State of the Birds 2011

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The State of the Birds 2011

Report on Public Lands and Waters

United States of America


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FOREWORDPublic Lands and Waters Are Essential for BirdsEach year, the State of the Birds report provides important scientic datato a broad audience with a call to action to improve the conservation status

of birds and the environment. This years report brings aention to thetremendous promise of public lands and waters for conserving Americaswildlife and habitats. The United States has a long history of conservationon public lands. More than one-third of U.S. lands and all of our oceans arepublicly owned, including some of our nations most spectacular natural ar-eas. These habitats support more than 1,000 bird species, one-third of whichare endangered, threatened, or of conservation concern.

In 1864, President Abraham Lincoln established Yosemite as the rst parkset aside by the federal government specically for public use and preserva-tion. As environmental exploitation continued across unprotected lands,the Passenger Pigeon, once the worlds most abundant bird, was driven toextinction in the wild by the turn of the century. Recognizing that this loss

meant mankind was just so much poorer, President Theodore Rooseveltchampioned the irreplaceable value of birds and other wildlife, and setaside 80 million acres for public land conservation, including the rst Na-tional Wildlife Refuge in 1903.

Today, more than 850 million acres of land and 3.5 million square miles ofocean are publicly owned, including more than 245 million acres managedby the Bureau of Land Management, 6,000 State Park units, 1,600 MarineProtected Areas, 550 National Wildlife Refuges, 350 military installations,150 National Forests, and nearly 400 National Park Service units. Theseareas support our native bird species, many of which are declining, as de-scribed in the 2009 and 2010 State of the Birds reports.

This years report provides the nations rst assessment of the distributionof birds on public lands and helps public agencies identify which specieshave signicant potential for conservation in each habitat. This assessmentused high-performance computing techniques to analyze a massive data seton bird distribution from citizen-science participants across the U.S. eBird,along with the rst comprehensive database of public land ownership Pro-tected Areas Database of the U.S..

The state of our birds is a measurable indicator of how well we are doing asstewards of our environment. The signal is clear. Greater conservation ef-forts on public lands and waters are needed to realize the vision of a nationsustained economically and spiritually by abundant natural resources andspectacular wildlife.

President Obamas new initiative, Americas Great Outdoors, recog-nizes that throughout our nations history, conservation actions have beengrounded in the premise that our natural heritage belongs to the people,

and that its protection is shared by all Americans. The call to action forbird conservation in this report goes hand in hand with Americas GreatOutdoors, which empowers all Americans to share in the responsibility toconserve, restore, and provide beer access to our lands and waters in orderto leave a healthy, vibrant outdoor legacy for generations yet to come.

North American Bird Conservation Initiative, U.S. Committee

American Bird Conservancy

Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies

Bureau of Land Management

Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Department of Defense/DoD Partners in Flight

Klamath Bird Observatory

National Audubon Society

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

National Park Service

The Nature Conservancy

University of Idaho

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

USDA Forest Service

U.S. Geological Survey

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OVERVIEWThe State of our Nations Birds on Public Lands and Waters

Nearly 850 million acres of land and 3.5 million square miles of ocean in theU.S. are owned by the American people. These habitats are vital to morethan 1,000 bird species in the U.S., 251 of which are federally threatened, en-dangered, or of conservation concern. More than 300 bird species have 50%or more of their U.S. distribution on public lands and waters. Public agen-cies therefore have a major inuence on the success of conservation eortsto restore declining species and keep common birds common.

This report provides the nation's rst assessment of the distribution of birdson public lands and the opportunities for public agencies in each habitat.We combined bird distribution data from the eBird citizen-science projectwith the Protected Areas Database of the U.S. to determine the percentageof each species U.S. distribution on public lands. We focus on habitat obligates,those species restricted to a single primary habitat. We also did a qualitativeanalysis for birds in oceans, coasts, and wetlands.

The results highlight the critical role of public agencies in bird conservationas well as urgent needs for increased protection and management. Conser-vation and management of habitats and birds on public lands and waters,in partnership with private eorts, are essential to prevent the extinctionof entire suites of island species, to buer forest and aridland species fromurban development and agriculture, to provide vital resources for severelydeclining ocean birds, and to balance our nations need for resources fromlogging, mining, and energy extraction with conservation in all habitats.

The Gold Standard: Wetlands Protection and ManagementOur nations acquisition and management of wetlands have contributed toa notable increase in wetland bird populations in the past 40 years. Na-tional Wildlife Refuges provide a network of 150 million acres managed for700 bird species, including millions of ducks, geese, and shorebirds. TheNational Park Service and other public land managers in Florida protect thenations largest freshwater marsh system, the Everglades, providing essen-tial habitats for millions of wetland birds.

Oceans and Coasts: Vital Habitats for BirdsAll U.S. marine waters are publicly owned and are home to 86 ocean birdspecies and 173 coastal species. Declining seabird and shorebird popula-tions indicate stress in these ecosystems. Public agencies play an importantrole in conservation by managing threats such as invasive species on islandswith nesting seabirds, interactions with sheries, human disturbance anddevelopment, and pollution. More than 1,600 Marine Protected Areasconserve essential areas for many birds. Publicly owned islands and coastsprovide protected areas for numerous birds of conservation concern.

Islands Essential for Nation's Most Endangered BirdsOne-third of all birds listed under the Endangered Species Act occur inHawaiì, more than anywhere else in the United States. Public lands areessential to save species that are in danger of extinction in Hawaiì, PuertoRico, and other U.S. islands. Public lands in Hawaiì support 73% of the dis-tribution of declining forest birds and the entire world populations of sever-al endangered species. Intensive management is critical, such as removal ofinvasive species, especially on the 85% of state lands that are open to usesincompatible with bird conservation. In Puerto Rico, species such as thePuerto Rican Parrot would be extinct if not for their protection on federaland commonwealth forestland.

Percentage of public and nonpublic ownership in primary habitats. Coasts and marshes are not depictedbecause of insucient data.

Public and Nonpublic Lands and Waters

Percentageofowner

ship

0

20

40

60

80

100

Grass-

lands

Eastern

Forest

IslandsSub-

tropical

Forest

Arid-

lands

Mexican

Pine-Oak

Forest

Western

Forest

Boreal

Forest

Arctic

and

Alpine

Oceans

HabitatPublic Land

Nonpublic Land

S G B A N W R, N M, M R

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Public Lands Protect Vast Arctic Tundra and Boreal ForestsAlaska has nearly as much public land as the rest of the U.S. combined.Arctic, alpine, and boreal forest-breeding birds in Alaska have more than90% of their U.S. distribution on public lands, including 12 shorebird spe-cies. Although these vast public lands provide habitat for millions of birds,greater protections from habitat degradation are needed to ensure healthybird populations, especially in lowland tundra, where only 6% of public

land is protected to maintain natural habitats.

Stewardship Opportunities in Aridlands and ForestsPublic lands support more than half of the U.S. distribution of aridland andwestern forest bird species during the breeding season, indicating enor-mous stewardship opportunities for public agencies. The Bureau of LandManagement is the primary steward of habitat for Gunnison and Greatersage-grouse and other sagebrush-dependent species. The USDA Forest Ser-vice is the largest single manager of U.S. forests and supports at least 50%of the distribution of eight western forest species.

Grasslands Underrepresented on Public LandsGrassland birds are among our nations fastest declining species. The per-centage distribution of grassland birds on public lands is low because sucha small amount of U.S. grassland less than 2% is both publicly owned andmanaged primarily for conservation. Grassland bird conservation should bea higher priority on grasslands with multiple uses.

Eastern Forests Need Greater Protections from DevelopmentPublic lands in the East are often the largest blocks of remaining forest inrapidly developing urban landscapes. Expanding the network of protectedlands is important for bird populations. National Parks, National Forests,

and state-owned forests support core populations of eastern birds. Im-proved management is key for declining species that require young forests.

Public Agencies: Stewards of Our Nations BirdlifeThe vast acreages of public lands and waters, and proven successes intargeted conservation eorts, indicate tremendous promise for birds ifmanagement eorts can be amplied in all habitats. The Bureau of LandManagement BLM manages 245 million acres from the arctic tundra tosouthwestern aridlands. The Department of Defense DoD manages moreendangered and imperiled species per acre on its 30 million acres than anyother federal agency. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-

tion NOAA manages coastal and deep ocean waters needed by some of

the worlds most endangered seabird populations. The National Park Ser-vice NPS manages 88 million acres of public lands and waters in all majorbird habitats across 394 units, including National Parks, National Monu-ments, National Seashores, and National Recreation Areas. State agenciesmanage 189 million acres, including more marsh than all other agenciescombined. The USDA Forest Service USFS manages 193 million acres,23% of which are protected to maintain habitats for birds. The U.S. Fish andWildlife Service USFWS administers 553 National Wildlife Refuges that

are essential for wetland birds, including many imperiled species.

Effective Management is Key to Healthy Bird PopulationsAlthough birds benet in part because most public lands are protected fromresidential and commercial development, increased protections and moreeective management of habitats and bird populations are essential. Natu-ral processes must be restored to ensure functional and resilient ecosystemsthrough management actions such as control of nonnative species and dis-eases, prescribed cuts and burns to reinvigorate forests and grasslands, andwater delivery and management to sustain wetlands. Many of these needsare expected to intensify because of climate change. All agencies are facedwith the challenge of balancing needs for resource extraction, energy devel-

opment, recreation, and other uses with the growing urgency to conservebirds and other wildlife. To succeed, they will need additional resourcesand greater public support to increase land protection and management.Beer collaboration among agencies will also increase the eectiveness ofpublic lands management for birds that migrate across political boundaries.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of bird species dependent on public lands in each primary terrestrial

habitat in the United States.

Bird Distribution on Public Lands

Percentage

ofd

istribution

0

20

40

60

80

100

Sub-tropicalForest

EasternForest

Grass-lands

Arid-lands

WesternForest

MexicanPine-Oak

Forest

BorealForest

Arcticand Alpine

Habitat

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

StateAgencies

Public agency

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NoteworthyPublic lands are very important for theconservation of aridland bird species;

more than half of U.S. aridlands are

publicly owned.

Public lands are especially important

for Gunnison Sage-Grouse, a candidate

for listing under the Endangered Spe-

cies Act, with 79% of its U.S. distribu-

tion on public lands.

Nearly 90% of the public lands on

which aridland birds occur are pro-tected against conversion to agricul-

ture and urban development to some

degree.

However, the majority of these lands

permit activities known to degrade

habitats for birds, including energy

development, grazing, mining, and log-

ging, so active management is needed

to protect vulnerable species.

Aridland Birds on Public LandsAridlands include some of our countrys mostunique habitats: all of our deserts, sagebrush,chaparral, and other habitats characterized by alack of precipitation and a highly variable climate.Thirty-nine percent of aridland bird species areof conservation concern and more than 75% ofaridland species are declining. About 18% of theU.S. is aridlands, 56% of which is publicly owned.An average of 51% percent of the U.S. distributionof 36 obligate aridland bird species is on publiclyowned lands during the breeding season and 54%

during winter.Gunnison Sage-Grouse, a candidate for listingunder the Endangered Species Act, is more de-pendent on public lands than any other aridlandspecies, with 79% of its distribution on publiclands. Sage Sparrow and Le Contes Thrasher alsohave more than 75% of their distribution on publiclands during the breeding season. In contrast, theendangered Black-capped Vireo has just over 7%of its distribution on public lands.

Four land managers BLM, USFS, states, and NPSare responsible for more than 90% of the arid-

land bird species found on public lands duringthe breeding season, highlighting the vital rolethese agencies play in bird conservation. BLMlands are particularly important for sagebrushbirds, supporting more than two-thirds of the U.S.distributions of Sage Thrasher, Sage Sparrow, andBrewers Sparrow during the breeding season.USFS lands are important for many species, espe-

cially Wrentit in coastal chaparral, with 63% of thebreeding distribution on public lands. State landsare important for Rufous-winged Sparrow, withmore than 50% of the species distribution on pub-lic lands. NPS lands are important for some desertspecies, such as Lucifer Hummingbird, Califor-nia Condor, and Bendires Thrasher. DoD landsgenerally do not support a large proportion of thedistribution of aridland species but are extremelyimportant for California Gnatcatcher, with almost46% of the species distribution on public lands.

Nearly 90% of public lands on which aridlandbirds occur are protected to some degree frommajor threats such as conversion to agricultureand urban development. For lands managed un-der multiple-use mandates, energy development,mineral exploration and production, livestockgrazing, and other uses are permied but needto be analyzed for their ability to support wild-life conservation. Most management plans thatfocus on natural ecosystems in public aridlandsallow for re and other natural processes that areessential for the long-term survival of many birdspecies.

Conservation SuccessesAlmost 46% of the distribution of the CaliforniaGnatcatcher on public lands is found on DoDlands such as Camp Pendleton. In the past twodecades, DoD has spent more than $9 million onconservation for this threatened species. Althoughthe USFWS has designated nearly 200,000 acres of

Coastal ecosystems includecoastlines, nearshore islands,

nearshore waters, estuaries, andtidally-inuenced sections ofrivers and creeksproductivehabitats for abundant wildlife.

ARIDLANDSPublic Lands Support More than Halfof the Distribution of Aridland Birds

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Public lands are essential for the conservation of aridland birds. Continual

management will be needed to protect vulnerable species on multiple-use lands.

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critical habitat for the species, management plansfor military lands already address gnatcatcherconservation priorities and are excluded fromcritical habitat designation. Therefore, militarytraining lands provide a refuge for the CaliforniaGnatcatcher without sacricing training activities.

BLMs Carrizo Plain National Monument in Cali-fornia and nearby saltbush scrublands providethe last strongholds in this region for Le ContesThrasher whose habitat has been largely con-verted to agriculture and oil elds. In the MojaveDesert, the BLM has secured the two largesthabitat blocks as the Bendires Thrasher Area ofCritical Environmental Concern and is developinga management plan.

Captive-bred California Condors were releasedback into the wild in California in 1992 and inArizona in 2006. Six birds were transferred fromcaptive breeding facilities to an acclimation penon top of the Vermilion Clis and were releasedto the wild. Since then, program personnel havereleased approximately six to ten birds per year.There are now more than 70 condors in Arizonaand Utah, mostly in Grand Canyon National Park,Zion National Park, and Glen Canyon NationalRecreation Area.

Conservation ChallengesGiven the high proportion of aridland birds onpublic lands, management actions will be ex-tremely important in maintaining these speciesnationally. However, only about 20% of these landsare protected to maintain natural habitats, suggest-ing that many of these publicly owned aridlandsand their birds remain vulnerable to a variety ofthreats. Land uses that potentially degrade habi-tat for aridland birds are permied on the greatmajority of public-use lands. These include energydevelopment and associated infrastructure, o-

road vehicular trac, grazing, mining, and logging.Although many land uses can be compatible witharidland bird conservation, management plans forthese vulnerable landscapes need to incorporatemeasures to ensure long-term healthy populationsof aridland birds.

Key challenges that will require active aen-tion and management by public land managersinclude control of invasive plant species; keepingre and other forms of disturbance within normallimits; promoting natural paerns of plant suc-cession; and helping birds and other biodiversity

adapt in the face of climate and land-use change.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 36 aridland-breeding bird species on public vs. nonpubliclands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

31% 3%

22%

5%

1%9%

49% on

NonpublicLand

51% onPublic Land

3%

11%

Aridland Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

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NoteworthyMore than 97% of the native grasslands

of the U.S. have been lost, mostly be-

cause of conversion to agriculture. As a

result, grassland bird populations have

declined from historic levels far more

than any other group of birds.

Although only 13% of remaining grass-

land is publicly owned, public lands

support 17% of the U.S. distribution of

breeding and 20% of wintering grass-

land-dependent birds, indicating the

value of public grasslands to birds.

Forty-four percent of the U.S. winterdistribution of Bairds Sparrow (a spe-

cies of conservation concern) is on

public land.

More public grasslands specifically pro-

tected for birds and other wildlife are

needed. Grassland bird conservation

should be a higher priority on public

grasslands with multiple uses.

Acquisition and restoration of native

grasslands are critical to provide larger

habitat patches and movement corri-

dors for bird population sustainability,

especially in the face of climate change.

Grassland Birds on Public LandsGrassland birds are among the most consistentlydeclining species in the United States. Forty-eightpercent of grassland-breeding bird species are ofconservation concern, including four with endan-gered populations.

More than 11% of the contiguous 48 states is na-tive grassland, with an additional 7% in pasturesand hayelds. Of these 366 million acres of nativegrasslands, pastures, and hayelds, only 13% ispublicly owned. Of the 36 obligate grassland birdspecies 20 in both seasons, 9 species only during

the breeding season, and 7 only in winter, 17%of their distribution during the breeding seasonand 20% during winter are found on public lands,indicating the value of public grasslands to birds.

Six grassland species have more than 30% of theirU.S. distribution on public lands in winter: BairdsSparrow, Ferruginous Hawk, Lark Bunting,Rough-legged Hawk, McCowns Longspur, andWestern Meadowlark. All except Bairds Sparrowuse BLM lands more than any other public land.All of these birds are western species, reectinggreater public ownership in the West compared

with the East.Only three grassland species have more than 30%of their distribution on public lands during thebreeding season: Long-billed Curlew, FerruginousHawk, and Mountain Plover. These western birdsinhabit BLM lands more than any other landsmanaged by a single agency.

Four grassland species have 5% or less of theirdistribution on public lands: breeding Dickcissels,Scissor-tailed Flycatchers, and Eastern Meadow-larks, and wintering Harriss Sparrows. All of

these are predominantly found in the Midwest, instates with much less public land compared with

those farther west.

We have not included row-crop agricultural landsin this report because although they cover almostas much acreage as grasslands, only 3% of row-crop land is publicly owned. In addition, row-crop lands provide lile quality habitat for birds.However, a few grassland birds breed in row-cropelds, and many more winter in them.

Conservation SuccessesFerruginous Hawk, one of three breeding specieswith more than 30% of its distribution on publiclands, is one of the few grassland species with anincreasing population trend over the past 40 years.

The Bartel Grassland Restoration Project has suc-cessfully restored grassland birds on Cook Countypublic lands near Chicago, Illinois. Invasive trees,such as box elder and buckthorn, were removedfrom the site. Soon after, birds such as Grass-

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GRASSLANDSGreater Protections Needed inAmericas Heartland

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hopper and Henslows sparrows, meadowlarks,

Bobolink, and Short-eared Owl increased. Whencomplete, the site will include 900 acres of re-stored grassland and wetlands.

Conservation ChallengesOnly 13% of U.S. grassland is publicly owned, lessthan 14% of which is protected to maintain natu-ral habitats. Thus, less than 2% is both publiclyowned and managed primarily for conservation.Sixty-three percent of publicly owned grasslandis protected from conversion to other uses, but issubject to multiple-use demands, and the re-

maining 22% is unprotected from developmentor conversion. Fortunately, grassland birds cancoexist with other uses, such as livestock graz-ing, if habitat is managed with birds in mind. Forexample, grazing animals and grassland birds areboth threatened by invasive plants that diminishthe quality of grassland, so livestock owners andconservationists share an interest in combatinginvasive plants. Management practices such as

burning, grazing, and mechanical intervention to

resist invasion by woody plants can benet bothlivestock and birds.

Proper siting of energy development projects onpublic lands is critically important to grasslandbirds, including gas, oil, solar, and wind, as wellas roads and transmission lines required to deliverpower from the source to the end-user. Theseprojects cause habitat loss and degradation; inaddition, many grassland bird species have beenshown to avoid areas near tall structures in other-wise suitable habitat.

Grassland has always been undervalued as wild-

life habitat. The percentage of grassland birds onpublic lands is low because such a small amountof U.S. grassland less than 2% is both publiclyowned and managed primarily for conservation.More public land specically protected for grass-land birds is needed, and a higher proportionof multiple-use lands should be managed withgrassland birds in mind.

Grassland birds are among our nations fastest declining species,yet only 2% of all U.S. grassland is both publicly owned and managed

primarily for conservation.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 29 grassland-breeding bird species on public vs. nonpublic lands (left).Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

31% 3%

6%

1%

4%5%83% on

Nonpublic

Land

17% onPublic

Land

1%

Grassland Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

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NoteworthyAll of our nations 46 waterfowl species

and many other wetland birds de-

pend on a network of National Wildlife

Refuges and other publicly protected

wetlands during all or part of their life

cycle.

Wetland birds often congregate in the

highest quality habitats, such as Na-

tional Wildlife Refuges and other public

lands.

According to the USFWS, National

Wildlife Refuges in the Prairie Pothole

Region account for less than 2% of the

landscape yet produce nearly 23% of

the regions waterfowl.

The NPS Everglades National Parkand adjacent public lands and waters

in Florida protect the nations largest

freshwater marsh system, providing

essential habitat for significant resident

and wintering marsh bird communities.

Wetland bird populations have in-

creased steadily as a result of focused

and ongoing wetland habitat protec-

tion, restoration, and management.

Wetland Birds on Public LandsMillions of ducks and geese gather on publicwetlands every year, providing tremendousrecreational opportunities for hunters and birdwatchers. In the mostly arid western U.S., largeprotected wetlands around Great Salt Lake andthe Salton Sea support millions of migratory andwintering shorebirds and waterfowl and breedingmarsh birds. These include species of high con-servation concern such as Clarks Grebe, SnowyPlover, and Yuma Clapper Rail.

All federal land agencies manage some wetlands.

The USFWS and many state wildlife agenciesprioritize wetlands for acquisition and manage-ment because of their value for waterfowl. Thesewetlands are typically managed in an integratedmanner that provides habitat to benet other birdsand wildlife.

At Everglades National Park and adjacent pub-lic lands in Florida, the NPS protects the largestextent of freshwater marsh in North America,supporting millions of wetland birds. BLM man-ages boreal forest wetlands and wet arctic tundrain Alaska that are essential for nesting waterfowl,

loons, and shorebirds.

Wetland birds often congregate in the highestquality habitats. Public lands generally havegreater infrastructure and management capacityto improve wetland quality and thus can supportmore wetland birds on fewer acres than on non-public lands lacking such infrastructure.

For example, in the Prairie Pothole Region, con-sidered the duck factory for North America,National Wildlife Refuges account for less than2% of the landscape, yet they are responsible forproducing nearly 23% of the regions waterfowl.

Conservation SuccessesThe overall health of waterfowl and otherwetland-dependent bird populations in the U.S.reects the huge investment in wetlands conserva-tion by federal and state agencies over the past 30years.

Since the 1930s, the USFWS has targeted theacquisition, enhancement, and restoration ofwetlands and associated habitats to conservewaterfowl and other migratory bird populations.Since 1934, Federal Migratory Bird Hunting andConservation Stamps Duck Stamps have gen-erated funds to purchase or lease more than 5.3million acres of wetland habitat, now protected inthe National Wildlife Refuge System.

Since 1989, the North American Wetlands Conser-vation Act has provided funds to federal and stateagencies in the United States to acquire, enhance,and restore an estimated 2.9 million acres of wet-lands and associated uplands for birds.

The National Wildlife Refuge System includesnearly 7,000 Waterfowl Production Areas WPAsthat preserve vital wetlands and grasslands for

millions of nesting waterfowl and other wildlife.

WETLANDSA Model for Conservationon Public Lands

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These WPAs preserve more than 677,000 acres ofwetlands nationwide. Incorporated into the refugesystem in 1966, nearly 95 percent of WPAs are inthe Prairie Pothole Region. The 1991 requirementfor nontoxic shot has greatly contributed to therecovery and health of waterfowl throughout theUnited States.

Goose Pond State Fish and Wildlife Area once wasthe largest corneld in Indiana. In 2005, the stateof Indiana acquired it and restored marsh habitat.It now supports many species, including breed-ing Blue-winged Teal and Black-crowned Night-Herons, and thousands of migrating waterbirdsand waterfowl such as Sandhill Crane, GreatEgret, sandpipers, and ducks. Hunters, anglers,bird watchers, and photographers now enjoy thisproductive wetland.

Conservation Challenges

Freshwater is vital to the productivity of marshesand other freshwater wetlands, but it is also high-ly valued in agricultural and urban landscapes.The demand for freshwater by multiple constitu-encies creates a management challenge. On pub-licly protected wetlands, managing water levels tobenet birds can be dicult if water is diverted ordepleted in the surrounding landscape.

S E USFWS

A related challenge is the need to beer protectmosaics of temporary and seasonally ooded wet-lands such as playa wetlands for migrating shore-birds that need to rest and refuel as they approachbreeding destinations. Additionally, the overallsupply of freshwater is predicted to decrease inthe future because of climate change.

Nonnative plants have invaded wetlands, caus-ing profound changes in wetland composition,structure, and function, which can have a negativeimpact on many species of birds. For example,bird diversity is lower in wetlands dominated bypurple loosestrife, which has invaded many wet-lands throughout the Midwest.

Most publicly owned wetlands are protected fromdevelopment, but may be aected directly byother uses e.g., contaminant runo and sedimen-tation, grazing eects, dredging, disturbance.Such incompatible uses degrade the value of this

habitat for wetland birds. A conservation priorityon public lands is to increase the protection levelof marshes.

Waterfowl are fortunate to have strong, proactivefederal programs that preserve wetlands. Pesticideuse for mosquito control in wetlands should becarefully managed to avoid wildlife impacts suchas the spread of disease.

Continued investment in wetland conservationand management will be needed to maintainhealthy populations of birds in the face of grow-ing threats such as water diversions, intensied

conversion of wetlands in urban and agriculturallandscapes, and loss of federal protections forisolated wetlands.

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Public land acquisition, including the establishment of National Wildlife Refuges,has targeted wetland and waterfowl conservation since the 1930s,

contributing to recovery of bird populations.


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NoteworthyPublic lands are crucial for arctic and

alpine birds. They support 86% of

the U.S. distribution of these species,

higher than for birds dependent on any

other terrestrial habitat.

Only 6% of lowland tundra on public

lands in northern Alaska is protected

to maintain natural habitats. Ensur-

ing protection for birds on these lands

should be a priority for state and fed-

eral agencies.

Climate change and energy develop-

ment pose significant challenges in arc-

tic habitats, which are vital to many of

our nations shorebirds and waterfowl.

ARCTICANDALPINEPublic Lands Support 86% of Arcticand Alpine Bird Distribution

Arctic species breeding in northern Alaska tend tohave more of their breeding range on public lande.g., 95% for Stilt Sandpiper than species breed-ing exclusively in western Alaska, such as theEmperor Goose 64%.

In the contiguous 48 states, the ve alpine-breed-ing species have 76% of their average distributionon public lands. About 91% of alpine habitats inthe contiguous 48 states is publicly owned; 70%is managed by the USFS and is important for theconservation of White-tailed Ptarmigan, AmericanPipit, and Black, Browned-capped, and Gray-crowned rosy-nches.

Within Alaska, ownership is more evenly dis-tributed among federal agencies and the stateof Alaska; the state manages 18% of the averagedistribution of arctic and alpine species. Together,BLM and USFWS lands are important for arcticand alpine birds, with 54% of the distribution ofthese species. BLM lands alone support more than

Arctic and Alpine Birdson Public LandsAlpine and arctic landscapes range from thesubtle to the spectacular. They constitute 44% ofall lands within Alaska but just 1% of lands in thecontiguous 48 states, mostly in the West. Publiclands are important for the conservation of breed-ing arctic and alpine birds86% of arctic andalpine habitats are publicly owned and support86% of the U.S. distribution of arctic and alpinebird species. Of the 59 species inhabiting primar-ily arctic or alpine habitats, 23 are of conservation

concern.Eighteen species, all of which occur within Alaska,have more than 90% of their distribution on publiclands, and 10 are of conservation concern. Publiclands are especially important breeding groundsfor arctic-nesting Yellow-billed Loons and alpine-nesting Surirds.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 59 arctic- and alpine-breeding bird species on public vs. nonpubliclands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

31%

11%

3%

23%

18%

86% on Public Land

14% onNonpublic

Land

Arctic and Alpine Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

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40% of the distribution of the King Eider, Long-billed Dowitcher, Snowy Owl, and Bluethroat.Virtually all breeding McKays Buntings occur onislands in the Bering Sea managed as part of theAlaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge.

Conservation Successes

In 1980, President Jimmy Carter signed the AlaskaNational Interest Lands Conservation Act intolaw. Considered the most signicant land conser-vation measure in U.S. history, the statute protect-ed more than 100 million acres of federal lands inAlaska, doubling the size of the countrys Na-tional Park and National Wildlife Refuge systems.The act consolidated and expanded public owner-ship within the Yukon Delta and Arctic NationalWildlife Refuges, which now each include morethan 19 million acres.

In 2008, the BLM elected to defer for 10 years

any oil and gas leases in the National PetroleumReserve Alaska surrounding Teshekpuk Lake.The tundra around the lake provides one of thelargest known arctic goose molting areas in NorthAmerica for 70,000 geese of four species and sup-ports high densities of nesting shorebirds such asthe Red Phalarope and the threatened SpectacledEider.

Conservation ChallengesForty-two percent of the distribution of arctic and

alpine birds occurs on publicly owned lands thatare protected to maintain natural habitats. Withinthe arctic, western Alaska has a higher percentageof these protected lands. More importantly, north-ern Alaska has very lile lowland tundra areasthat are managed primarily to maintain naturalhabitats for biodiversity 6% relative to westernAlaska 57%. Lowland tundra in northern Alaska

is important nesting habitat for several speciesof conservation concern, including Bu-breastedSandpiper. Increasing the amount of lowland

tundra managed primarily to maintain naturalhabitats in northern Alaska should be a priorityfor federal agencies and the state of Alaska.

Public lands are crucial for maintaining arctic andalpine breeding bird species. Modications in en-vironmental conditions caused by global climatechange, including sea-level rise, changes in hydro-

logical regimes, and expansion of trees and shrubsinto sedge-dominated tundra and alpine areas, areperhaps the most challenging long-term threats

facing arctic and alpine birds. Balancing the needfor energy development with the conservationneeds of birds is a continuing challenge on publiclands in arctic Alaska. Although more than half ofall alpine public lands in the contiguous 48 statesis protected to maintain natural habitats, alpinelands can take years to recover from mining, graz-ing, and recreation disturbances.

A key priority is to improve management of lowland tundra in northern Alaska,

where only 6% of public land is protected to maintain natural habitats.

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Forest Birds on Public LandsDiverse U.S. forests harbor more than 300 breed-ing bird species. Nearly 40% of the U.S. land areais forested 856 million acres. Roughly one-thirdof the forests in the lower 48 states and 87% ofAlaskan forests are on public lands, with a muchhigher proportion of publicly owned forests inthe West than in the East. The largest single landmanager is the USFS, with 147 million acres orroughly 40% of all publicly owned forests. Othersignicant managers of public forestlands arestate agencies, with 95 million acres 26% and the

BLM, with 63 million acres 17%.Public lands support 45% of the U.S. distributionof the 149 obligate forest bird species. Speciesgroups with more than two-thirds of their U.S.distribution on public lands and therefore thegreatest conservation opportunities include birdsof high-elevation, Pacic-Northwest, and borealconifer forests, as well as those in pinyon-juniperwoodlands and pine-oak forests of the Southwest.Groups with less than 10% of their distribution onpublic lands include species restricted to subtropi-cal forests in south Texas and many common, yetsteeply declining, species dependent on early suc-cessional eastern forests.

Public lands often represent the largest unfrag-mented forests in many regions, and are thereforevery important to the long-term health of for-est bird populations. Management policies thatcan enhance or restore declining species that arehighly dependent on public lands more than 50%of their distribution are especially important.

Stewardship Opportunities

Forty-ve percent of public forests are man-aged for multiple uses. Although these lands are

NoteworthyThe largest single forestland manager

is the USFS, with 147 million acres or

about 40% of publicly owned forests.

Roughly 33% of public forests, mostly

on NPS lands and Wilderness Areas, is

protected to maintain natural habitats,

offering greater benefits for some bird

populations. Other birds will benefit

from more effective management on

multiple-use forestlands.

Public lands support 45% of the breed-

ing distribution of 149 obligate forest

bird species in the United States.

Public forests are crucial for the recov-

ery of endangered species, including

Kirtlands Warbler, with 97% of its U.S.

distribution on public lands.

Public agencies need more resources

and tools to achieve vital conservation

actions for forest birds, such as restor-

ing natural fire regimes and manag-

ing the proliferation of invasive insect

pests and diseases.

protected from urban development and clearingfor agriculture, they are often open to energydevelopment, mining, grazing, logging, and otheractivities that may conict with wildlife and othernatural resource values. Roughly 123 million acres33% of public forests, mostly on NPS lands andWilderness Areas, are protected to maintain natu-ral habitats and potentially oer greater benetsfor many bird populations. However, 59% of pub-lic forests in Alaska oer no permanent protec-tions against extraction or conversion.

Major challenges arise chiey from agency man-dates and policies that may conict with the needs

of species of high conservation concern. For ex-ample, the desire to exploit mineral or energy re-sources including wind, or to gain economicallyfrom logging, grazing, or recreational use, needsto be balanced with the desire to provide healthyhabitats for birds and other wildlife. Particularlyharmful to some bird populations are activitiesthat fragment large blocks of forest, such as road-building, or those that remove essential structuralfeatures such as snags, old-growth trees, or ripar-ian corridors. In other cases, management deci-sions that prevent the maintenance of forests of

diverse ages may be harmful to species dependenton young forests.

Perhaps the single greatest challenge for forestmanagers nationwide is the restoration of reregimes as a vital component of healthy forestecosystems. Many forest types, as well as birdsand other wildlife of high conservation concern,require natural re cycles, and a century of un-natural re suppression has created conditionsthat are not only harmful to bird populations, butalso pose grave economic and safety threats to hu-mans. Another huge challenge is the proliferationof invasive species, including plants, insect pests,and diseases that are threatening the future of en-

FORESTSDiverse U.S. Public Forests SupportDiverse Birdlife

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tire forest communities. These threats are increas-ingly exacerbated by a changing climate, as wellas by a rapidly expanding urban-forest interface.Public agencies need greatly increased resourcesand tools for meeting these challenges.

WESTERN FORESTS

Western forests represent some of the last intactecosystems in North America, providing essentialhabitat for many bird species. Western forestsencompass roughly 269 million acres 13% of theland area of the contiguous 48 states, includingpine and other conifer forests, pinyon-juniperwoodland, and oak woodlands of the PacicCoast. An additional 19 million acres of westernforests extend into southeastern Alaska, 62% ofwhich are in two National Forests. Including Alas-ka, 63% of western forests are publicly owned,with 41% in National Forests, 10% on BLM land,5% on state lands, and 3% on NPS lands.

Western Forest Birds on Public LandsPublic lands have tremendous importance forwestern forest birds, supporting 55% of the distri-bution of the 41 obligate breeding species 34% inNational Forests, 11% on BLM lands, 5% on stateland, and 3% on NPS lands.

Public lands support more than 70% of the U.S.distribution of Common Black-Hawk, White-headed Woodpecker, Williamsons Sapsucker,

Clarks Nutcracker, and Sooty and Dusky grouse.Seven western bird species have 50% or more oftheir distribution in National Forests. BLM forestssupport signicant distributions of Gray Flycatch-er 37%, Black-throated Gray Warbler 29%, andPinyon Jay 27%.

California oak woodland specialists Oak Tit-mouse, Nualls Woodpecker, Yellow-billed

Crucial to the long-term health of bird populations, public lands are often

the largest blocks of unfragmented forest in many regions.

Magpie have much smaller distributions onpublic lands 1025%. The lack of protections foroak woodlands in Pacic states is a signicantconservation challenge, aecting many plantand animal species in addition to birds. The twomost endangered western forest species, Golden-cheeked Warbler in Texas and Island Scrub-Jay inCalifornia, have among the lowest percentages ofU.S. bird distributions on public land.

Conservation SuccessesRiparian forest bird populations have increaseddramatically in response to restoration of 5,000

acres of riparian forest since 1998 on the Sacra-mento River National Wildlife Refuge and ad-jacent California Fish and Game lands. In 1987,cale were removed from portions of BLMsSan Pedro River National Conservation Area inArizona, resulting in dramatic regeneration ofriparian vegetation and increases in many riparianforest bird populations.

Active management in National Forests hasimproved habitat for western forest birds. Forexample, prescribed re treatments implementedby USFS in the Inland Northwest have createdhabitats for Black-backed, American Three-toed,and White-headed woodpeckers in locations thatwere previously unoccupied by these species.Silvicultural practices that promote hardwoodregeneration have beneted shrub-nesting birdssuch as Wilsons and MacGillivrays warblers.

Conservation ChallengesMany western forest bird species depend on conifer

seeds and are threatened by the loss of pines, espe-cially pinyon and whitebark pine, due to spread ofwhite pine blister rust, mountain pine bark beetle,and other invasive pests. These threats are exacer-bated by years of re suppression and by severedrought conditions aributed to climate change.

Policies regarding re suppression, thinningto reduce fuel loads, and post-re logging are

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 41 western forest-breeding bird species on public vs. nonpubliclands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

31% 3%

11%

34%

5%

45% onNonpublic

Land55% on

Public Land3%1%

1%

Western Forest Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

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especially important to many forest birds. Resto-ration of natural re regimes will benet birds ofhigh conservation concern, such as White-headedWoodpecker, that are highly dependent on publiclands. Other public land policies that will benetbirds in western forests include limiting fragmen-tation and clearing for energy extraction, fencingand reduced grazing of riparian forests, protecting

remaining old-growth stands in the Pacic North-west and Sierra Nevada, and expanding protectedareas in California oak woodlands.

EASTERN FORESTSEastern forests encompass 430 million acres, or22% of the land area of the contiguous 48 states,including central and northern hardwoods,mixed-conifer forests, and southern pine forests.Only 15% of eastern forests is publicly owned,much less than in the West. As urban sprawlincreases dramatically, however, large blocks ofpublic forestland are increasingly important forthe long-term conservation of birds. State owner-ship of forests is three times greater in the Eastthan the West, with 31 million acres of state forestlands that are extremely important for the long-term protection of eastern forest birds. More than2 million acres of forest are protected in GreatSmoky Mountains and other National Parks.

Eastern Forest Birds on Public LandsPublic lands support only 15% of the distribution

of the 34 eastern forest obligate breeding species,a much lower percentage than in the West. About6% is on state lands and 6% in National Forests.

Two endangered birds are also the species withthe highest proportion of their geographic distri-bution on public forestland. Ninety-seven percentof the Kirtlands Warblers small breeding distri-bution is on public land, with 56% on state landand 35% in National Forests. Similarly, 90% ofthe Red-cockaded Woodpecker distribution is onpublic land, including 41% in National Forests,29% on DoD land, and 12% on state land. Publicly

managed forests are critical for the recovery ofthese endangered species.

Mature deciduous forest species, such as Ken-tucky and Cerulean warblers, tend to have a high-er-than-average proportion of their distributionon public lands, especially in National Forests.In contrast, common yet steeply declining birdsof shrub-scrub habitats, such as Brown Thrasher,Eastern Towhee, and Field Sparrow, have 10% orless of their distribution on public land. An excep-

tion is the Golden-winged Warbler, one of themost steeply declining songbirds in the U.S., with30% of its distribution on public land, including16% on state land and 12% in National Forests.

Conservation SuccessesOne of the nations most endangered bird species,the Kirtlands Warbler, has increased in numbersand distribution in response to intense manage-ment of jack pine forests on 190,000 acres of Na-tional Forest, National Wildlife Refuge, and statelands in Michigan, including prescribed cuts andres to restore natural conditions. These eortsrepresent successful partnerships among publiclandowners to implement recovery goals underthe Endangered Species Act.

DoD lands in the Southeast have been very impor-tant for the recovery of the endangered Red-cock-

aded Woodpecker. Fort Bragg, North Carolina,was the rst public land unit to reach the popula-tion recovery goal of 350 nesting clusters, and thefrequent res on military lands are compatiblewith healthy woodpecker populations.

Conservation Challenges

As privately owned forests in the East are rapidlylost to urban and exurban development, increas-ing the total area of public forestland will beimportant for maintaining healthy populations offorest birds. Improved management of the urban-forest interface through zoning buers, reductionof deer populations, and control of feral cats andother invasive species will also benet bird popu-lations. Aggressive actions to limit the eects ofnonnative forest pests will be necessary for publiclands to serve as future refugia for birds and otherbiodiversity.

Although many large forest areas are protected onpublic lands, historic recovery of eastern forestsafter a period of vast clearing for agriculture,combined with a century of re suppression, haveresulted in a loss of structural features and agediversity necessary to sustain many birds of highconservation concern, especially those dependent

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 34 eastern forest-breeding bird species on public vs. nonpubliclands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

31% 3%

1%

6%

85% onNonpublic

Land

15% onPublicLand

1%

1%

6%

Eastern Forest Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

1616


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on forest understory and disturbance. Active man-agement to create and maintain early successionalhabitats is vital for the long-term conservationof many declining species, including increasedrestoration of naturally disturbed habitats such aspine-barrens and oak glades.

MEXICAN PINE-OAK FORESTS

Spanning roughly three million acres, the pine-oak forests of the sky island mountains ofsoutheastern Arizona, southern New Mexico,and west Texas are an extension of the forests inMexicos Sierra Madre ranges. Sixty-one percentis on public lands, more than half of which is in

several large National Forests in Arizona and NewMexico. Other signicant public lands include BigBend and Guadalupe Mountains national parks inTexas and Fort Huachuca in southeastern Arizona.

Mexican Pine-Oak Birds on Public LandsMexican pine-oak forests support distinctive birdsthat are primarily Mexican and occur nowhereelse in the United States. Public lands support 61%of the U.S. distribution of the 20 species of obligatepine-oak forest birds, with more than half in Na-tional Forests. In general, species at higher eleva-

tions e.g., Olive Warbler, Mexican Chickadee

and those restricted to sycamore-lined mountain

canyons e.g., Painted Redstart, Elegant Trogonhave the highest proportion of their distributionon public lands, including 4060% of their distri-butions in National Forests.

Species at lower elevations and in drier forestse.g., Mexican Jay, Hepatic Tanager have lowerpercentages of their distribution on public landsthough still 50% or more, with a high percent-age 1015% on BLM land. The entire knownU.S. breeding range of Colima Warbler is in BigBend National Park. DoD lands on Fort Huachucasupport 1015% of the U.S. distribution of several

species in the Huachuca Mountains e.g. Bu-breasted Flycatcher, Elegant Trogon.

All of these birds are at the northern limit of theirdistribution in this region, and although vastpublic lands in the southwestern U.S. are veryimportant, international cooperation with Mexicois essential for their long-term conservation. A ma-jority of the public land in this region is managedfor multiple uses grazing, recreation, militarytraining, forestry, but is protected from residen-tial and commercial development. Big Bend Na-tional Park protects 814,000 acres and is managed

to maintain extensive natural habitats.

Conservation SuccessesAs bird watchers ock to Mexican pine-oak foreststo see primarily Mexican bird species in the U.S.,bird-related tourism adds signicantly to the localeconomy in spring and summer. For example,Cave Creek Canyon in the Coronado NationalForest, Arizona, receives thousands of visitors an-nually, many of who come to see Elegant Trogonsand other species representative of the Mexicanpine-oak forest.

Fort Huachuca in southeastern Arizona hasdeveloped a comprehensive management plan to

protect up to eight pairs of threatened MexicanSpoed Owls, including reducing the impacts ofmilitary activities and managing res. Policies toprotect large expanses of forest also benet the en-tire suite of birds dependent on pine-oak forests.

Conservation ChallengesFire suppression, intensive grazing, and heavyrecreational use are major threats to birds in pub-licly owned pine-oak forests. The altered re re-gime in these forests has resulted in the absence ofsome bird species e.g., Bu-breasted Flycatcher

in mountain ranges where they were considered

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 20 Mexican pine-oak breeding bird species on public vs. nonpubliclands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public agency (right).

31% 3%

6%

1%9%

39% on

NonpublicLand

61% onPublic Land

4%

33%8%

Mexican Pine-Oak Forest Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

17

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Conservation ChallengesMaintaining the distinctive birdlife in subtropicalforests requires increased acquisition of publicland, as well as public-private partnerships to pro-tect and restore forests in south Texas, includingthe lower Rio Grande Valley. The greatest threatsare rapidly expanding urbanization and continued

clearing for agriculture in the U.S. and adjacent ar-eas of Mexico. Increased support for cross-borderinitiatives that include the Mexican governmentand other Mexican partners is essential for meet-ing these regional challenges.

In south Florida, a rapidly expanding urbaninterface, continued spread of invasive plant andanimal species, and proliferation of feral cat colo-nies in public parks present signicant manage-ment challenges. Hardwood hammocks within theEverglades ecosystem are sensitive to uctuatingwater levels and especially to long-term drought

conditions. Restoration of natural hydrology inthis system will benet forest and wetland birds.

common at the turn of the 20th century. With refrequency increasing, Bu-breasted Flycatchersand other re-adapted species are exhibiting dra-matic expansions back into their historical ranges.

SUBTROPICAL FORESTSSubtropical forests occur in the U.S. only in the

southern border states, with roughly 2.7 millionacres primarily in south Texas and the southerntip of Florida. About 40% of U.S. subtropical forestis protected on public land, mostly in Florida, withmore than 200,000 acres of hardwood hammocksin Everglades National Park and Big Cypress Na-tional Preserve. Important public lands in southTexas include the South Texas Refuge Complex120,000 acres and the Bentsen-Rio Grande Valley,Resaca de la Palma, and Falcon state parks alongthe lower Rio Grande Valley.

Subtropical Forest Birds on Public LandsPublic lands support only 8% of the geographicdistribution of the 17 bird species restricted tosubtropical forests in the United States. GrayHawk and Short-tailed Hawk have the largest per-centage of their small U.S. distributions on publiclands. Species with very small ranges in the lower

Rio Grande Valley, including Red-billed Pigeonand Altamira Oriole, have only 23% of their dis-tributions on public lands, primarily on NationalWildlife Refuges and state parks.

Unlike most other forest types, nearly half of thepublic lands supporting subtropical forests aremanaged to maintain natural habitats, providinggreater protection for bird populations. Becausemost subtropical forest birds have large portionsof their distributions within Mexico and the Carib-bean, international cooperation is essential fortheir long-term conservation.

Conservation SuccessesThe Rio Grande Joint Ventureis working on the South TexasRefuge Complex implementa-tion plan, including expandingthe National Wildlife Refugesto their full acquisition poten-tial and conserving forest corri-dors within Mexico, connectingthe lower Rio Grande Valleywith coastal thorn forests near

the Laguna Madre inland tothe Sierra Picachos.

In South Florida, large-scale ef-forts by the NPS, USFWS, andother federal and state part-ners to eradicate invasive treessuch as melaleuca, Australianpine, and Brazilian pepper onpublic lands are essential forimproving the populations ofboth breeding and wintering-migrant birds.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 17 subtropical forest-breeding bird species on public vs.nonpublic lands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each public

agency (right).

31% 3%

4%

92% onNonpublic

Land

8%on Public

Land 1%

1% 1%

1%

Subtropical Forest Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

18

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BOREAL FORESTSAlaska has the largest area of boreal forests inthe nation: roughly 138 million acres or one-thirdof the entire state. Nearly 88% of Alaskas borealforest is publicly owned, with management di-vided among state lands 35%, BLM lands 24%,National Wildlife Refuges 20%, and NPS lands

9%. Much of this boreal forest region of Alaskaincludes a mosaic of important wetland habitats.

Roughly half of the 9.5 million acres of boreal for-est in the lower 48 states is publicly owned, withmore than 2 million acres each of state forestlandsand National Forests. These acreages pale in com-parison with the 800 million acres of boreal forestsin Canada, however, so the future of boreal birdsdepends on international cooperation.

Boreal Forest Birds on Public LandsPublic lands support 69% of the U.S. breedingdistributions of 38 obligate boreal forest species.For 16 species that breed primarily in Alaska,including wetland birds such as Trumpeter Swanand Short-billed Dowitcher, more than 90% of thebreeding distribution is on public lands. In thecontiguous 48 states, 18 obligate species have 34%of their U.S. distribution on public lands.

More than half the U.S. breeding distribution ofBlack-backed Woodpecker, Blackpoll Warbler,and Gray-cheeked Thrush is on state-owned land.NPS lands support more than one-third of thedistribution of Common Loon, Common Golden-

eye, Lesser Yellowlegs, and Great Gray Owl. Morethan 25% of the distribution of Spruce Grouse,Hudsonian Godwit, and Least Sandpiper is onseveral vast National Wildlife Refuges in Alaska.BLM lands in Alaska support more than 20% ofthe distribution of 10 boreal forest species, includ-ing Boreal Chickadee, Trumpeter Swan, and therapidly declining Rusty Blackbird.

ConservationSuccessesNew Yorks AdirondackPark is one of the largestprotected areas in the con-tiguous 48 states, including2.6 million acres of state-owned high-elevation andboreal forests that supportmore than 25% of the U.S.population of BicknellsThrush, a species of conser-vation concern.

In Alaska, the USFWSprotects more than 26 mil-lion acres of boreal forestin several National WildlifeRefuges. With areas largeenough to allow natural

disturbance such as re andooding, these refuges support large populationsof breeding waterfowl such as White-winged Sco-ters, Hudsonian Godwits and other shorebirds, aswell as Spruce Grouse and many other boreal birds.

Conservation ChallengesSpruce bark beetle infestations have aected3 million acres of forests in Alaska since 1989.Unusually mild winters and summers, consistentwith global climate change, have exacerbated the

proliferation of beetles. Climate change also hascontributed to more frequent and larger res inthe Alaska boreal forest and a steady shrinkingof acreage in the United States. Exploration andextraction of oil and natural gas can cause per-manent loss and fragmentation of slow-growingboreal forests. Unlike in Canada, however, large-scale industrial forestry is not a major threat tobird populations in the United States.

Percentage of the U.S. distribution of 38 boreal forest-breeding bird species on public vs.nonpublic lands (left). Breakdown of bird distribution on public lands shown for each publicagency (right).

31% 3%

12%

10%

26%

31% on

NonpublicLand

69% onPublic Land

12%

9%

Boreal Forest Bird Distribution

Breakdown by Agency

StateAgencies

BLM

DoD

NPS

USFS

USFWS

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NoteworthyAmong declining Hawaiian forest birds

on Kauaì, such as Puaiohi and Ànian-

iau, an average of 78% of their distribu-

tion is on state land. Four endangered

species in the Northwest Hawaiian

Islands occur entirely on federal lands.

Eighty-five percent of state land in

Hawaiì is open to uses incompatible

with bird conservation, undermining

efforts to manage, protect, and restore

critically important habitat for endan-

gered birds.

Continued conservation efforts areneeded by DoD in cooperation with

USFWS and NOAAs National Ma-

rine Fisheries Service in Guam and

the Commonwealth of the Northern

Mariana Islands, especially in light of

planned expansion of military bases.

In Puerto Rico, the endangered Puerto

Rican Parrot and Elfin-woods Warbler

are highly dependent on the small

amount of public land. The future ofbirds on public lands depends on coop-

erative projects with adjacent private

landowners and the expansion of pub-

lic protected areas.

Birds on Public Lands in HawaiìOne-third of all birds listed under the Endan-gered Species Act ESA are native to Hawaiì. Tenof these may already be extinct. Public lands inHawaiì are vitally important, with more than 50%of land area under state or federal management.Averaged across Hawaiì, public land supportsabout 73% of the distribution of upland/forestbirds. State lands support 45% of the averageproportion of species ranges, mostly managed bythe Department of Lands and Natural Resources.State lands are particularly important for declin-ing forest birds on Kauaì, with 78% of the distri-butions of species such as Puaiohi and Ànianiau.

In the Northwest Hawaiian Islands, 100% of allendangered Laysan Ducks, Laysan and Nihoanches, and Millerbirds are under federal man-agement. Nearly 50% of high priority wetlands forendangered waterbirds is federally managed inNational Wildlife Refuges NWRs. Recent resto-ration at Hanalei and Huleia NWRs on Kauaì ishaving a dramatic, positive impact on populationsof endangered Hawaiian Duck Koloa, HawaiianCoot Àlae keòkeò, the Hawaiian subspecies ofBlack-necked Stilt Aeò and Common MoorhenÀlae ula, and Nn Hawaiian Goose.

Invasive nonnative species are pervasive problems.Intensive management is necessary, especially fenc-ing and removing grazing mammals such as pigs,goats, and mouon/sheep, and controlling preda-tors such as cats, rats, and mongooses. Haleakaland Hawaiì Volcanoes national parks have beenfenced and nonnative grazing mammals almostcompletely excluded, beneting forest recovery.

The U.S. Army conducts predator control on 250acres of Oàhu Elepaio habitat and the state con-ducts predator control in Palila habitat in MaunaKea Forest Reserve. However, 85% of state land isopen to uses known to be incompatible with birdconservation. The needs of protecting birds listedunder the ESA often come second to managementfor hunting. Proposals to fence land for ungulateremoval often cause agency-public conict overreduced hunting opportunities. Beer outreach isneeded to build public understanding and sup-port for fencing lands important to endangeredbirds and for eradicating nonnative grazing mam-

mals in fenced areas.

Guam, Commonwealth of the NorthernMariana Islands (CNMI), andAmerican SamoaInvasive, nonnative species and military expan-sion are two of the greatest threats to the nineendangered bird species and six other speciesof conservation concern. Nearly 50% of land inGuam and 80% in CNMI is under public manage-ment. The average percentage of bird species

distributions on territorial and federal lands is58% on Guam and 18% on CNMI. Public land isvery important on Rota, CNMI, where 81% of therange of an experimental Guam Rail populationand 69% of the distribution of the endangeredMariana Crow are on territorial land. On Guam,the rail has been extirpated and only two malecrows remain, so Rota populations are essentialfor the species' survival. DoD is the leading fed-

Public lands provide the best opportunities to protect birds throughremoval of exotic invasive plants and animals on islands.

ISLANDSIsland Birds Depend on EssentialBut Sometimes RarePublic Lands

20

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eral land manager in Guam and CNMI, managing20% of the land area, including about two-thirdsof Tinian, CNMI, where the Tinian Monarch, del-isted in 2004, may face new threats from militaryexpansion. The nonnative brown tree snake hasextirpated all native forest birds on Guam, and isa major threat to remaining species if it spreads toCNMI. The DoD-funded Micronesia Biosecurity

Plan is important to identify threats from browntree snakes and other invasive species and to pre-vent their accidental exportation to other islands.It will require concerted eorts from DoD andpartner agencies and organizations to implementappropriate prevention, early detection, and rapidresponses. DoD is also trapping brown tree snakesat cave sites of the endangered Guam Swiftlet.

In American Samoa, 73% of the land is territorialand the NPS is the most signicant federal landmanager, with 27% under lease as the NationalPark of American Samoa. The NPS controls inva-

sive species and monitors bird populations there.An average of 86% of bird distributions is onterritorial land. The Fiji Shrikebill and the Blue-crowned Lorikeet have more than 27% of theirdistribution on NPS-managed land.

In Guam, CNMI, andAmerican Samoa, anongoing challenge isincreasing the amountof land managed forbirds in cultures thatgenerally have a utili-

tarian view of wildlife.In light of plannedmilitary base expansionin Guam and CNMI,continued collabora-tion and cooperationby DoD with USFWSand the National Ma-rine Fisheries Serviceis needed to enhanceconservation.

Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin IslandsWith 16 endemic species and six listed under theESA, these islands give the U.S. a signicant stakein the conservation of West Indian biodiversity.Only 8% of the Commonwealth of Puerto Ricoand 11% in the U.S Virgin Islands USVI are un-der public management. Seventeen percent of the

distribution of forest birds such as the endangeredPuerto Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk and endemicPuerto Rican Tody is protected on commonwealthor federal land. The El Yunque National Forestand commonwealth forests include 97% of theranges of the Puerto Rican Parrot and 51% of theEln-woods Warbler. The average distribution of25 other forest species on public land is just 9%.Among waterbirds such as West Indian Whistling-Duck and White-cheeked Pintail, the percentage ismuch higher, with 44% in coastal commonwealthrefuges and NWRs oering signicant protection.

In Puerto Rico, the commonwealth manages 58%of public land. The USFS is the largest federallandholder, managing 28,242 acres in the ElYunque National Forest. The NPS manages 72% ofpublic land in the USVI as Virgin Islands NationalPark, important for many bird species. In PuertoRico and the USVI, the vast majority of land isprivate and open to development. Wind farm andcell tower construction clear forests important forspecies such as Puerto Rican Nightjar and Eln-woods Warbler. Species with ranges largely onprivate land are especially vulnerable, such as theendangered Plain Pigeon. Their future depends on

cooperative projects with private landowners andincreases in public protected areas.

Conservation SuccessesHanawi Natural Area Reserve and Hakalau For-est National Wildlife Refuge are two of the veryfew sites in Hawai`i where native forest birdsare stable or increasing. Endangered speciessuch as Maui Parrotbill Kiwikiu, Crested Hon-eycreeper kohekohe, kepa, and Hawai`iCreeper benet from intensive ungulate controland reforestation.

On Saipan, CNMI, an upland mitigation bankwas established on territorial land to oset

impacts of development on the endangeredNightingale Reed-Warbler.

In Puerto Rico, the persistence of the PuertoRican Parrot is due almost entirely to provisionof nest boxes, control of predators and competi-tors, and captive breeding and reintroduction inEl Yunque National Forest and adjacent forests.

Shiny Cowbirds in Puerto Rico often lay theireggs in the nests of Yellow-shouldered Black-birds, an endangered species. Intensive controlof cowbirds on Cabo Rojo and Laguna Carta-gena NWRs is improving reproductive success

of the blackbirds and other species.

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NoteworthyCoastal habitats are essential to shore-

birds as they migrate between winter-

ing and breeding grounds. Most impor-

tant stopover sites are publicly owned.

The entire global populations of Salt-

marsh and Seaside sparrows are de-

pendent on healthy U.S. coastal salt

marshes that need public management.

Federal and state lands include 53% of

sites along the Atlantic Coast that sup-

port wintering and migrant Red Knots,

a rapidly declining species.

All coastal inshore waters are publiclyowned. They are important foraging

and resting areas for wintering birds

such as Black Scoters, Common Eiders,

Northern Gannets, and Red-throated

Loons.

Coastal Birds on PublicLands and WatersAlthough coastal areas occupy less than 10% ofour nations land area, 173 bird species rely onthese key habitats, including beaches, intertidalmudats, estuaries, salt marshes, mangroves, andcoastal inshore waters. Half of all coastally migrat-ing shorebirds have declined, indicating stress incoastal habitats. Publicly owned coastal areas aremanaged primarily by the states, BLM, USFWS,NPS, and DoD. Examples of federally managedcoastal areas include National Wildlife Refuges,

National Seashores, and National Monuments.Open beach and intertidal mudats are criticalfor migrating and wintering shorebirds such asRed Knot, Sanderling, and Western Sandpiper.Of 34 sites that support more than 100,000 shore-birds during spring or fall migration, 25 74%are coastal. Ownership of important shorebirdstopover sites ranges from virtually 100% publice.g., Copper River Delta, Alaska; Cape RomainNational Wildlife Refuge, South Carolina to a mixinvolving federal, state, and private conservationorganizations, and private citizens e.g., Delaware

Bay; Laguna Madre, Texas.Beaches are important for nesting birds such asGull-billed Tern and endangered Piping Plover,Snowy Plover, and Least Tern.

Salt marsh habitat is crucial to species such as theSaltmarsh Sparrow, Black Rail, Seaside Sparrow,and endangered populations of Clapper Rail.Activities that aect estuarine wetlands and saltmarsh are regulated by federal and state agencies.

Rocky shorelines are especially important forbreeding Black Oystercatcher and wintering Surf-

bird and Rock Sandpiper. Major threats include

COASTSPublic Areas Support Key Nesting,Feeding, and Stopover Habitats

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coastal development and increased human distur-

bance and shoreline contamination from oil spills.Most of the small amount of U.S. mangrovehabitat is in Florida, more than 80% of which ispublicly owned. Mangroves provide importantbreeding habitat for White-crowned Pigeon,Black-whiskered Vireo, and other tropical spe-cies such as the Mangrove Cuckoo. Sensitive tohabitat fragmentation, Mangrove Cuckoos dependon public lands that provide sanctuary for part ofthe population in large tracts of mangrove forests,including Everglades National Park, Biscayne Na-tional Park, Key Largo Hammocks State Botanical

Preserve, and the National Wildlife Refuges of theFlorida Keys.

Coastal inshore waters are important foragingand resting areas for wintering waterbirds suchas Black Scoter, Common Eider, Northern Gan-net, and Red-throated Loon. All coastal waters arepublicly owned. More than 140 federal laws andmore than 20 entities are associated with coastalwaters and ocean management within the federalgovernment.

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Public management is critical on coastal lands and watersproviding essential habitat for 173 bird species.

States have management responsibility for mostactivities within three nautical miles from thecoastline except in the Gulf of Mexico, wherethe jurisdictions of Florida, Louisiana, and Texasextend seaward nine nautical miles.

Some coastal areas are designated as marineprotected areas MPAs, which include land andwater, and can thus provide additional protectionfor coastal resources within the MPA boundary.See page 25 for more on MPAs.

Conservation SuccessesIntensive management of important coastal habi-tat has proven benecial to several species. The

breeding success of birds such as the Least Ternand Piping Plover increased in response to man-agement focusing on nest protection.

About three-quarters of threatened U.S. Atlan-tic Coast Piping Plovers nest on publicly man-aged beaches. Labor-intensive management by anetwork of cooperators minimizes threats fromhabitat loss, beach recreation, and predation.

With improved nesting success and habitatprotection, the U.S. Atlantic population of PipingPlovers has more than doubled in the last 20 years.

Examples on federal lands include growth from 15to 85 pairs at the Cape Cod National Seashore andfrom 5 to 32 pairs at Monomoy National WildlifeRefuge in Massachuses and from 19 to 45 pairsat the Sandy Hook Unit of the Gateway NationalRecreation Area in New Jersey.

Black Brant and other sea ducks have benetedfrom the establishment of state-managed Padilla

Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve inWashington. This MPA protects formerly privatelyowned tidelands from development and has oneof the nation's largest contiguous eelgrass beds.The 11,000-acre reserve provides a signicant win-tering and migratory stopover area for waterfowl.

Conservation ChallengesMajor threats to coastal birds include habitat lossand degradation, human disturbance, and preda-tors. Public recreation, development interests, andwildlife compete for beaches. Public ownershipof beaches varies among states. In most states, allland below the mean high tide line belongs to the

state, and citizens have the right to unrestrictedaccess. Primary threats to birds on beaches includehuman-caused disturbance, increased predators,sea-level rise, and habitat loss. Many states allowo-road vehicles ORVs or unrestricted public ac-cess with pets such as dogs and cats. ORVs can behighly disturbing to nesting or feeding shorebirds.

Shorebird numbers and foraging time have beenobserved to decrease on beaches with heavy ORVuse. Although the majority of beaches and inter-tidal zones are publicly owned, management ofthese sites is essential to bird conservation.

Threats to salt marshes include loss and degra-dation of habitat through coastal developmentor lling, draining, diking, and pollution, all ofwhich aect the declining Saltmarsh Sparrow. Theprimary threat to mangrove habitat in Florida isclear-cuing for crops such as sugarcane, aectingWhite-crowned Pigeons, which have a restrictedrange and steeply declining populations.

Although our coastal waters and oceans are pub-lic, private entities can acquire proprietary rightsfor oil, natural gas, sand, gravel, salt, and utilitytransmission lines. The Bureau of Ocean Energy

Management, Regulation and Enforcement has ac-tive oil and gas leases that cover millions of acresof oceanic waters; states regulate these activities innearshore coastal waters. In addition, new leas-ing programs are currently being considered forrenewable energy. All of these activities provideadditional threats for coastal and ocean birds fromoil spills and collisions with alternative energyfacilities or oshore oil platforms.

Climate change and sea level rise are expected tohave a major impact on all coastal habitats, pri-marily through habitat loss e.g., ooding of salt

marshes, intertidal areas, and rocky shorelines,and increased coastal erosion.

The Deepwater Horizon oil spill of 2010 reminds us of the fragilityof coastal ecosystems, and that even protection of nesting colonieson state and federal lands may not necessarily safeguard birds, suchas this Brown Pelican, from the eects of large-scale environmental

catastrophes.

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NoteworthyPublicly owned islands support more

than half of the entire global nesting

population of 16 ocean bird species.

Major threats to breeding colonies in-

clude introduced predators and inva-

sive plants.

Major threats to foraging birds includeinteractions with oil, other pollution,

competition with fisheries, and bycatch

(the unintended take of birds and other

wildlife).

The overall protection of the oceanic

resources within designated Marine

Protected Areas is vital to improving

foraging habitat for ocean birds.

OCEANSBirds Depend on Healthy Oceansand Protected Islands

Maritime National Wildlife Refuge removed intro-duced foxes from many of its islands, resulting inincreases of more than 200,000 breeding seabirdsof at least 15 species.

In Haleakal National Park, an endangered Ha-waiian Petrel colony had only 400 known nestsin the 1980s. Intensive management and preda-tor control beginning in the 1980s have led to anincrease to more than 1,500 known nests.

At Maines Seal Island National Wildlife Refuge,Atlantic Puns were restored using translocationsand pun decoys to aract nesting birds to theprotected island. Now the 500 pairs of puns inthis remote island refuge are the largest colonyof this threatened species in Maine. At nearbyMatinicus Rock, an Audubon project used decoysand sound recordings to aract the rst nestingCommon Murres in the Northeast since 1883.

Ocean Birds on Public LandsNearly half of the ocean bird species in the U.S.are of conservation concern. Most ocean birdsbreed on remote islands, a majority of which arepublicly managed, primarily by the USFWS.

These islands support more than half of the entireglobal population of 16 of the 48 ocean bird spe-cies that nest in the United States. Publicly ownedlands are especially important to the endangeredHawaiian Petrel, with more than 90% of its breed-ing population on these lands.

Colonial nesting birds, such as the Black-footedAlbatross, Red-legged Kiiwake, Pelagic Cormo-rant, and Ashy Storm-Petrel depend heavily onoceanic food resources. Thus, conservation andmanagement that preserve oceanic ecosystems arecritical for conservation.

NOAA is the primary federal agency that man-ages our oceans in partnership with states andother federal agencies. Federal agencies and statesalso manage activities conducted in oceans withindesignated Marine Protected Areas MPAs.

Conservation SuccessesInvasive species are a major threat to island-nest-ing ocean birds. Active management, particularlycomplete eradication of invasive species, can yieldstunning results. For example, the nesting suc-cess of Xantuss Murrelet increased by 81% onAnacapa Island in Channel Islands National ParkCalifornia after rats were eradicated. The Alaska

Public agencies can dramatically improve conditions for ocean birds

by managing threats such as invasive species, competition withfisheries, human disturbance, and contaminants.

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Marine Protected AreasMPAs are dened areas where naturaland/or cultural resources receive greaterprotection than surrounding waters, butthe level of protection varies greatly. Morethan 1,600 MPAs have been designatedin the U.S., spanning a range of habi-

tats including open ocean, coastal areas,intertidal zones, estuaries, and the GreatLakes. MPAs include diverse ecosys-tems and resources and are managed byfederal, state, and county agencies. About40% of U.S. waters are in MPAs, of whichmost are multiple-use and only 1% do notallow any take of natural resources.

The overall protection of oceanic resourc-es within MPAs is expected to result inincreased stocks of forage sh for oceanbirds. For example, ve years after the es-

tablishment of the Channel Islands marinereserve network in California, there weremeasureable increases in the species tar-geted by sheries inside reserves. Thesesh species include important prey forocean birds that use the waters around theChannel Islands or that breed locally.

An evaluation of the presence or absenceof foraging ocean bird hotspots withinMPAs in the California Current regionfrom the Straits of Juan de Fuca in Wash-ington to the California/Mexico borderexcept for the Puget Sound region foundthat 193 MPAs 73% included oceanbird hotspots. The majority of MPAs thatcontain these hotspots have some levelof shing restrictions, with 70 prohibit-ing commercial shing and 49 prohibit-ing recreational shing. Protection ofocean resources through MPAs may notbe adequate for assuring benet to oceanbird species. For example, species thatare wide-ranging, such as highly pelagicforagers, rely on prey whose distributionsmay shift unpredictably in response to

changes associated with climate change.

Conservation ChallengesFew islands are unaected by invasive animalsand plants, which are responsible for the loss ofmillions of nesting ocean birds every year. Feralungulates destroy habitat and trample nests; intro-duced mammals such as rats, foxes, pigs, goats,and feral cats are especially destructive because

they can kill large numbers of long-lived breedingocean birds in short periods of time.

Invasive plants can be just as lethal. Managementcan be dicult and expensive because most breed-ing bird colonies are remote, with some manage-ment agencies unable to conduct site visits more

During the winter of 2011, strong storms and the recent tsunami killed up to tens of thousands of Laysan Albatross chicks on Midway Atoll,demonstrating how natural disasters may impact seabirds nesting on low islands.

than every few years. Invasive species eradicationprojects tend to be expensive, often requiring part-nerships to fund implementation, presenting anopportunity and challenge for private parties andpublic agencies to realize conservation victoriestogether.

Competition for oceanic resources with commer-cial and recreational sheries, bycatch, and pol-lution are threats to ocean birds globally. MPAsin the U.S. may allow some protections of theseresources through restrictions on commercial orrecreational sheries and human access, but theseprotections vary widely.

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NoteworthyThere are 19 native resident game bird

species in the U.S., including grouse,

ptarmigan, turkey, and quail. State

wildlife resource agencies set regula-

tions for these species, which are not

protected under the Migratory Bird

Treaty Act.

Half of the resident game bird species

in the U.S. have more than 50% of their

U.S. distribution on public lands. All of

these species are found in the West or

in Alaska.

Access to public lands provides hunt-ing opportunities for millions of people

each year.

Public lands support 79% of the dis-tribution of Gunnison Sage-Grouse, a

species of high conservation concern,

and 81% of the U.S. distribution of

White-tailed Ptarmigan.

Public lands play an important role for

western quail and grouse, with USFS

and BLM responsible for the majority oflands occupied by these species. Na-

tional Forests support more than 50% of

the U.S. distributions of Dusky Grouse,

Sooty Grouse, and Mountain Quail.

RESIDENTGAME BIRDS

26

Conservation SuccessesAlthough some early declines of resident gamebird species were aributed to overhunting,hunting regulations have removed this threat.State wildlife agencies now set hunting regula-tions e.g., bag limits, season length for residentgame birds each year based on factors such aspopulation trends, age and sex ratios, reproduc-tive success, and density.

Wild Turkeys were restored from a low of 30,000in the 1920s to more than 7 million today, large-ly b

Documents

State of the Birds 2011