State of the Environment Report - AtmosphereSTATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 19 What is the current situation? CONDITION INDICATOR: Exceedences of National Environment Protection

18

1Atmosphere

Air Quality Trends

• Air quality in metropolitan Adelaide:

IMPROVING.

• Air quality in Port Augusta: IMPROVING.

• Air quality in Port Pirie: IMPROVING overall

but sulphur dioxide and lead levels still

unacceptable in some areas.

• Air quality in Whyalla: particulate matter

WORSENING.

Goal

Air quality that meets the standards set out in theNational Environment Protection Measure (NEPM) forAir Quality.To maintain and improve air quality in the Adelaideairshed and regional centres in South Australia.Air quality objectives of the EnvironmentProtection Authority

What are the issues?

Emissions from motor vehicles are the largest singlesource of air pollution in South Australia and we arerelying solely on better engine technology and fuelstandards rather than changing our behaviour tomaintain air quality; in fact, dependence on motorvehicle transportation in South Australia continues toincrease. Industrial processes are another majorsource of air pollution along with a range ofcommercial and domestic activities, such as burningwood for heat.

These activities can increase the concentration ofgases and particles in the air to levels that have

potentially harmful effects on humans and, to a lesserextent, on the environment.

The National Environment Protection Measure forAir Quality (Air NEPM) was introduced in July 1998 bythe National Environment Protection Council (NEPC).The NEPM measure sets health protection standardsfor air pollutants to be achieved by 2008, based onhourly, four-hourly, eight-hourly, daily and/or yearlyaverages, depending on the pollutant and the mannerin which it has an impact on human health.

The Air NEPM standards do not apply to locationsadjacent to individual sources (such as an industrialfacility) where peak concentrations may be expected,but relate to the exposure of the general population inresidential zones or areas.

At present the Air NEPM addresses the followingair pollutants: particles less than 10 micrometres insize (PM10), carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide,sulphur dioxide and ozone. Levels of other, largerparticulates (TSP) are assessed using World HealthOrganisation (WHO) and National Health and MedicalResearch Council (NHMRC) guidelines.

The EPA conducts regular air quality monitoring ofkey air pollutants in the ambient, or surrounding,atmosphere at a variety of locations throughout theAdelaide airshed (Port Adelaide, Thebarton, Netley,Adelaide CBD, Osborne, Gilles Plains, Northfield,Kensington, Parkside, Gawler, Elizabeth and ChristiesBeach) as well as at sites in the Mount Gambier,Whyalla, Port Augusta and Port Pirie airsheds. It is alsointended to monitor air quality for the Riverland andBarossa airsheds.

These areas form part of a five-year mobilemonitoring program commenced by the EnvironmentProtection Authority in 2000 to ascertain levels of airpollutants in regional areas, as part of its implementationof the Air NEPM, and to gain a more accurateunderstanding of air quality issues in those regions.

See also chapters on Transport; andClimate Change.

Congested trafficPhoto: Transport SA

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 19

What is the current situation?

CONDITION INDICATOR: Exceedencesof National Environment ProtectionMeasure (NEPM) guidelines for keyair pollutants

Lead

Metropolitan Adelaide

Lead levels have been monitored regularly in Port Pirieand the Adelaide metropolitan area at Thebarton,Northfield, Gilles Plains, Kensington, Parkside andPort Adelaide.

There has been a steady decline in airborne leadlevels in the metropolitan area due to the mandatoryintroduction of unleaded petrol for all new vehicles in1986, the gradual reduction in the lead content ofleaded petrol and phase-out of its supply (Figure 1.1).

Environmental indicators

CONDITION INDICATOR

• Exceedences of NEPM guidelines for keyair pollutants (reported on in the State ofthe Environment Report 1998)

The NEPM guidelines have been developed forspecific air pollutants which pose a risk tohuman health. They are an accepted standardagainst which to evaluate the quality of the airwe breathe.

PRESSURE INDICATOR

• Level of emissions of key pollutants(new indicator)

Emissions of key air pollutants in each airshedare compiled by the National Pollutant Inventory.This provides an indication of the volume ofemissions and the areas in which emissions aremost heavily concentrated.

AIR QUALITY

Lead smelter at Port Pirie

FindingsMaking progressEnvironment Protection Authority (EPA) monitoring over the last decade indicates that Adelaide’s air quality isimproving and is generally good by national and international standards. The reduction in point sourceemissions is due largely to industry-focused legislation and voluntary improvements by industrial andcommercial operations, combined with a metropolitan-wide ban on burning waste on domestic premises(e.g. in backyard incinerators).

Lead levels in the metropolitan Adelaide airshed have continued to decline and no longer pose a healthconcern, to the extent that the EPA has ceased monitoring lead in Adelaide as of the end of June 2003.

The EPA is monitoring more air pollutants at a greater range of locations than in 1998. In 2000 the EPAcommenced a five-year program using mobile stations to determine the extent of air quality problemsexperienced in Whyalla, Port Pirie, Port Augusta, Mount Gambier, the Barossa and the Riverland.

Attention requiredThe level of lead in the air from the Pasminco lead smelter in Port Pirie is the most significant air quality issuefor South Australia. Over 50% of children in Port Pirie exceed the blood-lead goal set by the National Health andMedical Research Council. Sulphur dioxide emissions also frequently exceed national health guidelines,however, no clear relationship with health has been found in several studies undertaken to date in Port Pirie.

Whyalla’s OneSteel facility continues to cause particulate (airborne dust) levels that exceed the EPArequirements at the Pellet Plant boundary on several occasions a year.

Odour emissions are still a problem in certain locations. The EPA also needs to upgrade its odourmonitoring capabilities in order to enable more informed decision-making.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:1.1 A comprehensive air quality management plan is developed and implemented for South Australia to

ensure a coordinated approach is used to manage the cumulative effects of emissions in major urbancentres from stationary and mobile sources.

1.2 A comprehensive Environment Protection Policy for air quality is developed and implemented, and theEnvironment Protection (Burning) Policy 1994 is reviewed as a matter of priority to reflect contemporaryapproaches to air quality management.

1.3 Odour monitoring capabilities are updated to comply with the most recent Australian Standards.1.4 Community education activities are enhanced to improve public understanding of air quality issues. This

should include eco-efficiency programs that target small to medium sized industrial activities as a priority.1.5 The Environment Protection Authority (and where applicable the Department of Human Services)

continues to ensure, as a high priority, the management of air quality issues on the basis of risk to publichealth and amenity (e.g. Pasminco, OneSteel and others). Industry Environment Improvement Programsfor such issues must focus on high priority risks, and contain short and long term strategies to provideoutcomes that are based on recognised national and State standards.

Trend line

Introduction of LRP (May 2000)

Mobil stops producing leadedpetrol (August 2000)

01/0

1/95

SOURCE: EPA, 2002

0.0

0.3

0.6

0.9

Figure 1.1: Trend in ambient leadconcentrations at Port Adelaide –1995–2000

Lead

con

cent

ratio

n (µ

g/m

3 )

28/1

0/95

23/0

8/96

19/0

6/97

15/0

4/98

09/0

2/99

06/1

2/99

01/1

0/00

DATE

KEY FACTS

• The emission of lead from the

Pasminco lead smelter in Port

Pirie is our most serious air

quality issue.

20

1 Atmosphere

Leaded petrol sales were overtaken by unleaded salesin 1994 and, following the introduction of LeadReplacement Petrol in May 2000, were phased outcompletely in South Australia by October 2000, aheadof the nationally legislated date of 2002. Lead levelshave progressively decreased and are now well belowthe NEPM standard. As a result the EPA ceasedmonitoring lead levels in air in the Adelaide region inJune 2003.

Port Pirie

The Pasminco Lead Smelter in Port Pirie is the world’slargest lead smelter and refinery, producing 230,000tonnes per year of lead and lead alloys.

The emission of lead from the smelter is by far themost significant environmental concern for the PortPirie community. Despite a program to reduce leademissions from the process stacks, 53% of youngchildren in the town still have higher levels of lead intheir blood than is recommended by the National Healthand Medical Research Council Guideline (i.e. more than10 micrograms per 100 millilitres).

Recent studies (Calder et. al., 1994; Esterman &Maynard, 1998; Van Alphen, 1999) demonstrated thatmost of the airborne lead in Port Pirie arises from theplant site, particularly from lead-bearing fugitive dust,as distinct from the disturbance of lead particlesdeposited in soil around the city during the operatinglife of the smelter. It is therefore important thatemissions reduction work focuses on the control ofthis dust.

The NEPM standard for airborne lead is stillexceeded at one site in Port Pirie (Figure 1.2).Significantly higher lead levels are often recorded atanother site adjacent to the smelter boundary,indicating the influence of fugitive emissions from thesmelter. This site is used to evaluate source controlstrategies within the plant.

Particulate matter (airborne dust)Particulate matter is monitored in the Adelaidemetropolitan area, Whyalla, Port Pirie, Port Augustaand Mount Gambier. Particulate matter generally refersto airborne dust or solids. Some industrial processescan create dust as a consequence of processing rawmaterials. Dust storms and bush fires can also resultin high levels of particulates. This dust has beenimplicated in a range of health problems, particularlyrespiratory and cardiovascular difficulties.

PM10 refers to particles that are less than 10micrometres (one thousandth of a millimetre) indiameter. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) refers toslightly larger particles with a diameter less than50 micrometres.

Airborne dust is still a significant problem in thearea of Whyalla adjoining the boundary of the OneSteelPellet Plant, where PM10 levels still exceed EPAperformance requirements several times a year.Residences and infrastructure immediately surroundingthe plant are continually covered in fine red dust,resulting in considerable community concern.

In 2002 the EPA requirement for PM10 atHummock Hill, adjacent to the OneSteel Pellet Plant,was exceeded 18 times (Figure 1.3). This is asignificantly worse result than for the previous11 years of monitoring.

Monitoring for PM10 and TSP levels at Civic Park inWhyalla, several kilometres east of the Pellet Plant,commenced in 2001. During 2002 there was only oneexceedance of the NEPM standard for PM10 at this site.

On occasions, levels of dust exceeding NEPMstandards are recorded in Port Augusta, althoughthere was no exceedence in 2001 or 2002. Some ofthese occurrences were partly attributable to theNorthern and Playford powerstations, while otherswere recorded during dust storms.

There are occasional exceedences of the NEPMstandard for PM10 in Port Pirie, largely due to duststorms. There were no exceedences in 2001.

Wood combustion heaters in the home are likelysignificant contributors to occasional exceedences ofthe NEPM standard for PM10 concentrations inMount Gambier, as well as diesel trucks and thewood industry – such as forestry burning andparticleboard manufacture.

Carbon monoxideHindley Street, in the Adelaide CBD, is the onlylocation in South Australia where carbon monoxide ismonitored. Levels have fallen considerably over thelast decade and there have been no exceedences ofthe NEPM standard since 1997. This is mainly due toimprovements in motor vehicle engine design and theaddition of catalytic emission controls.

Sulphur dioxideIn the metropolitan area sulphur dioxide (SO2) ismonitored at Christies Beach near the Port Stanvac oilrefinery, which was a primary source of this airpollutant until its closure in July 2003. There have beenno exceedences of the NEPM standard since 1996.Monitoring also commenced at Mount Gambier in2001, with no exceedences of the standard detected.

Monitoring for SO2 attributable to Pasminco inPort Pirie began at Oliver Street in 2002. The resultsof the first six months of monitoring are provided inFigure 1.4. During this time there have been 23exceedences of the NEPM one hour SO2 standard.However, several asthma studies undertaken to datein Port Pirie have not demonstrated a relationshipbetween these emissions and health.

Ground level ozoneOzone is monitored at a variety of locationsthroughout the Adelaide airshed, but no exceedencesof NEPM standards have been recorded for manyyears. Formation of ozone is dependent on strongsunlight to promote the chemical reactions betweennitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons released into the airand thus is more prevalent during long hot summers.Monitoring for ozone commenced in Mount Gambier

in 2001; no exceedences were recorded.

Nitrogen dioxideNitrogen dioxide levels in the air are recorded at avariety of locations in the Adelaide airshed, but noexceedences of the NEPM standards have beenrecorded since 1990 and average concentrations arewell within the guidelines. Nitrogen dioxide monitoringalso commenced in Mount Gambier in 2001, but noexceedences were recorded.

Jamestown Dust StormPhoto: Gavin Young, Rural Solutions

OneSteel, Whyalla

1995

SOURCE: EPA, 2002

Figure 1.2: Annual mean lead levelsat three Port Pirie monitoring sitesagainst the NEPM standard

Lead

con

cent

ratio

n (µ

g/m

3 )

Oliver Street

The Terrace

Senate Road

NEPM Guideline

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

YEAR

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

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Cross-Out

Errata

Please note the following amendments.

• page 20, last paragraph of column one—replace ‘In 2002 the EPA requirement...’ with the following:

In 2002 the PM10 value of 50 ug/m3 as a daily average at Hummock Hill, adjacent to the OneSteel Pellet Plant, was exceeded 18.5% of the time. This is significantly higher than in the mid 1990s when thePM10 value of 50 ug/m3 as a daily average at the oldsite at Hummock Hill was exceeded about 5% of thetime. Relocation of the monitoring station in May2000 has had a discernible effect on measured dustlevels on occasions under certain wind conditions.Nevertheless, since the mid-to-late 1990s there hasbeen an overall worsening of air quality in the area,with levels in 2002 comparable to those encounteredin the early 1990s (see revised Figure 1.3).

• page 21—replace Figure 1.3 with the following:

Figure 1.3: Proportion of time per year that PM10

exceeded EPA performance requirements at HummockHill, Whyalla, 1990–2002

EPA—July 2004

STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 21STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 21

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Level ofemissions of key pollutants

The level of key pollutants in the air shows acontinuing pressure on air quality and highlights areaswhere there may be a potential impact on health orthe environment.

The National Pollutant Inventory (NPI) is aninternet database that provides information on thelocation of emissions sources, the levels of emissionsand change over time for many major airsheds inAustralia. The NPI can be accessed through theinternet (www.npi.gov.au).

For all major pollutants the highest emissionlevels tend to be in densely populated areas. Thisillustrates the large contribution of motor vehicles anddomestic activities to local air quality (e.g. lawn-mowing, solvent use and wood heaters).

Emerging air quality issues

Air toxicsA group of pollutants known as ‘air toxics’ have beenless frequently monitored than other pollutants butthere is increasing recognition of their potentialnegative health effects. Air toxics are pollutantspresent in the air (in either solid, liquid or gas form) inlow concentrations but their toxicity is such that theyrepresent a risk to human health and the environment.

Motor vehicles and fuel burning are two significantsources of air toxics. Air toxics are also of concern forindoor air quality as they are present in many householdproducts such as paints, solvents, aerosols, cleansersand disinfectants and dry-cleaned clothing.

The National Environment Protection Council(NEPC) is currently developing a NEPM for air toxics.The first substances to be addressed are benzene,formaldehyde, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,toluene and xylenes. The EPA currently conducts‘hotspot’ monitoring for some air toxics.

Fine particles – PM2.5Particles less than 2.5 micrometres in diameter arecalled fine particles (PM2.5). These fine particles havebeen shown to have health effects and to penetratedeeper into the lungs than larger particles. As such,they warrant increased monitoring and theestablishment of separate health guidelines. TheEPA will initially establish one monitoring site forPM2.5 at Netley. The air quality NEPM was varied in2003 to include monitoring requirements for fineparticles (PM2.5).

OdourOdour emissions are a concern in some areas, mostnotably adjacent to industrial facilities such asfoundries, animal rendering plants, intensive animalhusbandry and composting facilities. Specific siteissues are being addressed through licenceconditions where appropriate. The EPA will beupgrading its odour testing capabilities to meet thenew Australian Standard in order to enable moreinformed decision making.

There are approximately 45 foundries in Adelaide,of which three (Castalloy, Hensley Industries and

Mount Barker Products) have drawn frequentcomplaints from nearby residents about noise andodour (EPA, 2001b). The problems faced at all threesites are in large part a consequence of residentialareas being located too close to industrial areas.

WoodsmokeThe use of firewood for home heating has been thesubject of growing concern in recent years asknowledge of the implications for biodiversity and theimpact of wood smoke on human health have becomebetter known. Wood smoke contains PM2.5 and arange of toxic compounds similar to those fromcigarette smoke and is thought to be involved in heartand lung disease and cancer.

Indoor air qualityIndoor air quality is an issue of increasing concern,particularly in relation to emissions from products suchas tobacco smoke, solvents, disinfectants, paints,paint strippers, glues and air fresheners (see Air

toxics). Mould and mould spores can also causeallergic reactions in some people.

Unfortunately, there is not a great deal ofstatistical information available on indoor air quality inSouth Australia, but there is early evidence that asignificant percentage of offices and homes sufferfrom poor indoor air quality particularly fromcombustion products from indoor appliances, tobaccosmoke and from biological allergens (e.g. dust mites).

What impact does poor air quality have?

Some of the environmental, social, public health andeconomic effects of poor air quality are listed below toillustrate the broader significance for sustainability.

Environmental impact. Just as it affects humans,poor air quality adversely affects the health ofvegetation and animals and even the health ofthe marine environment. Certain toxic pollutantspresent in air can also be deposited in soil or water,becoming part of terrestrial, marine and aquaticenvironmental systems.

Economic impact. Poor air quality increases medicalcosts, reduces workforce productivity, has indirecteffects on the quality of life, damages buildings, carsand monuments and has an impact on tourism.

Impact on human health. Excessive carbonmonoxide can inhibit the uptake of oxygen through thebloodstream and can effect visual perception, mentalconcentration and heart function. Nitrogen dioxide,sulphur dioxide, ozone and fine particulate mattercontribute to respiratory problems and potentially toincreased rates of mortality. Lead can result in reducedmental capability, particularly in children, and reducedfertility levels. Volatile organic compounds (i.e. airtoxics) are thought to be involved in a wide variety ofhealth effects, including respiratory irritation, damageto internal organs and cancer.Sources: www.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/airquality/pollutants.html and www.epa.gov

AIR QUALITY

Coal storage, Flinders Northernpowerstation, Port Augusta

1998

SOURCE: EPA, 2002

Figure 1.3: Number of days per yearPM10 exceeded EPA performancerequirements at Hummock HillWhyalla – 1990–2002

Num

ber o

f da

ys

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

YEAR

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1990

1999

2000

2001

2002

SOURCE: EPA

Figure 1.4: Sulphur dioxideconcentrations at Oliver Street,Port Pirie, against the NEPMstandard (one hour averages)

SO2 (p

pm)

26/0

6/02

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

16/0

7/02

05/0

8/02

25/0

8/02

14/0

9/02

04/1

0/02

24/1

0/02

13/1

1/02

03/1

2/02

23/1

2/02

NEPM Standard

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22

1 Atmosphere

What are we doing about it?

Air quality in the Adelaide metropolitan area has vastlyimproved in the last 20 years, largely due to thephasing out of leaded petrol and improved motorvehicle emissions standards, the banning of backyardburning and improved environmental management byindustry. The EPA’s monitoring of air quality hasexpanded in Adelaide since the State of theEnvironment Report 1998 with new monitoringstations constructed at Port Pirie and at Whyalla. ‘Hot

Spot’ air quality monitoring capabilities have beendeveloped to monitor industry emissions and local airquality issues as they arise.

In 2000 the EPA also commenced a five-yearmonitoring program using mobile air quality

monitoring stations to determine the extent of airquality problems experienced in Whyalla, PortAugusta, Port Pirie, Mount Gambier, the BarossaValley and the Riverland. Previously some of theseregions had not been monitored at all, and othersonly for specific pollutants.

Some regional air quality issues remain aconcern. Lead and sulphur dioxide levels at Port Piriecontinue to pose a health risk to residents, andchildren in particular. The Department of HumanService’s Port Pirie Lead Implementation Program,which commenced in 1984, aims to reduce the levelsof lead that residents are absorbing from theirenvironment. While blood lead levels in Port Piriehave decreased significantly since the mid-1980s,they are still considerably higher than the nationalaverage, with 53% of young children exceeding theNHMRC guidelines for lead-in-blood. This is despitemeasures instigated by Pasminco over the last 20years to minimise emissions of lead and sulphurdioxide from the smelter, including fulfilling therequirements set out in its EPA EnvironmentImprovement Program. It is clear that more workmust be done to reduce emissions.

Whyalla’s OneSteel facility continues to causeparticulate (airborne dust) levels that exceed the EPArequirements at the Pellet Plant boundary on severaloccasions a year.

The current Environment Protection (Air Quality)Policy is considered outdated and requires review. TheEPA intends to review this policy in light of emergingair quality issues and other best practice standardsavailable. It also intends to review the EnvironmentProtection (Burning) Policy.

An Environment Improvement Program (EIP) isa program approved by the EPA that is developed by abusiness which holds an environmental authorisation,usually in the form of a licence to conduct an activityof potentially major environmental significance. Abusiness can voluntarily submit an EIP or the EPA mayrequire it as part of its licensing conditions. These EIPsrequire the inclusion of environmental improvementsin business plans to progressively reduce the impactof that business’s operation on the environment.Successful implementation of an EIP may be anecessary prerequisite for the continuation of the

environmental authorisation, or licence. Majorcompanies undertaking EIPs with respect to air qualityinclude OneSteel, NRG Flinders and Playfordpowerstations, and Pasminco.

For more information on programs and initiativessee the State of the Environment 2003Supplementary Report.

References

Calder, I., Maynard, E., Heyworth, J. Port Pirie LeadAbatement Program, 1992, EnvironmentalGeochemistry and Health, 16, 137-145.

Environment Protection Authority (EPA) (2002). AirQuality Monitoring Report: Annual Report No 4 –Ambient Air Quality in South Australia (draft). AirQuality Section (AQS), Monitoring and EvaluationBranch Environment Protection Authority, Adelaide.

Environment Protection Authority (EPA) (2001a).National Environment Protection (Ambient Air Quality)Measure: Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Plan for SouthAustralia. Environment Protection Authority, Adelaide.

Environment Protection Authority (EPA) (2001b).Environment Protection Authority 2000–2001 AnnualReport. Environment Protection Authority, Adelaide.

Esterman, A. and Maynard, E. (1998). Changes inAirborne Lead Particulate in Port Pirie, South Australia,1986-1996. Environmental Research, 79, 122-132.

Van Alphen, M. (1999). Atmospheric heavy metalplumes adjacent to a primary lead-zinc smelter.Science of the Total Environment, 236, 199-134.

Further information

Air pollution in Major Cities Programwww.nht.gov.au/programs/airqual.html

Airwatch National Projectwww.airwatch.gov.au

Alternative Fuels Conversion Programwww.greenhouse.gov.au/transport/afcp

Current Air Quality Information – Air Quality Indexwww.environment.sa.gov.au/reporting/

atmosphere/airindex_sum.html

Environment Protection (Air Quality) Policy 1994www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_reg/

epqp1994460/index.html

National Environment Protection Councilwww.ephc.gov.au

National Environment Protection Measure for AmbientAir Qualitywww.ephc.gov.au/nepms/air/air_nepm.html

National Pollutant Inventorywww.npi.gov.au

Smokestack

Hot Spot air quality monitoring van


Climate Change Trends

• Greenhouse gas emissions in total in South

Australia: UP 7.8% since 1995.

• Emissions per person: UP from 21.48 tonnes

in 1995 to 22.43 tonnes in 2001.

• Emissions from industry: UP 23.3%

since 1995.

• Emissions from the transport sector:

FALLEN slightly.

• Emissions from land use change

(i.e. vegetation clearance): REMAIN at

negligible levels.

• Significant fugitive emissions from gas

production representing 10% of total

emissions.

Goal

• Limit net greenhouse gas emissions, in particular,to meet international commitments.1

• Foster community knowledge and understandingof greenhouse issues.

• Lay the foundations for adaptation to climate change.National Greenhouse Strategy (AustralianGreenhouse Office, 1998)


The characteristics of the earth’s climate areinfluenced by the ‘greenhouse’ effect. The greenhouseeffect is a natural phenomenon whereby certain‘greenhouse’ gases in the atmosphere trap and retainheat, maintaining the earth at a habitable temperature.Without these gases, life on Earth would not exist.

Since the industrial revolution in the mid-eighteenth century certain human activities haveresulted in rising concentrations of greenhouse gasesin the planet’s atmosphere. These gases act like ablanket over the earth’s surface, enhancing the naturalgreenhouse effect and keeping the planet warmerthan it would be otherwise. Over the last century,global average surface temperatures have increasedby around 0.6°C, snow cover and ice extent hasdecreased and the sea level has risen by an average of

1 In signing the Kyoto Protocol in 1998, the Australian Government has committed to containing greenhouse gas emissionsto 108% above 1990 levels.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Flinders powerstation

FindingsMaking progressThe State Government has indicated its support for ratifying the Kyoto Protocol and is committed to thedevelopment of a South Australian Greenhouse Plan. This will establish actions to reduce emissions anddevelop strategies that will assist in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation to theconsequences of climate change.

The State Government has committed to the purchase of around 6% of its energy requirements from theStarfish Hill windfarm.

Attention requiredSouth Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions continue to rise, increasing by 7.8% between 1995 and 2000/01.Per capita emissions have risen from 21.48 tonnes of greenhouse gases per person in 1995 to 22.43 tonnes ofgreenhouse gases per person in 2001. Emissions from the generation of electricity and industrial activity inparticular continue to grow, while fugitive sources, such as gas production and distribution amount to 3.44million tonnes, over 10% of the State’s total.

While there have been a range of initiatives in South Australia to reduce greenhouse gas emissions theireffectiveness has been scarcely noticeable. High profile measures are initiated frequently to reduce emissionsbut these have a limited impact on reductions, in the order of a few thousand tonnes annually, when the needis many orders of magnitude larger.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:1.6 A State Greenhouse Plan and associated Action Plan be developed and implemented as a matter of priority.

This must be consistent with, and feed into, the national forward strategy on climate change and addressmatters such as carbon sequestration, industry development, emissions reduction and adaptation and riskmanagement strategies for coping with the inevitable consequences of climate change.

Section of Santos’s Moomba Plant,Cooper Basin, northern South AustraliaPhoto: SANTOS Ltd

24

1 Atmosphere

10 to 20 centimetres. It is very likely (90% to 99%probability) that the 1990s was the warmest decadeand 1998 the warmest year on (instrumental) recordsince 1861 (IPCC, 2001).

The world’s climate has always varied naturally.The Mount Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines in 1991released about one cubic kilometre of ash and cooledthe earth by about 0.4°C for several years. The periodicwarming of the eastern Pacific Ocean, known as ElNiño, results in heavy rainfalls in some regions anddroughts in others. Australia’s location and size meanthat it is subject to a wide range of climatic influencesand can be subject to wide variations in climate.

Despite natural variability in climate, the rise inglobal temperatures of around 0.6°C experiencedover the past century is unprecedented and theweight of scientific evidence is that this is linked withincreased levels of greenhouse gases as the result ofhuman activity.

It is projected that globally averaged surfacetemperatures will increase by 1.4 to 5.8°C over theperiod 1990 to 2100. The projected rate of warming ismuch larger than the observed changes during thetwentieth century and is very likely (90% to 99%probability) to be without precedent during at least thelast 10,000 years.

The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide(CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (NO). Themajor source of carbon dioxide is the burning of oil,coal and gas (fossil fuels). This includes the burning ofpetrol in motor vehicles and the generation ofelectricity from coal and gas. CO2 emissions alsoresult from cement manufacture and the clearance offorests and other vegetation. Plants absorb CO2 fromthe atmosphere thereby acting as CO2 ‘sinks’.

Methane (CH4) is produced when organic materialis broken down in the absence of oxygen. One of thelargest sources of methane comes from animals suchas sheep and cattle that produce it as a by-product ofthe digestive process. Methane is also emitted fromcoal mines, waste disposal landfills, burningvegetation and natural gas.

Nitrous oxide (NO) is emitted naturally fromoceans and soils; however, it is also produced byburning vegetation, clearing vegetation, the use offertilisers and some industrial processes. Unlike othergreenhouse gases, nitrous oxide does not break downeasily and stays in the atmosphere for more than acentury after being emitted.

See also chapters on Energy; Transport; andAir Quality.


CONDITION INDICATOR

• Greenhouse gas atmosphericconcentrations (reported on in the State ofthe Environment Report 1998)

Annual average concentrations of greenhousegases present in the atmosphere, as measuredat Cape Grim in Tasmania.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Annual greenhouse gas emissions inSouth Australia per capita (new indicator)

Greenhouse gas emissions per person.• Sources of greenhouse gas emissions in

South Australia (new indicator)Details the activities that produce greenhouse gasemissions and quantifies emissions by sector.• Annual greenhouse gas emissions in

South Australia indexed against GrossDomestic Product (reported on in the Stateof the Environment Report 1998)

Shows changes in the energy intensity of oureconomic productivity. In other words, theamount of energy we use to produce everydollar of economic output.


CONDITION INDICATOR: Greenhousegas atmospheric concentrations

In Australia the CSIRO undertakes monitoring ofatmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at itsCape Grim facility on the north-western coast ofTasmania. The yellow line in Figures 1.5 and 1.6indicates continuing increases in the atmosphericconcentration of carbon dioxide, predominantly fromfossil fuel burning and land clearance, and nitrousoxide, predominantly from land clearance, burningof vegetation, use of fertilisers and someindustrial processes.

Methane levels are now higher than at any timeover the past 420,000 years but the annual growthrate has slowed over the past decade (Figure 1.7).

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Annualgreenhouse gas emissions in SouthAustralia per capita

Australia’s rate of greenhouse gas emissions isthe highest in the industrialised world at around27.9 tonnes per person per year. By comparison,greenhouse gas emissions per person for the UnitedStates of America are 18.1 tonnes per year (Turton et.al., 2002). South Australia’s greenhouse gas emissionstotalled 34.07 million tonnes in 2000/01, a rise of 7.8%(2.47 million tonnes) over 1995 levels. Per capitaemissions have risen from 21.48 tonnes ofgreenhouse gases per person in 1995 to 22.43 tonnesof greenhouse gases per person in 2001.

In the broadest sense, the largest single activitythat releases greenhouse gases is the generation anduse of energy. The consumption of energy, such as theuse of petrol in cars and trucks, and the generation ofenergy, such as electricity generation inpowerstations, contributes around 64% of our totalgreenhouse gas emissions.

Our emissions from energy use and generationcontinued to climb in 2000/01, rising by 3.6% over thetwo years since 1999. Greenhouse gas emissionsfrom electricity generation in South Australia are lessthan the Australian average however, because around

Annual growth rate (ppm)

Carbon dioxide (ppm)

SOURCE: CSIRO

Figure 1.5: Carbon dioxide concentrations1975–2002, Cape Grim, Tasmania

Carb

on d

ioxi

de (p

pm)

Annual growth rate (ppm

)

330

340

350

360

370

YEAR

3

2

1

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Annual growth rate (ppb)

Nitrous oxide (ppb)

SOURCE: CSIRO

Figure 1.6: Nitrous oxide concentrations1992–2002, Cape Grim, Tasmania

Nitr

ous

oxid

e (p

pb)

310

312

314

316

318

YEAR

1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002


1

2

Figure 1.7: Methane concentrations1985–2002, Cape Grim, Tasmania

Met

hane

(ppb

)

1600

1640

1680

1720

1760

YEAR


Methane (ppb)

SOURCE: CSIRO

1560


20

10

0

-5

5

15

1985 1990 1995 2000


one-third of our electricity is generated using naturalgas. This is the highest proportion of any State otherthan the Northern Territory.

For more information on energy use see chapteron Energy.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Sources ofgreenhouse gas emissions inSouth Australia

In 2000/01 the major sources of greenhouse gasemissions in South Australia were (Figure 1.8):• stationary energy (28%) – emissions from non-

transport based energy use, primarily from thegeneration of electricity from powerstations butalso from the use of fossil fuels by industry and inthe home (e.g. the use of gas to heat hot water);

• transport (23%) – the use of petrol and diesel byvarious forms of transport;

• agriculture (18%) – the release of greenhousegases by sheep, cattle, horses, pigs and poultry aspart of the digestive process;

• industry (14%) – the use of fossil fuels such asblack coal and natural gas;

• ‘fugitive’ emissions from natural gas processing(10%) – oil and gas production from Moomba andLadbroke Grove gas fields.

Figure 1.9 compares 2000/01 greenhouse gasemissions in South Australia with the previous Stateassessment by the National Greenhouse GasInventory in 1995.

Emissions from non-transport based energy

use, primarily from the generation of electricity frompowerstations, shows the largest increase inemissions, up by 21% between 1995 and 2000/01.Emissions from generating electricity come fromburning coal and gas, which are used to fuel powergenerators. See chapter on Energy for moreinformation on energy use and sustainable energy.

‘Fugitive’ emissions resulting from gasproduction at Moomba and Ladbroke Grove haveincreased by 12% since 1995. Emissions as the resultof oil and gas production now contribute around 10%of the State’s total greenhouse gas emissions.

While Figure 1.10 indicates that greenhouse gasemissions from the transport sector as a whole havedeclined by around 1% since 1995, emissions fromroad vehicles (cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles) haveincreased by 7.6% over the 1988 to 2001 period(Figure 1.10). Emissions from road vehicles account for87% of all transport emissions, more than six times allother sources put together. Cars account for 64% ofall emissions from road vehicles. Emissions from railand sea transport are declining while emissions fromair transport are increasing (Figure 1.10). For moreinformation see chapter on Transport.

Agricultural emissions remain stable. Agricultureis a mature industry in South Australia and livestocknumbers have remained fairly static between 1995 and2000. It is therefore assumed that there is unlikely tohave been a significant change in emissions fromlivestock between 1995 and 2000/01 (Lothian, unpub.).

Emissions from the land sector are negligible.Based on figures from the National Carbon Accounting

System in 2002, emissions from vegetation clearancein 1995 were 0.4 megatonnes and had fallen to0.2 megatonnes by 1998. Given this trend and thatclearance has been regulated in South Australia since1983, emissions from this source are now negligible.

Since the completion of the Victoria/South Australiainterconnector in 1990, South Australia has been a netimporter of electricity. Greenhouse gas emissions inVictoria resulting from the use of electricity imported toSouth Australia make up 3% of the State’s totalemissions, a slight reduction on 1995 levels.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Annualgreenhouse gas emissions in SouthAustralia indexed against GrossDomestic Product

Greenhouse gas emissions when compared against theGross Domestic Product (GDP) provide a broadindication of energy efficiency. The less energy used tocreate every dollar of GDP, the more efficiently thatenergy is being used. During the 1970s, major pricerises in petroleum along with other factors led manycountries to improve energy efficiency so that each unitof energy produced more income, or GDP, than before.

In South Australia greenhouse gas (CO2-e)emissions per Gross State2 Product (GSP) have fallensteadily from 55,400 tonnes per million dollars of GSPin 1991 to 49,850 tonnes per million dollars of GSP in2000/01. This means that in 1991 a tonne ofgreenhouse gases was produced for every $18generated in the State’s economy. In 2000/01 a tonneof greenhouse gases was produced for every $20generated in the State’s economy. These figuressuggest a minor (11%) improvement in energyefficiency over the last decade. This equates to about1% improvement per year.

What impact will climate change have?

Climate change is likely to have significantenvironmental, social and economic consequences(CSIRO, 2001).A change in the extent and range of ecosystems.

Some ecosystems will adapt better than others. Thoseecosystems likely to be most sensitive to climatechange include native grasslands, mangroves,wetlands and deserts.Increased vulnerability of plants and animals.

Habitat loss and fragmentation will increase thepressures on some plants and animals, particularlythose that live in habitats that are sensitive toclimate change.Increased pressure on watercourses and wetlands.

Reduced rainfall will have an impact on waterresources. Stream flow in the east-central Murray-Darling Basin could be reduced by up to 20% by 2030and up to 45% by 2070, having an associated impacton aquatic plants and animals.

2 Gross State Product is used as Gross Domestic Productfigures are only available nationally.

CLIMATE CHANGE

18%

14%

10%

1%4% 2% <1%

28%

23%

Figure 1.8: The source of South Australia’sgreenhouse gas emissions – 2000/01

Stationary energy

Transport

Fugitive emissions

Industry

Agriculture

International bunkers

Waste

Interconnection

Land use changeNote: Interconnection refers to the

electricity interconnectionfrom the eastern States.

SOURCE: LOTHIAN, UNPUB.

1995

2000/01Note: International bunkers refers to

fuel used in international transportand shipping. All figures areexpressed in CO2-e, which convertmethane and nitrous oxide intothe equivalent global warmingpotential of CO2 (methane has21 times the global warmingpotential of CO2).

SOURCE: LOTHIAN, UNPUB

Sta

tion

ary

ener

gy

Figure 1.9: Change inSouth Australia’s greenhouse gasemissions – 1995 & 2000/01

Emis

sion

s (m

illio

n to

nnes

CO 2

equ

ival

ents

)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Inte

rcon

nect

ion

Indu

stry

Tran

spor

t

Agr

icul

ture

Land

use

cha

nge

Was

te

Inte

rnat

iona

l bun

kers

Fugi

tive

s

1995

2000/01Note: International bunkers refers to

fuel used in international transportand shipping. All figures areexpressed in CO2-e, which convertmethane and nitrous oxide intothe equivalent global warmingpotential of CO2 (methane has21 times the global warmingpotential of CO2).

SOURCE: LOTHIAN, UNPUB.

26

1 Atmosphere

Increasing competition for scarce water resources.

Reduced rainfall across southern Australia will increasethe demand on already stressed water resources.A change in the range and distribution of pests.

Warmer temperatures are likely to increase pests’ability to survive winter conditions and accelerate theirgrowth rates and population levels in summer months.Warmer temperatures may cause the fruit fly toexpand its range southwards. Plant diseases are likelyto become more severe. This would affect theviticulture industry in particular.A drop in agricultural productivity. Initially higherCO2 levels will stimulate plant growth but in the longerterm productivity will decrease. This has significantimplications for South Australia’s wheat industry.Fewer frost days will affect the setting of stone fruitsand apples. Reduced rainfall in the rangelands willreduce their productivity.Economic restructuring. This will be experiencedprimarily by the coal generated electricity industry.Increases in sea level and the intensity of storm

events. This is likely to have a significant economicand social impact on coastal communities, withimplications for the provision of adequateinfrastructure for stormwater management.Impact on human health. This is likely to includeincreased injury and death from higher summertemperatures (partially offset by fewer winter deaths)and extreme weather events. Increased numbers ofmosquitos in some areas may see an increase incases of Dengue fever and Ross River virus.

Adaptation to climate change

Table 1.1 outlines the ability of different sectors withinSouth Australia to adapt to climate change in thecoming decades and suggests areas where improvedknowledge and planning is required. Planning foradaptation to climate change is a relatively newconcept and there has, as yet, been no formal policydevelopment by the State Government regarding thistopic. The development of future strategies mustaddress adaptation as a matter of priority.

PREDICTIONS: South Australia’sclimate in the 21st century

The CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Research hasrecently completed a review of global warming forSouth Australia, which includes projections3 for climatechange in the coming century (McInnes et. al., 2003).The following is a summary of the major findings.• Annual average temperature increase over the

north of the State of 0.4 to 2.0°C by 2030 and 1.0to 6.0°C by 2070. In the south temperatures willincrease by 0.2 to 1.4°C by 2030 and 0.6 to 4.4°Cby 20704.

• Projections for rainfall in South Australia tendtoward a decrease over most of the State (in therange of -13% to +6% in 2030 and -40% to +20%in 2070), with exceptions in the far south-east(stronger decreases) and in the north-east of theState (increases and decreases equally likely)5.

Congested traffic on Main South RoadPhoto: Transport SA

Dairy cattle grazing

KEY FACTS

• Stream flow in the east-

central Murray-Darling Basin

could be reduced by up to 20%

by 2030 and up to 45% by

2070, having an impact on

aquatic plants and animals.

• Climate change could have

significant environmental,

social and economic

consequences.

Sector Issues

Water and Catchments Water management within South Australia requires a high degree ofadaptability due to the considerable variation in our climate from year to year.However, the effect of projected long term reductions in water supply due toclimate change need to be assessed.

Agriculture This sector is generally well adapted to climate variability but further work isneeded to determine how climate change may affect production to maximiseagricultural performance under future climate conditions.

Biodiversity An understanding of the relationships between biodiversity and climate changeat the species and community level is generally poor and needs improvementin order to develop options for adaptation.

Coasts Rising sea levels in the future, combined with storms of possibly greaterintensity than experienced now, will increase the vulnerability of low-lyingcoastal areas. There is little room for adaptation at present as so muchdevelopment has occurred directly adjacent to the coastline.

Health With trends in South Australia towards an ageing population, the major risks ofclimate change in this sector are likely to be associated with heat stress, whilehealth problems associated with floods, such as drowning and vector-bornediseases such as malaria, are likely to increase only in the north of the State.

Energy and Urban Settlement Increasing frequencies of high temperatures will increase energy use inwarmer months and the State’s capacity to deliver increased energy demandsmay require assessment. More extreme rainfall events and sea-level rise mayrequire the development of new flood and stormwater strategies in low-lyingsuburbs of Adelaide.

Source: adapted from McInnes et. al., 2003

1988

SOURCE: APELBAUM, 2002

Figure 1.10: South Australia’s transportgreenhouse gas emissions by type –1988–2001

Emis

sion

s (m

illio

n to

nnes

CO 2

equ

ival

ents

)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Road

Rail

Air

Sea

Total

1991 1995 1998 2001

YEAR

Table 1.1: Sectoral adaptations to climate change


• Evaporation rates will increase significantly in thenorthern arid region and to a lesser extent inthe south.

• Hot spells above 35°C and 40°C will increase

across the entire State with the exception of theSouth East and Kangaroo Island.

• Although rainfall will decrease, extreme rainfallevents will increase by up to 10%. Heavy rainfallevents in summer in the far north will increase infrequency and amount of rainfall leading to a 20%increase in flood frequency for that region.Drought frequency will increase by the end ofthe century.

• By 2100 sea levels are expected to rise by up to88 centimetres.


Australia has signed and ratified the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCC). The convention commits Australia to takingaction to reduce greenhouse emissions in order tocounter potential climate change due to human-induced greenhouse gas emissions.

The Commonwealth Government has indicatedthat it will not ratify the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCbut will work to achieve the target set by the Protocolfor Australia of an 8% increase above 1990 emissionsduring the first commitment period from 2008 to 2012.

In August 2002 the Commonwealth announcedthe development of a forward strategy on climate

change to focus on long term greenhouse issues over20 to 30 years. This will build on the National

Greenhouse Strategy (NGS), which was endorsedby the Commonwealth, State and TerritoryGovernments in 1998.

In August 2002 the South Australian Governmentgave its formal support to ratification of the Kyoto

Protocol. The Government’s sustainable energyplatform also commits to the development of a South

Australian Greenhouse Plan, which will beconsistent with the proposed forward strategy onclimate change. The Plan will establish priorities inthose areas where the State is vulnerable to climatechange, develop strategies to assist with adaptation toclimate change and establish programs for theabatement of greenhouse gas emissions in both theshorter and longer term.

To obtain important information to help underpinthe development of the Greenhouse Plan andadaptation strategy the South Australian Governmentcommissioned the CSIRO to report on observed and

projected climate change in South Australia, itsimpact and potential adaptation. A final report wasreleased in December (McInnes et. al., 2003).

The South Australian Greenhouse Committee,with representation from all State GovernmentPortfolios, advises Cabinet on greenhouse issues andcoordinates agency reporting on the NGS. The South

Australian Kyoto Protocol Working Group has beenformed to advise the Premier on the costs, benefitsand issues associated with whether theCommonwealth should ratify the Protocol or not.

Over the past five to ten years there has been arange of programs introduced in South Australia tocombat greenhouse gas emissions. These includevarious energy efficiency programs, such as theSolar Hot Water Rebate Scheme, coordinated byEnergy SA and the TravelSmart program by TransportSA, which promotes the use of public transport andother alternatives such as cycling and walking in aneffort to reduce emissions from cars.

The State Government has also supported theestablishment of renewable energy infrastructure,with the purchase of around 6% of its energyrequirements from the Starfish Hill windfarm.

Local Government is involved in efforts to reducegreenhouse gas emissions through programs such asCool Communities, which has a focus on communityeducation, and Cities for Climate Protection, whichaims to provide a framework and action plan to seeLocal Government lower its emissions. Recentchanges to building regulations now require all newhouses to meet a 4-star energy rating.

High profile measures, such as the installation ofsolar panels on the roof of the SA Museum, have alsobeen initiated in order to raise awareness in the SouthAustralian community of renewable energygeneration. While these programs have significantlycontributed to education on the impact of climatechange, their effectiveness in reducing Stategreenhouse emissions is minimal.

South Australian greenhouse emissions,however, on the whole continue to grow.


3 These projections are based on computer modelling of climate change scenarios. The models used involve simplificationsof physical processes that are not fully understood. Therefore, these must be considered estimates that have beendeveloped using the best available knowledge.4 Projections based on the combined estimates from 10 climate models.5 Projections based on the combined estimates from 10 climate models.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Cleland wildlife reservePhoto: Clare Nicolson

THE KYOTO PROTOCOL

As a result of the UnitedNations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCC)meeting in Kyoto, Japan, inDecember 1997, developedcountries agreed in principle toaccept greenhouse gasemission targets. Theseagreements are included in atreaty called the Kyoto Protocol.Australia negotiated a target of108% of 1990 emissions, to beachieved on an annual averagebasis over the years 2008 to2012 (referred to as the firstcommitment period).

Australia signed the Protocol inApril 1998, but has not yet ratifiedit, or legally accepted it. TheProtocol will enter into force afterit has been ratified by 55 partiesrepresenting at least 55% ofdeveloped country CO2emissions at 1990 levels.

A key feature of the KyotoProtocol is its flexibilitymechanisms to help countriesfulfil their reductioncommitments. One of these isinternational emissions trading.This scheme will allow developedcountries that have higher costsof greenhouse gas reduction topurchase surplus emissionallowances from countries thatare able to reduce theiremissions more cheaply.

28

1 Atmosphere

References

Apelbaum J. (2002). The South Australian TransportTask, Primary Energy Consumed and Emissions: Part F– Summary Tables. Apelbaum Consulting Group,Report prepared for Transport SA, 20 pp.

Australian Greenhouse Office (1998). The NationalGreenhouse Strategy. Strategic Framework foradvancing Australia’s greenhouse response.Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.

CSIRO (2001). Climate change impacts for Australia.www.marine.csiro.au/iawg/impacts2001.pdf

McInnes, K., Suppiah, P., Whetton, P., Hennessy, K.,Jones, R. (2003). Climate Change in South Australia.Report on assessment of climate change, impacts andpossible adaptation strategies relevant to SouthAustralia. Climate Impacts Group, CSIRO AtmosphericResearch.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)(2001). Climate Change 2001 – Third AssessmentReport. www.ipcc.ch/activity/ar.htm

Lothian, A. (unpublished). State of the EnvironmentReport 2003 – Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.Background paper prepared for the Department forEnvironment and Heritage.

Turton, H., Ma, Jinglong, Saddler, H. and Hamilton, C.(2002). Long term scenarios of how Australia canachieve deep cuts in its emissions. Discussion PaperNumber 48, October 2002. The Australia Institute(www.tai.org.au).

Flood on Hindmarsh IslandPhoto: Tony Wynne courtesy Coast andMarine Branch

The Starfish Hill Windfarm on theFleurieu Peninsula is South Australia’sfirst windfarm and is being developedby Tarong EnergyPhoto: Tarong Energy

Further information

Australian Greenhouse Officewww.greenhouse.gov.au/

CSIRO Division of Atmospheric Researchwww.dar.csiro.au/information/greenhouse.html

Kyoto Protocolunfccc.int/resource/convkp.html

Managing Greenhousewww.epa.sa.gov.au/greenhouse.html

National Greenhouse Inventorywww.greenhouse.gov.au/inventory

National Greenhouse Strategywww.greenhouse.gov.au/pubs/ngs

Still Waiting for Greenhouse (a website for skeptics)www.vision.net.au/~daly


Ozone Depletion Trends

• Concentration of ozone-depleting

substances in the atmosphere above

Australia: DECREASING.

• Predictions indicate that signs of ozone layer

recovery will start to be noticed over southern

Australia in the next ten to fifteen years.

• Complete recovery of ozone could possibly be

observed by 2050, however, this may take until

2100 due to the impact of climate change and

larger than anticipated use of ozone-depleting

substances in developing countries.

Goal

To phase out the use and emission of ozone-depletingsubstances in South Australia according to theMontreal Protocol, which sets the targets shown inTable 1.2. The Montreal Protocol came into force on1 January 1989 and has been signed by over 165countries. It is considered one of the most successfulenvironment protection agreements in the world,setting out a mandatory timetable for the phasing outof ozone-depleting substances.


Ozone (O3) occurs naturally in the stratosphere (upperatmosphere) at concentrations of tenths of a part permillion. Although it forms a very small component ofthe atmosphere, it plays a vital role in limiting theamount of solar ultraviolet radiation that reaches theearth’s surface. It is important to note that the ozone inthe stratosphere is distinct from ground-level ozone.At ground-level, ozone is an air pollutant andcontributes to smog over large cities.

OZONE DEPLETION

Aerosol spray cans

The biggest contributors to stratospheric ozonereduction are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chlorinatedsolvents, halons and methyl bromide. Thesechemicals were once widely used as refrigerants,aerosols, cleaning solvents, fire-fighting chemicalsand fumigants.

Ozone-depleting substances began beingreleased on a large scale when mass production ofCFCs for refrigeration began in the 1930s. Emissionsof ozone-depleting substances progressively increasedduring the twentieth century and began to upset thenatural equilibrium of the processes that maintain theozone layer. This caused a progressive thinning of theozone layer in all areas of the globe, but most notablyover Antarctica. This much-reduced ozone layer nowallows more ultra violet radiation (UVR) to penetratethe atmosphere, with significant implications forhuman health and the environment.

Ozone depletion is not an irreversible problemand it appears that the achievements of the MontrealProtocol will result in the eventual recovery of theozone layer. It is expected that the first signs of ozonerecovery will be noticed in ten to fifteen years’ time.Total recovery may occur as early as 2050, but couldbe delayed as long as 2100.

See also chapters on Air Quality; andClimate Change.

Key ozone-depleting substances Montreal phase-out dates Australia’s achievements

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)Used in air conditioners,refrigerators, aerosols Phase-out end of 1995 Phase-out end of 1995

HalonsUsed for fire-fighting Phase-out end of 1993 Phased out

Methyl chloroformUsed as a solvent Phase-out end of 1995 Phased out

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) Freeze consumption beginning of 1996Used in air conditioners, refrigerators, 35% reduction by 2004 Phasing out at twice theaerosols – short term replacement 65% reduction by 2010 required rate; 2004 targetfor CFCs 90% reduction by 2015 already met, will meet

Total phase-out by 2020 2010 target by 2004

Methyl bromide Freeze in 1995 at 1991 base levelUsed for fumigation 25% reduction by 1999

50% reduction by 200170% reduction by 2003Total phase-out by 2005 Phasing out at required rate

Source: Environment Australia in Manins et. al., 2001

Table 1.2: Targets of the Montreal Protocol

30

1 Atmosphere


CONDITION INDICATOR

• Stratospheric ozone concentrations (reportedon in the State of the Environment Report 1998)

Stratospheric ozone provides protection fromharmful UV radiation for all life on the planet.

PRESSURE INDICATORS

• Concentration of ozone-depletingsubstances in the atmosphere (reported onin the State of the Environment Report 1998)

Increases in the concentrations of thesechemicals accelerate the destruction of ozone.• Effective ultraviolet radiation (UVReff)

levels at the surface (reported on in theState of the Environment Report 1998)

This measurement demonstrates the impact ofozone depletion and is related to increases inincidences of eye damage, skin cancer andimmune system disorders.


CONDITION INDICATOR:Stratospheric ozone concentrations

Ozone levels in the upper atmosphere, orstratosphere, over Australia are measured atMacquarie Island, Melbourne, Perth, Brisbane andDarwin. Since the late 1970s, data from Melbourneand Perth show ozone decreases during summer ofbetween 3 to 4% per decade. The data also shows,however, that the rate of ozone depletion wasrelatively slower in the 1990s compared to the 1980s(Figure 1.11).

It is not yet possible to determine whether theozone hole has reached its maximum size, as there isconsiderable difference in its size from year to year.However, it is suspected that it will not grow muchlarger. The trend line in Figure 1.11 illustrates this, withthe rate of increase in the size of the ozone holeappearing to level off in recent years.

It is expected that the first signs of ozonerecovery will be noticed in ten to fifteen years. Totalrecovery may occur as early as 2050, but could be

FindingsMaking progressAustralia is either on target or ahead of schedule for the phasing out of all ozone-depleting substances underthe Montreal Protocol.

With continued adherence to the Protocol by participating nations, it is possible that ozone levels mayhave fully recovered within 50 years, although some predictions forecast it may take up to 100.

What more should we be doing?The Environment Protection Authority recommends that:1.7 The State Government continues to assist in meeting the national targets set out under the Montreal Protocol

through regulatory and administrative measures that complement those at the Commonwealth level.

delayed as long as 2100 due to slow compliance bysome countries with the Montreal Protocol and theinfluence of climate change. The greenhouse effect isexpected to result in a cooler upper atmosphere overthe next century – ozone depletion is accelerated incooler conditions (Manins et. al., 2001) (see chapter onClimate Change).

PRESSURE INDICATOR:Concentration of ozone-depletingsubstances in the atmosphere

Measurements of concentrations of ozone-depleting substances over Australia are made at CapeGrim in north-west Tasmania. The data indicates that,on the whole, concentrations of ozone-depletingsubstances slowed in the early 1990s and began todecline gradually in the mid 1990s (Figure 1.12). Thegraph compares chlorine level measurements at CapeGrim in Tasmania with a scenario that depictsconcentrations assuming global compliance with theMontreal Protocol (Manins et. al., 2001).

Levels of some CFCs, halons andhydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) have continued togrow in the background atmosphere, remote fromhuman or volcanic influences, due to their expandinguse in the developing world and the continued emissionfrom large ‘banks’ (such as old refrigerators or solvents)in the developed world (Manins et. al., 2001).

HCFCs are short term replacements for CFCs,halons and chlorinated solvents under the MontrealProtocol. Although containing chlorine, theybreak down more rapidly and have a lowerozone-depleting potential.

PRESSURE INDICATOR: Effectiveultraviolet radiation (UVReff) levelsat the surface

Over the last 30 years, since ozone depletion was firstnoticed over Antarctica, research has shown that thereis a direct relationship between decreasing levels ofozone and increasing levels of harmful UV-B radiationon clear days (Manins et. al., 2001).

UVReff is closely related to UV-B, but isconsidered a more accurate indicator for assessing thebiological effects of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), as

KEY FACTS

• The concentration of

ozone-depleting substances

in the atmosphere above

Australia is declining.

1980

SOURCE: MANINS ET. AL., 2001

Figure 1.11: Ozone hole area(October 1–15 average) – 1980–2001

Area

(mill

ion

km2 )

25

20

15

10

5

1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

The area of theAntarctic continent

Trend line

Area of ozone hole

YEAR

1970

Notes: Fig 1.12 compares chlorine levelmeasurements at Cape Grim in Tasmania witha scenario that depicts concentrations assumingglobal compliance with the Montreal Protocol.

SOURCE: MANINS ET. AL., 2001

Figure 1.12: Stratospheric chlorinelevels (ppb) from the major ozone-depleting substances recordedfrom Cape Grim, Tasmania

Stra

tosp

heric

chl

orin

e (p

pb) 2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

1980 1990 2000 2010

Total

CFC’s

Solvents

Methyl Bromide

Halons

HCFCs

YEAR

Montreal Protocol Scenario

Atmospheric Data


wavelengths outside of the UV-B range also have animpact on human health.

It is not possible to determine the precise impactof ozone depletion on levels of UVR in Adelaide.However, since 1980, UVR levels in tropical Australiahave increased by 4% as a consequence of ozonedepletion and decreases in cloud cover, while UVRlevels in southern areas, such as Adelaide, haveremained static or decreased slightly, largely due toincreases in cloud cover.

What impact does ozonedepletion have?

Some of the environmental, social and economiceffects of ozone depletion are listed below, to illustratethe broader significance for sustainability.Impact on plant growth and productivity. UV-Bradiation can affect plant growth and productivity.Plants have the ability to handle a single stress such asincreased UV-B levels, however, when this iscombined with another stress such as warming as aconsequence of the enhanced greenhouse effect, asmany as 25% of plants may be affected (DELM, 1993).Impact on the marine food chain. Phytoplanktonare microscopic plants that form the basis of themarine food chain. These are particularly susceptibleto increases in UV-B radiation. Reducedphytoplankton numbers would significantly affectother marine species, including commercial fishstocks (DELM, 1993).Human health. At high exposure levels, the UV-Bcomponent of UVR can weaken the human immunesystem and cause skin cancer, cataracts and eyecancer. Increased levels of UVR will contribute torising incidences of skin cancer. Australia has highlevels of UVR and the highest per capita rate ofmelanoma in the world (AIHW, 2001). The economiccost to the Australian community of skin cancer aloneis estimated at approximately $300 million per year(Mathers et. al., 1998).Deterioration of materials. Increased UV-B radiationcan accelerate the deterioration of plastics, wood,paper, cotton and wool (Manins et. al., 2001).


The Montreal Protocol came into force on 1 January1989 and has been signed by over 165 countries. It isconsidered one of the most successful environmentprotection agreements in the world, setting out amandatory timetable for the phasing out of ozone-depleting substances.

Australia’s obligations under the MontrealProtocol are implemented via complementarylegislation and policy developed by Commonwealth,State and Territory Governments. EnvironmentAustralia is responsible for coordinating nationalozone protection measures and administeringrelevant legislation.

The Commonwealth Ozone Protection Act

1989 and Regulations govern the production andimport of ozone-depleting substances at a nationallevel. This legislation currently does not cover the

storage, sale or use of ozone-depleting substances,which is regulated at State level. In South Australia thisrequirement is met by the Environment Protection

(Ozone) Regulations 1994.

A review of the Commonwealth legislation hasbeen conducted and it is anticipated that legislationwill be introduced in 2003/04 to cover the storage,sale and use of ozone-depleting substances and alsoto regulate the HCFCs that were introduced astemporary substitutes for ozone-depleting substances.This legislation will take over many of the functions ofozone legislation at State level.

As of September 2002, South Australia haddeposited 181 tonnes of halon with the Department ofAdministrative Services Centre for EnvironmentalManagement’s (DASCEM) National Halon Bank,a facility developed to destroy halon and maintainAustralia’s supply for essential purposes (such as fireextinguishers for aircraft or submarines). This is anincrease of approximately 11 tonnes since the State ofthe Environment Report 1998. It is believed that littlehalon remains in circulation. Halon is a gas with highozone-depleting potential and was previouslyfrequently used in fire extinguishers.

South Australia banned the manufacture andimport of CFCs on 1 January 1996; manufacture andimportation past this date is allowed for ‘essentialuses’, such as asthma inhalers.


References

Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) &Australasian Association of Cancer Registries (AACR)(2001). Cancer in Australia 1998. AIHW cat. no.CAN12. Canberra: AIHW, 2001.

Department of Environment and Land Management(DELM) (1993). Understanding Ozone: OzoneDepletion, Its Consequences and Actions, 2nd ed.,DELM, Adelaide.

Manins, P., Allan, R., Beer, T., Fraser, P., Holper, P.,Suppiah, R. and Walsh, K. (2001). Atmosphere, AustraliaState of the Environment Report 2001. (Theme Report),CSIRO Publishing on behalf of the Department of theEnvironment and Heritage, Canberra.

Mathers, C., Penm, R., Sanson-Fisher, R., Carter, R. andCampbell, E. (1998). ‘Health System Costs of Cancer inAustralia 1993–94’. AIHW cat. no. HWE 4. Canberra.

Further information

Environment Australia’s Ozone Programwww.ea.gov.au/atmosphere/ozone/index.html

The Montreal Protocolwww.unep.ch/ozone/montreal.shtml

United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) activitiesrelating to ozonewww.unep.org/themes/atmosphere

OZONE DEPLETION

Research has shown that there is adirect relationship between decreasinglevels of ozone and increasing levels ofharmful UV-B radiation on clear days

Skyline Murraylands, South AustraliaPhoto: South Australian TourismCommission

Port Elliot Beach

KEY FACTS

• It is expected that the first

signs of ozone recovery will be

noticed in ten to fifteen years.

Documents

State of the Environment Report - AtmosphereSTATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT REPORT 2003 19 What is the current situation? CONDITION INDICATOR: Exceedences of National Environment Protection