Spring 2006Qualitative Research--Simpson1 What is Qualitative Research? A holistic approach to questions--a recognition that human realities are complex

Spring 2006 Qualitative Research--Simpson 1

What is Qualitative Research? A holistic approach to questions--a

recognition that human realities are complex. Broad questions.

The focus is on human experience The research strategies used generally

feature sustained contact with people in settings where those people normally spend their time. Contexts of Human Behavior.


Qualitative Research cont. There is typically a high level of

researcher involvement with subjects; strategies of participant observation and in-depth, unstructured interviews are often used.

The data produced provide a description, usually narrative, of people living through events in situations.

Cited from Boyd, pp. 67-68 in Munhall, 2001


Types of Qualitative Data

1. Interviews

2. Observations

3. Documents


Types of Qualitative Data1. Interviews

Open-ended questions and probes yield in-depth responses about people’s experiences, opinions, perceptions, feelings and knowledge.

Data consist of verbatim quotations with sufficient context to be interpretable.


Types of Qualitative Data cont.

2. Observations Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors,

actions, conversations, interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or any other aspect of observable human experience.

Data consist of field notes: rich detailed descriptions, including the context within which the observations were made.


Types of Qualitative Data cont. 3. Documents

Written materials and other documents, programs records; memoranda and correspondence; official publications and reports; personal diaries, letters, artistic works, photographs, and memorabilia; and written responses to open-ended surveys.

Data consists of excerpts from documents captured in a way that records and preserves context.


Qualitative Traditions of Inquiry

1. Biography--Life history, oral

history2. Phenomenology--The lived

experience3. Grounded theory4. Ethnography5. Case Study


Biographical Study

The study of an individual and her or his experiences as told to the researcher or found in documents and archival material.

Life history--The study of an individual’s life and how it reflects cultural themes of the society.


Biographical Study cont.

Oral history--The researcher gathers personal recollections of events, their causes, and their effects from and individual or several individuals.

The researcher needs to collect extensive information about the subject of the biography


Biographical Study cont.

The writer, using an interpretive approach, needs to be able to bring himself or herself into the narrative and acknowledge his or her standpoint.


Phenomenology

Describes the meaning of the lived experience about a concept or a phenomenon for several individuals.

It has roots in the philosophical perspectives of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre, Merleau-Ponty, etc.

--Max Van Manen, Munhall (Nursing)


Phenomenology

Moustakas, 1994, p. 13: “to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.”


Grounded Theory

Based on Symbolic Interactionism which posits that humans act and interact on the basis of symbols, which have meaning and value for the actors.


Grounded Theory cont.

The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theory is especially useful



Usually have a question, don’t do a literature review in the

beginning.

Usually do 20-30 interviews (maybe more than one time for

each person)



Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously, until “saturation” is reached.

Data reviewed and coded for categories and themes.


Grounded Theory cont. Data analysis generates a visual picture, a

narrative statement or a series of hypotheses with a central phenomenon, causal conditions, context and consequences.

The researcher needs to set aside theoretical ideas or notions so that analytical or substantive theories can emerge from the data.

Systematic approach


Ethnography A description and interpretation of a

cultural or social group or system. The researcher examines the group’s observable and learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life.

Involves prolonged observation of the group, typically through participant observation.


Ethnography

Field Work Key Informants Thick description Emic (insider group perspective) and

Etic (researcher’s interpretation of social life).

Context important, need holistic view. Need grounding in anthropology.


Ethnography cont.

Need extensive time to collect data

Many ethnographies may be written in a narrative or story telling approach which may be difficult for the audience accustomed to usual social science writing.


Ethnography cont.

May incorporate quantitative data and archival documents.


Case Study

A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.

The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic.


Case Study cont.

Data collection strategies include direct observation, interviews, documents, archival records, participant observation, physical artifacts and audiovisual materials.

Analysis of themes, or issues and an interpretation of the case by the researcher.


Designing a Qualitative Study

Problem Statement or Statement of Need for the Study

No hypothesis; Research questions which you want to answer instead.

Opinions differ about the extent of literature needed before a study begins.

Need to identify the gaps in knowledge about the topic.


Qualitative Study Design cont.

Research questions that are too broad: Does Buddhism account for the

patience that seems to dominate the Thai world view?

How do leaders make their decisions?



Research questions better answered by quicker means:

What television programs do Brazilians watch most?

Where can you buy postage stamps in Italy?



Examples of Qualitative Questions What do people in this setting have to know in

order to do what they are doing?

What is the story that can be told from these experiences?

What are the underlying themes and contexts that account for the experience?


Qualitative Sampling Strategies

No probability sampling


Sampling Strategies cont.Decisions about sampling and

sampling strategies depend on the unit of analysis which has been determined. individual people program, group organization or

community genders, ethnic groups, older and

younger


Sampling Strategies cont. Purposeful or Judgment Sampling

“In judgment sampling, you decide the purpose you want informants (or communities) to serve, and you go out to find some” Bernard, 2000:176

“Key Informants” are people who are particularly knowledgeable about the inquiry setting and articulate about their knowledge.


Sampling Strategies cont.

Purposeful Sampling Strategies Maximum variation Homogeneous Critical case Theory based Confirming and disconfirming cases



Snowball or chain Extreme or deviant case Typical case Intensity Politically important cases Random purposeful



Stratified purposeful Criterion Opportunistic Combination or mixed Convenience


Qualitative Data Collection

Rather than developing an instrument to use, the qualitative researcher is the instrument.

Recording data: Field notes, tape recorders, video and photographic data

Interviews must be transcribed.


Fieldwork Strategies and Observations

“In the fields of observation, chance favors the prepared mind.” Louis Pasteur

“People only see what they are prepared to see.” Ralph Waldo Emerson


Fieldwork Observations

Learn to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear what there is to hear.

Practice writing descriptively Acquiring discipline in recording field

notes Knowing how to separate detail from trivia

to achieve the former without being overwhelmed by the latter.


Fieldwork Observations cont.

Use rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations.

Reporting strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-knowledge and self-disclosure.

Participant observer or onlooker or both


Qualitative Interviewing

1. Informal conversational interview

2. Interview guide approach

3. Standardized open-ended interview

4. Closed, fixed-response interview


Qualitative Interviewing cont. Sequencing questions Use words that make sense to the people

being interviewed. Ask truly open-ended questions Avoid questions which can be answered

with a yes or no. One idea per question. Be careful with Why questions.


Qualitative Data AnalysisWhen does analysis begin? During

data collection.Thick description is the foundation

for qualitative analysis and reporting.Organize the data. Read all the data

and get a sense of the whole.Coding for recurring themes and

categories


Qualitative Data AnalysisComputer-assisted qualitative data

management and analysis Ethnograph NUD*IST (Non-numerical Unstructured

Data With Indexing, Searching and Theorizing) QSR N6 and QSR NVivo

ATLAS.ti


Qualitative Data AnalysisCoding dataFinding PatternsLabeling ThemesDeveloping Category SystemsLooking for emergent patterns in the

data


ReferencesBernard, H.R. (2000). Social Research Methods:

Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Creswell, J.W. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Munhall, P.L. (2001). Nursing Research: A Qualitative Perspective, 3rd Edition. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett

Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods, 3rd Edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage