalar or Kallar in South India claim any relationship with the

Pallavas.38

CChhoollaa tthheeoorryy

C. Sivanandi Servai39 and P. Muthu Thevar40 claim that the

Kallars are the descendants of the Cholas and hold that the Agambadiyars, Kallars

and Maravars who form the Mukkulathor jati-cluster, are the descendants of the

early Tamil Regal Trinity the Chera, Chola and Pandya respectively. But they

38. Indian Antiquarry, Vol. III ,The Journal of Oriental Research ,The Educational Societys press, Bombay, 1923, p. 80.

39. C. Sivanandi Servai , Muvendra Kula Charithai (Tamil), Muvendra Kula Publishing House, Madurai, 1940, p. 31.

40. P. Muthu Thevar, Op. cit., pp. 104 - 106.

33

have failed to substantiate their claims with solid evidences and thereby making it

appear as a tall claim. However there is a possibility for the inference that it is the

Cholas who have been misnamed Kallar. It is pertinent and necessary to bring to

light that the foreign historians like William Taylor in Vol. I & II of Oriental

Historical Manuscripts and Robert Sewell in Vol.I of the Archaeological

Survey of Southern India have misspelt the word Chola and the word Cholan

transliterated as soren has been misinterpreted in its current meaning of Kallar or

thief. Contributory to the above misinterpretation is the name assigned to one of

the Chola kings, Kalvar Koman after whom the name Kalla in modified form must

have arisen. Further the General History of Pudukkottai State also adds strength

to the aforesaid hypothesis. It states that the Raja of Pudukkottai was the head of

the great Kalla and robber caste of South India, mentioned in the edicts of Asoka.

Confirmatory of the fact is the detail given in the same history of eleven more

tribes that settled there along with Tondaman whose cognomens, with very many

others, are in common use with this community, Tondaman being not a title or

rank but a family name, borne by many ryots of the Tondaman Stock.41

KKaallaabbhhrraa tthheeoorryy

This theory has been analysed by many historians who speak for and

against the Kallar Kalabhra identity. Learned Tamil scholars like

41. S. Radha Krishna Iyer , Op. cit., p. 117.

34

M. Rajamanickam42 and Paramasivanantam43 trace the Kallar descent from the

Kalappirar (Kalabhras) who came from beyond the northern frontiers and ruled

the Tamil land for about three centuries, from the middle of the third century to the

end of the sixth century A.D. Thus they attribute non-Tamil identity to the

Kalappirar. But R. Gopalan, despite his positive note on the Kallar Kalabhra

descent, considers them as a set of Tamil speaking people living on the frontier of

the Tamil country, rather predatory in character accustomed to cattle-lifting and

thereby flourishing upon it as a profession and these people were Kalabhras in

Sanskrit and later Kallar in Tamil.44 Mayilai Sreeni Venkatasamy disagrees with

the view that Kallar and Kalappirars were one and the same. He identifies the

Kalappirars with the Vakatakas of Kannada region.45 Raghavaiyangar, another

Tamil scholar, agrees with the first part but holds that Kalappirar were Tamil

speaking population that lived by farming.46

42. M. Rajamanickam, Pallavar Varalaru (Tamil), Then Indiya Saiva Siddhanta Nur Padhippuk Kazhagam, Tirunelveli, 1944, pp. 37, 43.

43. Paramasivanantam , Tamizhkkalai Varalaru (Tamil), Tamizhkkalai Padhippakam, Chennai, 1972, p. 178.

44. R. Gopalan, Pallavas of Kanchi, Madras University, Madras, 1928, p. 28. 45. A. Ganapathy, Op. cit., p. 38. 46. Ibid.

35

S. Krishnaswamy Iyengar also subscribes to this theory and states

emphatically that the Kalabhras were none but the Kallars of old Tamil poetry. He

holds the view that the Kalvar or Kalavar flowed to the South under the Pallava

pressure, leaving their habitat in Tondaimandalam viz. Kanchipuram which was

converted into a Pallava territory, reached south Arcot and Tanjore and there

presumably putting an end to the Tamil Sangam civilisation as Kalabhra. Finally in

the anarchy, following the decline of the Cola State (Chola), they established

themselves in the frontier region between the Cola and Pandya Kingdoms

Pudukkottai whose Kallar sovereign assumed the title Tondaman or Tondaiman.47

He also tries to substantiate his theory by adding that the word Kallar is the

synonym of the term Kalvar. Kalvar was usually written in ancient manuscripts

without the dot on the head of l became Kalavar which turned into Kalabar,

Kalabara, Kalabhara and ultimately Kalabhra.48 This KallarKalabhra etymology

is strongly refuted by M. Arunachalam who has done an extensive research on

this subject. Since in Sanskrit the word Steya denotes 'Kalvar', the need to

Sanskritize the word is rendered unnecessary. He has also arrived at the conclusion

that the place of the origin of the Kalabhras was not Venkatam and they have not

descended from Pulli.49

47. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 13.

48. A. Ganapathy, Op. cit., p. 38.

49. M. Arunachalam, The Kalabhras in the Pandya Country and Their Impact on the Life and Letters There, Madras University, Madras, 1979,pp. 26-27.

36

Though Nadana Kasinathan has identified Kalpappunadu, the

modern Shiravanabelagola in Karnataka State, as the original abode of the

Kalabhras, he identifies the Kalabhras with Kalvar in the strength of the inscription

at Ponnivadi in Coimbatore district.50

Amidst the divergent views on the origin of the Kallars, it is

impossible to arrive at an unassailable conclusion. This aspect is an enigmatic and

intricate one, worth dining into by a researcher who could focus attention on this

aspect alone.

EEttyymmoollooggyy ooff tthhee tteerrmm KKaallllaarr

Mystery continues as to how and when this Kallar community came

to be called so. Different interpretations of the derivation and meaning of the word

Kallar have been put forth.

Comale, a Tamil writer, opines that the word Kal means to collect

secretly. Since the Kallars had originally served the Tamil Kings as spies and

collected information secretly, they might have been called so.51 This view is

endorsed by the Ramanathapuram district gazetteer which says as advance guards

50. Nadana Kasinathan , Kalabhirar (Tamil), Publisher not traceable, 1981, p. 6. 51. Comale, Ramanathapuram Mavattam (Tamil), Pari Nilayam, Madras, 1972, p. 89.

37

and spies, the Kallars formed an important section of the armies of the Tamil

Kings and collected information about enemies secretly for their masters.52

Muthu Thevar claims that the Kallars originally lived in Marutham

or agricultural area and were called Kalamar meaning agriculturists which might

have got corrupted into Kallar subsequently.53 But Sivanandi Servai slightly

differs. To him, the word Kalamar is the derivation from the word Kalam meaning

battle-field. So in all probability, Kalamar were battle-field soldiers. In course of

time it would have been corrupted into Kallar.54

N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar feels that the Tamil word Kallan means

a dark person and also an enemy who seizes others property. In view of their dark

colour and hostile nature, the Aryans must have used the word Kallan to the

ancient Tamilians.55

But this kind of explanation of the meaning of the word is not

acceptable to some others who equate the word Kallan to thief. B.S. Baliga says

the name Kallan literally means a thief and there is ample evidence to show that

until recently they continued as professional robbers and thieves.56

52. A. Ramasamy, Op. cit., pp. 137 - 138. 53. P. Muthu Thevar, Op. cit., pp. 75-76. 54. C. Sivanandi Servai, Op. cit., p. 58. 55. N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar, Op. cit., p. 60. 56. B.S. Baliga, Madras District Gazetteers: Madurai, Govt. of Madras, 1960, p. 116.

38

N. Subramanian is of strong opinion that the Kallars were never

soldiers of an organised army. According to him the word Kallars literally means

robbers since they lived by banditry, under the pretext of their 'more hilly and less

fertile' lands.57 Gustav Oppert also expresses the same view. He strongly believes

that as the Kallars made themselves obnoxious by their theft and robberies, the

term Kallan (thief) was applied and stuck to them as a tribal appellation.58

M.A. Ghani also states that in view of their thieving habits, the

name is very justly applied to them.59

The idea of associating this community with thieves or robbers, as

meant by the word Kalla in several southern languages, is repudiated by Nelson in

his Madura District Manual wherein he says that they having been after fearful

struggle and bloody massacres, immigrants from Tondaimandalam and settlers

from southern parts from whom sprang a large community struggling for

independence and imbued with a bold independent spirit which they never failed to

evince.60

57. N. Subramanian, Sangam Polity : The Administration and Social Life of the Sangam Tamils, Asia Publishing House, Bombay, 1966, p. 143.

58. Gustav Oppert , Op. cit., p. 257. 59. Muhammad Abdul Ghani, Notes on the Criminal Tribes of the Madras Presidency, Thompson & Co.,

Madras, 1915, p. 74. 60. J.H. Nelson, Op. cit., p. 44.

39

Sir Athelstane Baines feels that though it is probable that the

original meaning of the name Kallan was different, in view of the absence of any

other suitable alternative, the interpretation is unfortunately justified by the history

and habits of the caste.61

However according to Ganapathy, there is difference in meaning

between the words Kalvar and Kallar. The word Kalvar definitely means thief as it

is derived from the root word Kal meaning theft or robbery. But the word Kallar is

closely related to words found in Sangam works such as Kalam, Kalamar,

Kalathavar etc. which denotes one who is closely attached to the field. In the

Sangam age, under the Tamil Regal Trinity, there were many feudatories. One

among them was Pulli of Venkatam, a feudatory of the Chola. He was a bounteous

patron and was the chief of the Kallar clan. Apart from him, there were many other

chieftains and Zamindars among the Kallars. The Raja of Pudukkottai was a Kallar

chieftain of a later date. Such was the decency and decorum and hence the name

Kallar might not have represented a thieving caste.62

All the above interpretations, however plausible, do not convincingly

bring home how a community came to be named that way neither dignifying nor

61. Sir Athelstane Baines, ed., Ethnography (Castes and Tribes), Indian rpt., Concept Publication, Delhi, 1976,p. 47.

62. A. Ganapathy, Op. cit., p. 31.

40

relishing and susceptible of a debasing interpretation. The saying that tho;e;jhd; tho;e;jhd; tho;e;jhd; tho;e;jhd;

nnnnfl;lhy; tiu fl;lhy; tiu fl;lhy; tiu fl;lhy; tiu NNNNahl;Lf; fhfhd;ahl;Lf; fhfhd;ahl;Lf; fhfhd;ahl;Lf; fhfhd; is familiar to all meaning that a mud pot

worshipped and respectably carried on the priests head and used for divine

adulations is cast away as refuse when broken, implies all the heart rending

degradations, a subject class will be put to. It is to be borne in mind that what goes

by the name of diplomacy among fighting Rajas and Kings will be summarily

disposed of as rebellion, mutiny and theft in the case of clans or individuals.

Likewise, a community once served the Kings and Emperors as vanguards, risking

their lives came to be denounced as thieves, robbers, dacoits, culler, colleries etc.

At this juncture, it would be worthwhile to throw some light on the

nature of the duty of the different sections of the army. It is believed that the army

of the Pallava was divided into three sections kalla padei or a corps for

reconnaissance and harassment; the mara padei, the main body i.e., field soldiers

and the aga padei, the guard or garrison force. This arrangement was borrowed by

the Tamil Regal Trinity.63 In ancient India, when the chief wealth, even of the

kings consisted in the number of herds of cattle, many of the battles were fought

for the sake of cattle wealth. Thus cattle were synonymous with wealth in Vedic

society. In Rig Veda, the character of Indra has been depicted as that of an

unscrupulous war leader of the pastoral people, an ideal king of later times,

63. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 12.

41

plundering one district after another for the sake of cattle wealth.64 Consequently

cattle-lifting was celebrated as one of the popular themes of the early Tamil

literature such as Tolkappiyam, Ahananuru, Purananuru etc. It became so

popular that it was elevated to the level of science by grammarians who had

framed the modus operandi. From that it could be gleaned that the King sent his

vanguards to capture the cattle of his enemy before starting a major war.65 In

Purapporul Venbamalai, the process has been described vividly. While engaging

in cattle raids the raiders used to wear garland of vetchi flowers (Ixora Coccinia)

and so cattle raid was called Vetchippadalam. The rescue operation involved

attempts to recover or recapture the lost cattle and repel the raiders. Since the

rescuers used to wear garlands of Karantai flowers (a species of Basil), the

operation was called Karantaippadalam.66

Besides Tolkappiam and Purapporul Venbamalai, Purananuru and

Akananuru also contain many references of such cattle raids.67 From Akananuru it

is evident that lifting of cattle took place in the early hours of morning and the

rescuing operation during late night.

64. N.N. Bhattacharya, Ancient Indian Rituals and Their Social Contents, Publishers not traceable, Delhi, 1975, p. 28.

65 . Tolkappiam Purattinai, 2. 66. Purapporul Venbamalai Stanza 6. 67. Purananuru: 257 265; 269, 270, 279 etc. Akananuru: 97, 105, 309, 338, 372, etc.

42

Thus cattle-raid was employed as a conventionalised signal for

warfare and for that purpose, a section of the Maravars i.e., the warrior class who

were known for maram meaning valour and agility were deployed. Since they had

to execute their operation stealthily, in all probability, they might have been

branded as kalla padei, originating from the root word kal meaning to collect

secretly. Later on with the fall of the kingdoms this community lost its occupation

as soldiers. And they fell into evil days. These victims of the situation had the

justification to employ their expertise to earn their livelihood, making many

interpretations mentioned above justified. However, logically speaking,

N.M.Venkatasamy Nattar is pretty right when he asserts the fact emphatically that

if the term Kallar is a derogatory one, no community on earth would have come

forward to assume it as their renowned title.

It will thus be seen that the word Kallar far from signifying felon,

will mean a class whose ways are inscrutable, the how and the wherefore whereof

will become unintelligible. Since the term, when shorn of its venom, becomes

dignifying and honorific so much so, that one of the Chola kings was called Kalvar

Koman and a Pandya as Kalvar Peruman Tennan.

What is more wondrous and funny is that a so called Tamil proverb,

not found in any old writings, - fs;s kwtd; mfk;gfs;s kwtd; mfk;gfs;s kwtd; mfk;gfs;s kwtd; mfk;gbbbbad; nks;s nks;s ad; nks;s nks;s ad; nks;s nks;s ad; nks;s nks;s

43

te;J nts;shsd; Mdhte;J nts;shsd; Mdhte;J nts;shsd; Mdhte;J nts;shsd; MdhNNNNdddd meaning a Kallan may come to be a Maravan. By

respectability, he may develop in to an Agamudaiyan and by slow and small

degrees become a Vellala, from which he may rise to be a Mudaliar68 has been

given currency as an indication of the social upward movement of the Kallars as an

affluent caste.

Owing to lack of proper knowledge about the position of the Kallars

who had never been inferior in status to the other two, the metamorphoses might

have been misinterpreted by the foreigners. With proper knowledge about the

community, it would not be wrong to interpret the social transformation thus a

thievish Maravan (Kallar vanguard) became a respectable Agamudiyan

(Kavalkarar) during times of peace and settlement, slowly and surely became a

Vellala, (agriculturist) denoting his agricultural status.

SSeettttlleemmeenntt ooff tthhee KKaallllaarrss iinn MMaadduurraaii DDiissttrriicctt

There is a unanimous view among the historians that the Kallars

were not the natives of Madurai district but only settlers who came from the north.

But whence they came is still a matter of dispute.

N.M.Venkatasamy Nattar comes out with a view that Tiruvenkatam in

Tondaimandalam must have been the original abode of the Kallars, and from there

68. Edgar Thurston, Op. cit., p. 63.

44

they were brought down to the south by one Pandya king called Kalavar

Perumakan Tennan during the Sangam Age i.e., by the second century A.D.69

Gustav Oppert slightly differs from him. Though he accepts

Tiruvenkattam as their original abode, he opines that they left it because of a

famine and migrated to the south.70

Francis tries to establish that the Chola country or Tanjore was their

original abode and from there they migrated to the Pandya Kingdom following its

subjugation by the Cholas around 11th century A.D.71

Louis Dumont is making a reference to another version (on the basis

of census 1901) that a Cola (Chola) princess brought the reconnaissance section or

Kalla padei as dowry for her marriage with a Pandya. More modestly it is said that

the Kallars have spread out from the east to the west from Tanjore towards

Madurai and this could have been due to a victory of the Colas over the Pandyas.72

Nelson points out a tradition in Madurai district in which the pseudo-

Pandyas, the sons of Abhirami, the dancing girl of Kalayar Kovil, brought a few

Kallars from the Chola country to operate against the Government. From then on

the Kallars migrated in waves and grew numerous in Madurai district.73

69. N.M. Venkatasamy Nattar, Op. cit., p. 44. 70. Gustav Oppert, Op. cit., pp. 258 - 260. 71. W. Francis, Census of India, 1901, Part I, Govt. Press, Madras, 1902, p. 158. 72. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 12.

73. J.H. Nelson, Op. cit., p. 48.

45

Turnbull gives out yet another account of the Kallar settlement in

Madurai. To him, the original abode of the Kallars was Vellanadu (Valanadu) near

Kancheepuram. On a hunting expedition, they came down to the south with a pack

of hounds. They were astounded at the fighting spirit displayed by a peacock and

took it as a clue for a fortunate land and settled in that place which they thought

was ideal for valiant hunters and served the Vellalas who were the Lords of the

soil. In due course, they grew mighty and gradually encroached on the prerogatives

of their masters and ousted them and also setup their own independent rule over

the newly acquired territory by the singular appellation of Tun Arasu Nadu i.e., a

country governed by themselves.74

Regarding the settlement of the Kallars on the western part of

Madurai district, Francis and Nelson put forth two different views. According to

Francis, a section of the Kallars of Melur travelled westward beyond the

Nagamalai and drove out the Vedars from there and settled. This section only

came to be known as Piramalai Kallars.75 But Nelson inclines to the view that

about the year 1640, the Madurai king Tirumalai Nayak appointed certain Kallars

of Melur as Kavalkarars and granted them the right to collect kaval fees from

74. T. Turnbull, "Account of Cullaries," Prefaced to B.S. Ward, Memoir of Madura and Dindigul, Vol. III, Madurai Collectorate, 1895, p. 6.

75. W. Francis, Madras District Gazetteer, Madurai, Govt. Press, 1906, pp. 93-94.

46

Tirumbur area near Madurai in consideration of their protecting it from robbery

and deeds of violence. Relying up on this grant, the recipients encroached in to the

district step by step until at last they and their descendants penetrated as far as the

village of Anaiyur and firmly established there. With the passage of time, they

grew isolated from the parent stock and were distinguished as Anaiyur or Mel

nadu Kallars.76

Another elucidation is forthcoming from Ganapathy as that the

Kallars, originally belonging to the Venkatam region, migrated southward through

Kanchipuram up to the south western region of Pudukkottai state and settled in and

around Ponnamaravathi area. From there the second stage of expansion took place,

one in the direction of Melur region and the other of Tanjore. From Melur further

expansion took place westward and it was the settlement of the Piramalai Kallars

on the western side of the city, Madurai. He also tries to substantiate it through the

relationship between the Melur Kallars and Anaiyur Kallars. The Piramalai Kallars

alias Anaiyur Kallars even today regard the Melur Kallars as their elders and give

respect to them in their Panchayats and other celebrations.77

In the absence of any other record for their settlement in Madurai,

these theories cannot be put to cavalier dismissal. It is suffice to conclude that a

76. J.H. Nelson, Op. cit., p. 47. 77. A. Ganapathy, Op. cit., p. 48.

47

section of the Kallars from the north came down to the south and settled in

Madurai district.

SSuubb--CCaasstteess aammoonngg tthhee KKaallllaarrss

There are various sub-castes or sub-divisions with various names

among the Kallars. But no special significance can be attached to these names

except for the regions they live in. The following are the most important among

them.

EEssaa NNaattttuu KKaallllaarrss

The Kallars who live in the Thanjavur region are called Esa Nattu

Kallars. These people, blessed with fertile delta lands with copious water, have

thrived well economically. Also with their contacts with the Brahmins who lived

in large numbers in this region earlier, their outlook has undergone a drastic

change. They have become more conformists and refined and this has made them

look with scorn their Madurai brethren who are still unrefined and coarse in their

outlook.78 The Esa Nattu Kallars customs, rites and rituals have a Brahmanical or

Vellala semblance till date.

78. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 15.

48

SSeerruuvvaassaall KKaallllaarrss

The Kallars of Pudukkottai region call themselves so.

TThheerrkkaattttiiyyaarr

The Kallars who live in Sivagangai region call themselves

Therkattiyar meaning people of the south.

VViissaanngguu NNaattttuu KKaallllaarrss

Those Kallars living in Trichirappalli go by the name Visangu Nattu

Kallars. They have many things in common with their brethren Esa Nattu Kallars.

AAmmbbaallaakkaarraa KKaallllaarrss

Kallars living in the Melur taluk of Madurai district are known as

Ambalakara Kallars or Melur Kallars.

PPiirraammaallaaii KKaallllaarrss

These Kallars are mostly concentrated in the Usilampatti and

Thirumangalam taluks of Madurai district. Thus in Madurai alone the Kallars are

divided into two endogamous groups, territorial in origin.

((ii)) KKiillnnaadduu KKaallllaarr oorr eeaasstteerrnn ccoouunnttrryy KKaallllaarrss

Commonly known as Melur Kallars or Ambalakara Kallars, they

generally use the agnomen Ambalam and sometimes use the agnomens Servai and

Thevar also.

49

((iiii)) MMeell NNaadduu KKaallllaarrss oorr wweesstteerrnn ccoouunnttrryy KKaallllaarrss

These Kallars are commonly called as Piramalai Kallars. In some old

records they are referred to as Anaiyur Kallars which place was the strong hold of

the Piramalai Kallars during the early years of their settlement.79 Invariably the

Piramalai Kallars use only one agnomen Thevar.

These territorial divisions were made with Nagamalai, a hill near

Madurai as the dividing line. Those Kallars who lived in the east of the Naga hills

were denominated the Kil nadu Kallars and those who lived in the west of the hills

Mel nadu Kallars or Piramalai Kallars. Earlier members of these divisions did not

inter-marry though it is not the case today.

EEttyymmoollooggyy ooff tthhee tteerrmm PPiirraammaallaaii KKaallllaarr

Divergent views have been advanced with regard to the derivation of

the name Piramalai Kallar.

Some Piramalai Kallars are of view that Piranmalai, (mountain of the

piran, Lord Venkatachalapathy of Venkatam region), a hill situated at 12

kilometres north of Singampunari in Ramanathapuram, was their original abode.

This hill, referred to as Parambumalai in the Sangam literature, reached the zenith

79. W. Francis, Op. cit., p. 93.

50

of its glory during the rule of its chieftain Pari, known for his munificence. So

catholic was the philanthropy of this patron that at the sight of a jasmine creeper

struggling hard for support, left his car at its proximity for the tendril to spread on

and walked back home. This Parambumalai of Pari in course of time got changed

into Piranmalai.80 It is also believed that during the westward movement the Melur

Kallars first settled at this place and so were known by this name.

However as Louis Dumont opines, it is unlikely, in view of the

location of this Piranmalai, i.e., 20 miles further east at the eastern edge of the

ambalakkarar area to be their original abode since the villages they left were very

close to Madurai.81

Another interpretation is forwarded by C. N. Natarajan, in his thesis

on the Marriage, Kinship and Clan system of the Piramalai Kallars, that the

word Piramalai is the distorted form of the word Puramalai which means

beyond the hill. As these people lived beyond (west of) the Nagamalai, were called

Puramalai Kallars, which again is colloquially, pronounced as Pramalai Kallars

or Pera malai Kallars.82

One more interpretation by an educated Piramalai Kallar is that since

the Melur Kallars claim Alagar hills which falls into their territory as their own,

80. Dhina Thanthi (Tamil), Madurai edition, December 3,2002. 81. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., p. 16. 82. C.N. Natarajan, Piramalai Kallars of Tamil Nadu. A study of Their Marriage, Kinship, and Clan

System, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Madurai Kamaraj University, 1978, p. 32.

51

with a view to ascertain their ownership of the rest of the hills, other than Alagar

hills such as Nagamalai, Pasumalai, Puthurmalai etc., they might have called

themselves Piramalai Kallars.83

Of all the afore-said theories, the most logical, comprehensive and

sagacious one seems to be that of C.N. Natarajan since their settlement area is

distributed in and around Nagamalai hills, especially to the west of Nagamalai.

HHaabbiittaatt ooff tthhee PPiirraammaallaaii KKaallllaarrss

Muthu Thevar has defined the Piramalai Kallar territory as an area

extending from the Tiruparankpundram hills in the east to the Western Ghats in the

west and from the Nagamalai hills in the north to the river Guntar in the south.84

Sivanandi Servai has defined the Piramalai Nadu as a territory

which included 4 Tevars, 3 Gods, 8 Provinces and 24 secondary villages.85 Louis

Dumont has defined their territory thus - "The Kallar Nadu consists roughly of the

northern part of Tirumangalam taluk, one of the taluks making up Madurai district.

Its northern boundary is marked by a range of hills called Nagamalai, In fact the

Kallar overflow this boundary on to the northern slope of the hills, but do not reach

83. Personal interview with Prof. M. Namasivayam, aged around 55,a Piramalai Kallar and Librarian, T.N. State Archives Library, Chennai, on February 20,2006, at Chennai.

84. P. Muthu Thevar, Op. cit., p. 148.

85. C. Sivanandi Servai, Op. cit., p.64.

52

the river From east to west, one enters Kallar country beyond a village called

Pudukkottai, about six miles from Madurai, To the south, the town of

Tirumangalam is beyond the border, but the Piramalai Kallar has spread widely to

the south west across the road from Thirumangalam to Usilampatti. Thus the

Kallar Nad is a rectangle about eighteen miles by ten, crossed by just three roads.

The east to west road from Madurai to Usilampatti; the south east-north west road

from Tirumangalam to Usilampatti, and the south-north road from Tirumangalam

to Colavandan, (Cholavandan) intersecting first at Chekkanurani. We could add a

rather marginal road in the west, running from Usilampatti south.86 This was their

traditional habitat.

Thus this Kallar Province or the area of the Piramalai Kallar did not

have a precise territorial definition and its boundaries were mostly blurred.87

Now the Piramalai Kallars are found chiefly in Usilampatti and

Thirumangalam taluks. As these two taluks represent the area of concentration of

the Piramalai Kallars, they form the focal area of the Piramalai Kallars habitat and

are deemed to constitute the Kallar Nadu. The Kallar Reclamation Section of the

Madurai district Collectorate has made a rough estimate of the number of the

86. Louis Dumont, Op. cit., pp. 16-18. 87. Ibid.

53

Piramalai Kallars for the year 1975 which works out about 3.5 lakh.88 However

subsequently it has estimated the Piramalai Kallar population as 7.85 lakh in

1993.89 A small number of them have spilled over to Srivilliputhur taluk of the

neighbouring Ramanathapuram district.

The other aspects of the community will be dealt with in detail in the

subsequent chapters.

88. Brief Notes on the Kallar Rec