Strategic Communication forsiteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMMENG/Resources/...Strategic Communication for Community-Driven Development A practical guide for project managers and

Strategic Communication forCommunity-DrivenDevelopmentA practical guide for project managers andcommunication practitioners

Masud MozammelGalia Schechter

Development Communication Division, External AffairsAfrica Region, CDD Steering CommitteeCDD Anchor, Social Development Department

The World BankWashington, DCApril 2005

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© 2005 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street, NWWashington, DC 20433USA

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not nec-essarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments theyrepresent.

The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries,colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judg-ment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement oracceptance of such boundaries.


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Foreword .......................................................................................................................................................... vAcknowledgments ......................................................................................................................................... vii

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 1

2. Strategic Communication for Community Empowerment inCommunity-Driven Development ........................................................................................................... 3

3. A Five-Step Guide to Strategic Communication for Community-Driven Development ................... 7Step 1: Establish the Communication Management Function ..................................................................... 7Step 2A: Conduct a Strategic Communication Assessment ........................................................................ 11Step 2B: Conduct an Operational Communication Analysis ..................................................................... 12Step 3: Develop a Communication Strategy and Action Plan .................................................................... 14Step 4: Implement Communication Activities ............................................................................................. 27Step 5: Conduct Monitoring and Feedback Activities ................................................................................. 27Cross-Cutting Issues ...................................................................................................................................... 28

Suggested References .................................................................................................................................... 31

Tables and Figures

TablesTable 1: The role of strategic communication in CDD operations .............................................................. 5Table 2: Key communication functions at each institutional level ............................................................... 8Table 3: Communication objectives associated with project operational characteristics ......................... 12Table 4: Sample matrix for a communication action plan .......................................................................... 25Table 5: Sample budget for development of communication strategy and action plan ........................... 29Table 6: Sample budget for communication component of a CDD operation ......................................... 29

FiguresFigure 1: Institutional, sociopsychological, and project-specific factors addressed

by strategic communication in CDD .............................................................................................. 3Figure 2: Five steps to a successful strategic communication intervention ................................................. 7Figure 3: Communication interventions in different phases of the CDD project cycle ........................... 19

CONTENTS


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FOREWORD

Community-Driven Development (CDD) isan approach that provides communitiesand local governments control over deci-

sions and resources that affect their development.It engages and empowers people through a partici-patory process of local development. The strategicuse of communication tools and techniques to as-sess obstacles to the process and use informationeffectively is crucial since the CDD approach reliesprimarily on people and strives for their empow-erment.

This practical guide was developed throughwide consultation with a group of Task Team Lead-ers and communication specialists who have in-corporated communication interventions in theirprojects. They also have a wealth of knowledge,experience, and ideas on how to best use commu-nication tools and effectively integrate a compre-hensive communication program in CDDoperations.

This practical guide is intended to provide auseful communication framework that can bereadily applied to CDD operations. More specifi-cally the guide:

■ presents a simple, step-by-step process to plan,design, implement, and manage a comprehen-

sive strategic communication program in a CDDoperation;

■ explains the basic concepts and ideas of a stra-tegic communication intervention;

■ focuses on the “strategic” aspects of a compre-hensive communication program rather than onad hoc and occasional information dissemina-tion activities;

■ demonstrates how to establish clear linkagesbetween the communication objectives and theproject goals in order to help achieve the overallobjective of the CDD operation; and

■ provides specific examples and matrices to plan,design, budget, and manage a communicationprogram in CDD.

We hope this practical guide will be helpful fortask managers, communication practitioners, andother specialists engaged in designing and imple-menting programs on communication, participa-tion, stakeholder engagement, or communitymobilization.

Paul MitchellManager

Development Communication DivisionExternal Affairs, The World Bank



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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to express our gratitudefor outstanding support and advicefrom Paul Mitchell, Jacomina de Regt,

Hans Binswanger, Daniel Owen, Diana Chung,Swaminathan Aiyar, Prasad C. Mohan, CabyVerzosa, Barbara Karni, Keith McLean, TimCarrington, Parmesh Shah, Samantha de Silva,Paolo Mefalopulos, Loty Salazar, Fabio Santucci,

Yasser El-Gammal, Subramaniam Janakiram,Caroline Mascarell, Janmejay Singh, JohannaMartinson, Nawsheen Elaheebocus, and AnjaliManglik.

We are grateful to the Trust Fund for Environ-mentally and Socially Sustainable Development(TFESSD) for financing the Africa Region’s CDDSteering Committee’s contribution to this guide.



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At the heart of the community-driven devel-opment (CDD) approach are human growthand empowerment. Both are based to a great

extent on social and political change, which in turndepend to a significant degree on systematic, effec-tive, and widespread access to and application ofknowledge and information.

A strategic communication intervention is oneof the key means through which access to and ap-plication of knowledge and information are facili-tated. It helps establish a common understandingamong all participants of a development initiative,creating a base for common action. Strategic com-munication plans and activities empower develop-ment stakeholders with knowledge and informationthat can be applied to effective decisionmaking, ac-countable management, social and political mobi-lization, helpful behavior change, and individual andcollective growth.

Traditional approaches to communication typi-cally involve top-down public education campaignsby line ministries about particular topics. In con-trast, a strategic communication intervention de-signed for a CDD operation is based on amultipurpose and multidimensional framework.This framework fosters the process of change byaiming to achieve four primary goals:

■ Effectively manage program and subproject pro-cesses.

■ Educate, learn, and effect behavior change relatedto sectoral subject areas.

■ Build relationships and coalitions, increase socialand political mobilization, and build capacity.

■ Train for strategic and sustainable communica-tion systems and practices.

The framework may include several types ofcommunication interventions focusing on the ac-tivities most relevant and appropriate for the par-ticular operation and its enabling environment.

Both CDD as an approach to poverty reduc-tion and strategic communication as a critical de-velopment enabler have benefited in recent yearsfrom the growing recognition of their value to eco-nomic development and empowerment. As a re-sult, a growing number of communication activitieshave been designed and integrated into an increas-ing number and types of community-based andcommunity-oriented development efforts.

Communication activities are often includedin CDD operations, but few are planned and imple-mented in a strategic manner that supports pro-gram objectives. Rather, they tend to be includedin an ad hoc, unsystematic, and reactive manner,and also tend to focus on sending information out,rather than on establishing effective feedbackmechanisms. Following are five key ways in whichstrategic communication can contribute to CDDinterventions:

■ Strategic communication can help ensure thatproject design is realistic, appropriate, and ef-fective by building awareness and understand-ing among the project team and projectbeneficiaries of prevailing cultural, social, andpolitical conditions; perceptions; and incentivestructures.

1. INTRODUCTION

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■ Strategic communication is a critical manage-ment tool for implementation and scaling upbecause it can help create a common understand-ing of and commitment to project objectives andactivities among all stakeholders. Communica-tion facilitates the multidirectional exchange ofimportant information for knowledge-based andrealistic decisionmaking at all levels.

■ Strategic communication can add value as anoperational tool by helping to identify develop-ment-related perceptions and the level of knowl-edge and learning needs. Through culturallysensitive education, learning, and mobilizationefforts, a strategic communication interventionhelp promote adoption of new practices, em-power people, and build networks and capacityamong stakeholders.

■ Strategic communication interventions alwaysinclude training and capacity building in orderto facilitate the effective and dynamic use of com-munication tools and techniques, taking intoaccount conditions and needs at the institutional,community, and grassroots levels.

■ Finally, strategic communication works bestcommunication when interventions are planned,funded, implemented, evaluated, and scaled upas an independent component or subcomponentof a project or program.

This guide aims to unleash the potential value-added of communication tools and techniques byproviding a practical framework for designing anintegrated strategic communication interventionin CDD. It presents strategic communication asboth a critical management tool and an empower-ment tool in its own right.

The guide highlights some of the key potentialcontributions of communication activities and toolsto the CDD agenda throughout the project cycleand across a multitude of institutional levels andstakeholder groups.

Designed for Task Team Leaders and commu-nication practitioners, the guide provides a practi-cal overview of some of the critical aspects toconsider and issues to keep in mind when design-ing and integrating strategic communication in aCDD operation.


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The CDD vision includes five dimensions ofsocial and economic development of ben-eficiary stakeholders. These dimensions—

empowering communities, building the capacity oflocal governments, realigning the center, ensuringaccountability, and learning by doing—are often re-flected in operational designs that may be based onone of several common institutional arrangements,a multisectoral and cross-functional framework, anda dynamic, people-oriented, incentive-based rela-tionship among the stakeholders involved.

This guide focuses primarilyon communication activitiesdesigned to support direct com-munity empowerment efforts.Community empowerment anddecentralization efforts are notnew to development interven-tions. What is new is the strongemphasis on multisectoral ap-proaches for decentralizationand capacity building at the lo-cal government and communitylevels. A multisectoral approachis seen as a critical element of theenabling environment for sus-tainable CDD. The integrationof a strategic communicationframework into CDD interven-tions is also a critical enabler forsustainable CDD programs andactivities.

A strategic communicationframework serves several roles in

the development process. It takes into account psy-chological, sociopolitical, cultural, and economicdynamics within and across stakeholder groups di-rectly or indirectly involved in the development pro-cess (Figure 1). It also combines information,education, mobilization, behavior change, and ca-pacity building activities that facilitate horizontaland vertical relationship building, top-down andbottom-up political action, accountability, processmanagement, and social and behavior changethrough knowledge and learning.

2.STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION FORCOMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT INCOMMUNITY-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT

Institutional, sociopsychological, and project-specific factorsaddressed by strategic communication in CDD

FIGURE 1

Media

NGOs, CBOs, Local org.,

private sector

Govt.org.

Managementissues

Technicalaspects

Communitydynamics

Politicaldynamics

Culture,behavior, values,

beliefs,attitudes

Institutional factors

StrategicCommunication

in CDD

Project specific factors

Socio-psychological factors


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At the core of the CDD approach is the inte-gration of community empowerment efforts withcapacity building of local governments for effec-tive, accountable, and decentralized service deliv-ery. Community empowerment efforts aim tostrengthen the capacity, resources, and authority ofcommunities to mobilize, organize, and undertakelocal development initiatives. According “Empow-erment means the expansion of assets and capa-bilities of poor people to participate in, negotiatewith, and hold accountable institutions that affecttheir lives. It means giving people access to voiceand information, greater social inclusion and par-ticipation, greater accountability, and organizationalstrength,” (Binswanger and Aiyar, 2003, p. 5).

Strategic communication plays an importantrole in empowering communities, in several ways:

■ It empowers communities with the ability toidentify their needs, challenges, and resources;engage in productive conflict resolution; tap intotheir own capacities; and make truly collectivedecisions.

■ It promotes an information-sharing culturewithin and among communities for learning andmobilization purposes, and it demonstrates tocommunities the power of sharing informationand raising awareness.

■ It promotes and extends the voices of the poorin public dialogue, inclusion in community and

development affairs, and demand for greater andbetter service within their communities and fromlocal governments and institutions.

■ It facilitates two-way information disseminationand exchange about the design and managementof community-based microprojects.

■ It facilitates two-way education and learningabout sectoral and multisectoral topics for be-havior change that promotes sustainable devel-opment and empowerment.

■ It facilitates community access to market infor-mation and provides community members withknowledge and information they can use to con-duct transactions with both the government andmarkets.

■ It institutes new communication channels withinand across communities and between commu-nities and local authorities that can be used be-yond the life of a particular project.

■ It generates “critical tension” between commu-nities and their local representatives for collabo-ration.

■ It facilitates realistic, relevant, culturally sensi-tive, and effective outreach to community groupsregarding their roles and responsibilities as wellas the benefits and tradeoffs associated withproject participation.

Other key operational characteristics andtheir link to strategic communication are shownin Table 1.


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Institutional arrangements

Gathers and exchanges sufficient information to determinethe choice of institutional arrangement. Institutionalarrangement depends on identified local development goalsand country’s institutional reform and capacity building needs.Whatever arrangement is chosen, CDD operations oftenrequire a multilayered partnership between various levels ofgovernment, local institutions, and communities. Comprehen-sive intervention serves as a critical enabling tool to facilitatethese partnerships for effective and sustainable projectmanagement and implementation.

Operational characteristic of CDD Programs Role of strategic communication

TABLE 1. THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION IN CDD OPERATIONS

Multisectoral, cross-functional, community-driven, bottom-up information flow

Usually multisectoral, allowing communities to identify anddefine their development objectives based on a broadexamination of community conditions and priorities, andsupportive of local government authority and empowerment.Seeks to institutionalize reform and change in an integratedcore of public management practices rather than in aparticular sectoral ministry. Approach is aligned with CDDefforts to establish an enabling environment conducive to abroad spectrum of economic empowerment driven in aparticipatory manner by the people.

Facilitates required multisectoral and horizontal informationflows, which are often infrequent and atypical. An effectiveplan focuses on decentralization of information and institutionof multidirectional, bottom-up communication, monitoring,evaluation, and feedback channels. The approach is verydifferent from traditional practices, in which communities areoften the mere recipients of information about potential“benefits” and required “sacrifices” of an intervention.Communication activities also facilitate the creation of newinteragency linkages (bureaucratic bottlenecks perpetuate apolitical culture of centralization and isolation).

Ownership, commitment, participation, and accountability at the community level

Community empowerment goals require the application ofparticipatory practices from the initial stages of projectdesign, thereby facilitating community ownership andcommitment to their own development processes. Communi-ties must not only define their own developmental objectivesand priorities, they must also actively engage in all designand implementation processes of local microprojects. Suchinvolvement, in the form of participatory appraisal, projectmanagement, communication and participatory monitoring,and evaluation activities, helps empower communities andbuild their capacity to handle development activities in asustainable and replicable manner.

A communication strategy and action plan help identify andfacilitate all activities required for comprehensive communityparticipation and extensive coordination and communicationwithin and among community groups, including community-based organizations and associations, entrepreneurs,traditional leaders, and local-level institutions. Communica-tion and mobilization activities ensure that the voice of themarginalized and excluded is heard and promoted. Acommunication strategy thus helps deliver the CDD promiseof promoting social and gender inclusion, giving voice to thevoiceless, and reducing potential for elite capture.

Mobilization and engagement through access to information and linkage to markets

■ Partnerships between communities and local or municipalgovernments

■ Partnerships between communities and private supportorganizations (NGOs or private firms)

■ Direct partnership between communities and the centralgovernment or a central fund

Reduces communities’ sense of isolation, alienation,uselessness, and powerlessness with respect to political,social, and economic networks.

Facilitates the exposure of poor communities to externalinformation, ideas, networks, and partnerships, so that theycan better perceive the incentives and motivation for mobiliza-tion and engage in productive activities using their ownresources.

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Operational characteristic of CDD Program Role of strategic communication

TABLE 1. THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION IN CDD OPERATIONS (continued)

People-oriented, relationship-based development and capacity-building activities

Cultivates the human element of economic development byfocusing on and exploring some of the cultural and informalaspects of development hurdles and promoting economicempowerment through participation, partnerships, capacitybuilding of social capital, and relationship-based collabora-tion between communities and their elected governments atvarious levels.

Facilitates participatory investigation into stakeholders’needs, concerns, dynamics, resources, and vision beyond thebasic conditions of communities and their access to goodsand services and into the need for communication betweenhuman beings for their own qualitative development and thatof the societies in which they live. It is the existence of suchcommunication and its democratization that is believed tocontribute to social and economic empowerment.

Complex incentive structures and critical tensions for stakeholder collaboration and engagement

Often provides substantive incentives for communities toassume responsibilities over their own development plan;given the community-oriented approach, incentives forcollaboration among government agencies and localinstitutions are often less pronounced. While some financialand political incentives for behavioral change are integratedinto operations, other triggers for collaboration are basedmostly on democratic concepts of civic engagement andpublic service.

Increases likelihood of success and sustainability of participa-tion, decentralization, and capacity building endeavors byensuring and facilitating a transparent and consistent flow ofinformation among stakeholder groups and their consequentability to make knowledge- and incentive-based decisions.Helps create critical tensions and demand for information,particularly between communities and their local governmentassociations. Demand for information and its utilizationshould be extensively promoted as part of a CDD operation inorder to facilitate transparency, checks and balances, andaccountability.

Evolving roles of initial beneficiaries based on need to replicate and scale-up operations

Often community focused and initially small in scale. In orderto capitalize on the benefits associated with each operation’stargeted efforts and to scale up rapidly, initial projectbeneficiaries should assume the roles of trainers, educators,and information brokers during more advanced programstages.

Ensures that participating beneficiaries clearly understandproject objectives and processes from the start of the projectand that their capacity is sufficiently developed—throughtraining, critical reflection, and learning by doing—to pass onand share critical knowledge with other groups.


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The development and incorporation of a stra-tegic communication intervention in CDDoperations starts at the very beginning of the

project design phase and evolves throughout theproject cycle. A strategic communication approachis very flexible: the strategy and action plan can beupdated, modified, and finetuned at any time basedon feedback and other monitoring mechanismsused during implementation.

STEP 1.ESTABLISH THE COMMUNICATION

MANAGEMENT FUNCTION

The first step in developing, implementing, andscaling up a strategic communication interventionis to ensure that both the World Bank project team(preparation or supervision) and particularly itsgovernment counterparts (initially at the centrallevel, later at the regional or local level, as well as at

3.A FIVE-STEP GUIDE TO STRATEGICCOMMUNICATION FOR COMMUNITY-DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT

Five steps to a successful strategic communication intervention

FIGURE 2

Step 2AStrategic

CommunicationAssessmentStep 1

CommunicationManagement

FunctionStep 2B

CDD OperationalCommunication

Analysis

Step 3Communication

Strategy &Action Plan

Step 5Feedback

&Monitoring

Step 4Implementation of

CommunicationActivities

Cross-cutting Issues: 1. Capacity Building 2. Budget



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the community level) have communication pro-fessionals that are positioned to develop, manage,and implement communication activities through-out the project cycle. One of the biggest obstaclesto successful communication interventions is thelack of continuous management of related activi-

ties. Project management units should thereforekeep the strategic communication managementfunction active throughout the implementationprocess.

All actors involved in a CDD operation havecommunication roles to play (Table 2).

■ Together with central counterpart, facilitates stakeholder identification, analysis, and sensitization.■ Together with central project management unit counterpart, communicates to Bank management

team all design-related messages and issues, particularly with regard to stakeholder relations andincentive structures.

■ Supports the expectations of the Bank’s management team and government stakeholders’ duringthe design process.

■ Together with counterparts, supports the development of the communication strategy (researchcapacity needs, stakeholders, main messages, scope, scale and delivery style) and supervises itsimplementation.

Central governmentcounterpartteam (projectimplementationunit, projectmanagement unit)

■ Facilitates all sensitization events and stakeholder outreach, in consultation with Bank communi-cation specialist, as needed.

■ Communicates to Bank management team all design-related messages and issues, particularlyregarding stakeholder relations and incentive structures.

■ Together with Bank counterpart, develops communication strategy, identifying capacity needs,messages, stakeholders, and outsourcing options.

■ Manages production of supporting materials.■ Facilitates sector-based campaigns and education activities and products to communities.■ Facilitates intergovernmental project-related communication channels and network (newsletter,

Web site, periodic meetings).■ Serves as information clearinghouse for project-related information in order to identify synergies,

scale, modifications, and so forth.■ Coordinates all training.

State governmentcounterpartteams (projectimplementationunit, projectmanagement unit)

■ Customizes strategy to regional needs, including production of materials and identification of localcapacity.

■ Facilitates state-level interagency communication and outreach required for effective andaccountable performance of project management unit.

■ Facilitates sector-based campaigns and education activities and products to communities.■ Facilitates ongoing communication, networking, and learning with other state project management

units and the central project management unit.■ Facilitates communication campaigns to communities and local governments.■ Facilitates information sharing and exchange with central fund unit and with local government

associations and communities.■ Facilitates local training requirements.

World Bank projectmanagement team

TABLE 2. KEY COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS AT EACH INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL

Institutional level Key communication roles



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■ Facilitates communication campaign with communities and local governments.■ Communicates regularly and shares knowledge and information with central and state govern-

ments regarding financial management issues and contributes to policy dialogues on decentraliza-tion.

■ Communicates regularly with management committee of local governments regarding technicalassistance, local development plans, subproject approval and fund disbursement processes, andoverall capacity building.

Local/districtgovernmentmanagementcommittee

■ Reaches out to participating communities and facilitates participation and involvement duringdesign and implementation of local development plan.

■ Communicates to community scaling up and synergy issues with local government developmentplan.

■ Reaches out to nonparticipating communities and manages expectations and informationrequests.

■ Communicates with communities regarding capacity and performance changes and serviceprovision.

■ Facilitates communication with central fund, state government, or both regarding process-relatedissues and capacity building and training needs.

Central fundmanagement unit

TABLE 2. KEY COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS AT EACH INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL (continued)

Institutional level Key communication roles

Facilitators ofcommunity- basedappraisal process

■ Facilitates Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation (PM&E) through different activities, such asconducting outreach to subgroups, managing expectations, and sponsoring learning events.

■ Facilitates relationship building and collaboration between communities and local governments.■ Communicates technical assistance requirements and sectoral information needs to local and

state governments (or central fund unit).■ Facilitates community-to-community extension and relationship building through information

sharing, field visits, and learning events.■ Identifies training and capacity building needs at the community level.■ Facilitates information exchange and outreach with local markets, the private sector, and relevant

NGOs and local institutions.■ Facilitates production of local materials and community input into centrally produced materials.

Communitymanagementcommittees(working initiallywith facilitator, thenindependently)

■ Reaches out to all community subgroups for participation, inclusion, and contribution to localdevelopment purposes.

■ Manages information and expectations regarding the project and all its monitoring and evalua-tion requirements.

■ Facilitates outreach to local government and communication of needs and demands for participa-tion.

■ Facilitates communication with local, state, and central government for sector-based education,information, and communication needs.

■ Helps facilitate behavior change campaign and activities.■ Facilitates learning and critical reflection events.■ Facilitates community-to-community extension, information sharing, and learning.

The following are answers to some of the ques-tions often asked about the communication man-agement function and its linkages to the strategiccommunication interventions in CDD operations:

Q: During which phase of the project should the com-munication specialist function be active?

A: As part of the Bank’s team, a communicationspecialist should be involved primarily at the



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initial stages of project identification and de-sign. The task team leader or the project’s com-munity development expert may assume someresponsibilities at later stages, although it is sug-gested that all tasks related to communicationinterventions be consolidated from the outsetand handled by a communication specialistthroughout the life of the project cycle.

The Bank’s specialist should monitor ac-tivities throughout supervision, working closelywith the country counterpart, preferably theproject’s communication professional(s). It iscritical that a communication specialist be iden-tified for ongoing planning and implementa-tion of communication activities at the nationallevel. This will, however, depend on the size,scope, and geographic coverage of the project.

Capacity at the state, municipal, local, andparticularly community level should operate onan ongoing basis throughout project implemen-tation phase in order to identify communica-tion needs, channels, messages, and stakeholdersbased on the evolving conditions and dynam-ics of the project.

Q: What if the Bank team or the local project man-agement teams cannot afford a communicationspecialist?

A: Strategic communication activities are some-times mistakenly viewed as secondary in im-portance to overall project management andoperational needs and are therefore not valuedhighly enough to warrant the hiring of a sepa-rate specialist. This guide aims to establish thecase for the strategic significance of commu-nication interventions and the importance ofinvolving a specialist at every level of imple-mentation. In many cases, however, the respon-sibilities of the communication function maybe combined with those of other managementfunctions. In this case the aim should be to iden-tify people within each of the management unitswho can develop and manage the strategic com-munication intervention.

Q: Can strategic communication be linked to othermanagement functions?

A: Ideally, strategic communication activitiesshould not be combined with monitoring andevaluation (M&E) activities. M&E plays a rolewithin the overall strategic communicationframework, and managers of management in-formation systems may be aware of some ofthe information exchanges and knowledgemanagement needs associated with each levelof project implementation. But strategic com-munication includes a host of objectives andactivities that are not related to monitoring andevaluation, including building awareness,changing behavior, and empowering and edu-cating communities.

The M&E specialist’s access to and man-agement of information may position him orher to assume the management of the strategiccommunication intervention if resources arenot available to hire a communication special-ist. In this case, the M&E specialist should fullyunderstand the comprehensive view of strate-gic communication and its important role incomponents other than project management.

All staff who manage communication ac-tivities should understand the importance ofcommunication as both a management and anempowerment tool. Alternatively, the role ofcommunication could be outsourced to anNGO or private firm that specializes in com-munication and is involved on a part-time butongoing basis.

Q: Can strategic communication draw on work doneas part of other development interventions?

A: CDD operations are usually \carried out incountries in which other development interven-tions are in progress. Some of these interven-tions may be oriented toward community-basedactivities and efforts and may require ongoingcommunication interventions.

The Bank and its main counterpart teamsshould assess the overall development environ-ment in which the CDD operation will takeplace to identify potential synergies for strate-gic communication. For example, many CDDoperations in Sub-Saharan Africa take place incountries in which HIV/AIDS interventions are



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also in place. Such operations often call forbroad or focused education and behaviorchange campaigns. CDD projects can benefitfrom the management capacity of such cam-paigns, the research they drawn on, and the net-working and channels they identify.

STEP 2ACONDUCT A STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATION ASSESSMENT

A strategic communication assessment should takeplace at the very initial stages of project design inorder to identify the strategic issues and assess thecommunication capacity and dynamics of the op-eration. The assessment will provide a road mapfor developing a communication strategy and ac-tion plan. The analysis could be conducted by thecommunication specialist from the Bank’s teamin collaboration with the government counterpartand the communication or information officer inthe World Bank country office. The strategic com-munication assessment examines the followingissues:

1. Enabling communication environment. Begin byassessing existing communication channels andcapacity at each level of project implementa-tion (national, central, state, local, community).This assessment helps the specialist understandthe enabling environment (legal, cultural, for-mal and informal political) for communicationactivities and existing structures and identifyinstitutions the communication strategy can le-verage. Some key capacity issues that need tobe identified include the following:

■ Legal constraints on and limitations to theuse of mass media.

■ Political (formal and informal) constraintsto communication at each level of implemen-tation (informal information gates and bro-kers at the community level).

■ Traditional sources and types of develop-ment-related messages to communities (pre-

dominantly government or civil and privatesectors).

■ Involvement of the private sector and civilsociety in development-related communica-tion activities (public relations firms, com-munication and awareness buildingorganizations).

■ Existing (traditional) media versus emerg-ing media, including information technolo-gies, and popular perceptions of old versusnew media.

■ Area coverage of existing media.■ Communicating style and scope (literacy rate,

interpersonal versus mass media, geographi-cal and cultural diversity).

■ Existing communication capacity at eachlevel (traditional communication channelswithin and between government agencies andbetween government and communities, in-cluding newsletters, radio programs, dramas,and community-based communication cen-ters).

■ Other major development-related commu-nication efforts (such as HIV/AIDS pro-grams).

2. Stakeholders’ expectations, incentives, and dy-namics. Identify and quantify the project’s stake-holders, their level of involvement and expectedinfluence in the operation, their geographicaldistribution, the power relations among stake-holders, and the tradeoffs and benefits for eachin connection with the project.

3. Political dynamics. Identify political dynamics,including supporters and opponents of com-munity empowerment and decentralization ef-forts, power factors, public trust and confidencein government among various stakeholders, andrelevant political events.

4. Cultural characteristics and diversity. Identify lan-guage and religious diversity, traditions regard-ing gender roles, common symbols and customsthat should be accounted for.

5. Role and capacity of civil society. Understand theextent of involvement of civil society (includ-ing community-based organizations, advocacygroups, NGOs, academics, intellectuals, journal-



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ists, and others) in public dialogue and its ca-pacity to facilitate community mobilization, in-formation campaigns, monitoring andevaluation efforts, and other activities.

6. Existing related development efforts and commu-nication campaigns. Identify synergies, scaleeconomies, and partnership and learning op-portunities, particularly in countries with HIV/AIDS or community empowerment projects.

STEP 2BCONDUCT AN OPERATIONAL

COMMUNICATION ANALYSIS

The operational analysis consists of two steps. Thefirst involves reviewing the project’s operational

components and subcomponents and identifyingall operational elements that either depend on orcan be significantly enhanced by a communicationintervention.1

The second involves identifying all primarystrategic communication objectives that are linkedwith each operational characteristic. This will pro-vide an essential foundation for developing a real-istic, comprehensive, and sound communicationstrategy, including its action plan. Table 3 providesfive examples of primary communication objec-tives linked to a project’s possible operational char-acteristics.

1 The operational components used here are those identi-fied by Binswanger and Aiyar (2003).

Participatory planning is key to building trust, ownership, understanding, and commitment bystakeholders to operational objectives, processes, and other stakeholders. It is also critical forensuring periodic and ongoing program evaluation and adjustment. The main objectives ofcommunication activities in this process include the following:

■ Build awareness among and sensitize direct and indirect stakeholders by discussingobjectives, scope, processes, roles, responsibilities, benefits, tradeoffs, and other issues.

■ Build ownership and contribute to operational effectiveness. Ensure that all direct andindirect stakeholders are made aware of the operational context and institutional arrange-ments and are given the opportunity to provide input into project design and implementa-tion processes.

■ Build trust by initiating new interaction and communication channels among stakeholders,improving relations among groups with a tradition of mistrust.

■ Identify the scope and style of project-related messages and possible tools and means ofdelivery.

2. Communitydevelopmentcommittees andsubcommittees tomanage programsand projects

Communication activities related to the selection and operation of local development commit-tees are designed to ensure a transparent and continuous information flow within the commu-nity and between the community and other major stakeholders in implementation processes.This information flow is designed to prevent capture by elites and provide realistic opportunitiesfor all members of the community to contribute to the development process by becoming awareof involvement opportunities and by providing insights, knowledge, and constructive criticism.Communication activities will also help:

■ Identify existing power dynamics in each community and help determine whether a newdevelopment committee should be formed.

1. ParticipatoryPlanning and Appraisal(PP&A) of the overalloperation

TABLE 3. COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECT OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS

Operational characteristics Strategic communication objectives




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■ Facilitate communitywide awareness of the selection process.■ Establish criteria for appointment to the new development committee.■ Facilitate communitywide awareness of the roles and responsibilities of the development

committee with respect to the community, local committees, and other institutions involvedin the project, including local government.

3. Participatorycommunity-basedappraisal, planning,and monitoring andevaluation

Participatory community-based appraisal, planning, and monitoring and evaluation is critical forthe community to collectively understand, learn from, and reflect upon the design, management,and implementation activities related to the local development plan. Communication processesshould facilitate the ongoing exchange of information among community members and groupsin order to leverage the broad host of local capacities, potential, and resources and ensure thatdevelopment priorities are based on a collective vision of all members rather than the interestsof certain elites. Communication activities must be transparent and participatory. They shouldalso:

■ Establish community recognition and acceptance of the role of the facilitators.■ Facilitate participatory communitywide discussions of local development vision and priorities.■ Ensure community-wide awareness and understanding of the tradeoffs and benefits of each

potential subproject to facilitate a knowledge-based decisionmaking process.■ Facilitate community-wide agreement on and awareness of auditing, reporting, accountabil-

ity, and outcome measurement in the context of the subproject cycle.■ Facilitate community-wide awareness, understanding, and critical reflection regarding

successes, failure, challenges, and opportunities associated with project management andimplementation.

TABLE 3. COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECT OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS (continued)



4. Communitymanagement ofproject funds

Communication activities should convey clear messages about the budgeting, accounting, andreporting responsibilities of all those involved with the management of funds. These activitiesshould establish:

■ Clear understanding among all community members of the authority, rights, and responsibili-ties associated with obtaining and managing funds. Miscommunication about or misunder-standing of application and allocation requirements and processes should not delay orprevent the disbursement of funds to communities.

■ Clear understanding among local government authorities and other stakeholders outside thecommunity of the community’s rights and abilities with respect to fund management.

■ Clear understanding among all members of the community of who manages funds and ofreporting and accountability obligations.

■ Awareness among all local businesses and entrepreneurs of opportunities for subcontractingand project involvement.

■ Awareness within the community of challenges, opportunities, and successes associated withdisbursing and allocating funds.

5. Community-to-community extension

Community-to-community extension is critical to empowering communities and scaling upefforts. It is one of the major areas in which strategic communication is an enabling factor. Aregular and systematic communication approach can not only bring communities togethersocially, it can also foster the development process by sharing knowledge and experiences.Major communication objectives include the following:

■ Integrate into overall program objectives and processes the role of community-to-communityextension and its relevance for scaling up.



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STEP 3DEVELOP A COMMUNICATION

STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN

A CDD communication strategy will guide thedevelopment of an action plan that addresses veryspecific activities to achieve the target objectives.A communication strategy could be a very shortdocument with a set of guiding principles that pro-vide the scope and outline for planning, design-ing, implementing, supervising, managing, andscaling up a systematic communication interven-tion throughout the life of the project. The strat-egy would rely on the findings of the strategiccommunication assessment and the CDD opera-tional communication analysis (Steps 2A and 2B).

Creating a communication action plan involvesthe development of a comprehensive and detailedmatrix that elaborates on the major communica-tion objectives identified in the communicationstrategy. It is critical for the successful implemen-tation of a communication intervention. Ideally, theaction plan is designed after the communicationstrategy is developed.

Four overlapping focus areas help guide theidentification of each of the elements included inthe matrix:

■ Communication for program and subprojectprocess management.

■ Communication for learning and behaviorchange.

■ Communication for mobilization and relation-ship building.

■ Capacity building and training.

The communication action plan is generallydeveloped by the communication professional inthe project management/implementation unit incollaboration with the World Bank’s communica-tion specialist. The process could involve brain-storming sessions or workshops in which projectstaff, government officials from different levels,community members, civil society representatives,and others directly or indirectly involved in issuesrelated to communication, information, participa-tion, public relations, partnership, and extensionparticipate. These brainstorming sessions or work-shops should involve a small group of people sothat all participants can contribute to the develop-ment of each element of the action plan.

An action plan generally includes the follow-ing elements: I. Objectives, II. Strategic Issues, III.Stakeholders, IV. Messages, V. Activities/Tools, VI.Channels/Networks, VII. Timeline/Frequency, VIII.Responsibility, IX. Budget, and X. Monitoring In-dicators. (See Table 4 for a matrix including all 10elements.)

I. SETTING COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES

The objectives identified in the communicationanalysis (in Step 2) are an element in the actionplan. For example, a common operational feature

■ Facilitate the sharing of knowledge and experience of the development process amongcommunities by institutionalizing a consistent and systematic process and creating thecapacity for such exchanges.

■ Facilitate a process through which communities identify their own areas of strengths andweaknesses and become aware of the opportunity, importance, and benefits of teaching aswell as learning from other communities.

■ Promote engagement and ownership of the development process by local media infacilitating exchanges by communities (through use of various media channels).

TABLE 3. COMMUNICATION OBJECTIVES ASSOCIATED WITH PROJECT OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS (continued)


Note: Operational characteristics are from Binswanger and Aiyar (2003).



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in CDD operation is to ensure community-to-com-munity extension. One of the objectives in a com-munication intervention for this feature could beto promote relationship building among commu-nities or establish a mechanism for sharing knowl-edge and experience within and betweencommunities. The objectives should be realistic andbased on the socioeconomic, political, and culturaldynamics of the country, region, or community.

II. ADDRESSING STRATEGIC ISSUES

Strategic issues are issues that need to be consid-ered in designing the messages, selecting the ac-tivities, and identifying the channels or networksthrough which any communication interventionwill operate. They are particularly important inCDD operations. Strategic issues can be linked tosocioeconomic, cultural, and political dynamics andto various aspects of a strategic communication in-tervention. The challenges for CDD operationsinclude the following:

■ Manage expectations of stakeholders, beneficiaries,and politicians. The CDD approach calls for ex-tensive consultation with and participation ofall stakeholder groups, beginning with the ini-tial stages of project design. Careless manage-ment of these consultations can create unrealisticexpectations, disappointment, and eventual dis-trust and cynicism. Many poor communities areapproached by donors and asked to develop lo-cal action plans only to eventually be neglected.Clear and realistic messages are key.

■ Understand power relations and dynamics. Rela-tionships between development stakeholderswithin each country can make or break a devel-opment effort. These relationships should beclearly identified, acknowledged, and addressedthrough new communication messages andchannels. Relationships between communitiesand local governments are often characterizedby mistrust and miscommunication. This legacymust be taken into account in process design.Messages need to be crafted regarding the in-volvement of each stakeholder group.

■ Harmonize requirements for accessing funds. Manycommunities can access development funds fromseveral sources outside of government. Multiplesources, requirements, and practices can be con-fusing and misleading. To the extent possible,these sources and requirements should be har-monized. Clear messages are critical.

■ Distinguish between existing and new practices.Many communities are experienced in design-ing and implementing their own self-helpprojects. It is therefore critical to distinguish be-tween existing development projects, practices,and committees and those required by the project.

■ Prevent social exclusion and capture by elites. CDDoperations require clear articulation of incen-tives, requirements, guidelines, and safeguardsfor participation and inclusion.

■ Communicate opportunities for involvement. MostCDD operations initially include only a smallnumber of communities, with the aim of rap-idly scaling up. Messages about involvementopportunities and incentives must be articulatedat the initial stages of the process, particularlyto groups that are initially excluded.

■ Deliver messages in an appropriate manner. Allmessages must take into account the level of lit-eracy in the community, its cultural symbols andcustoms, and religious diversity. All messagesmust be in the language or languages spoken inthe community.

■ Recognize and work with government incentivestructures. It is important to recognize existing in-centive structures for government performanceand service delivery and to design a capacitybuilding process that accounts for these incentives.

■ Clearly identify the sender of a message or thesource of information for an activity. All messagesneed to be clearly identified as coming from thegovernment, a community-based organization,an international development agency, a politi-cal leader, or another source.

■ Facilitate new communication channels and mes-sages where communication gaps and voids exist.Where necessary, the communication specialistneeds to establish two-way, horizontal and ver-tical communication flows among all stakehold-ers, not just top-down flows.



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■ Build credibility and trust. Ensure the credibilityof the information provided and identify stra-tegic information brokers.

■ Think carefully about timing, momentum, andsustainability. Planning for the right timing of aparticular communication activity is crucial forensuring a regular two-way flow of information.This is particularly important for maintainingmomentum to achieve the development objec-tives and sustainability of the CDD operation.For example, it is of strategic importance to pro-vide communities with sector-related informa-tion at the beginning of the PM&E process.

III. IDENTIFYING STAKEHOLDERS

A communication action plan specifies differentsets of stakeholders in order to achieve differentobjectives. One of the critical approaches to keepin mind when identifying stakeholders, particularlyat the community level, is segmentation. Within acommunity, perceptions, needs, ideas, and condi-tions are extraordinarily diverse depending on age,socioeconomic status, and gender, among otherfactors. Understanding the differences among andwithin stakeholder groups and approaching eachwith modified messages, appropriate media, meth-ods, and format is critical for maximizing inclu-sion, participation, and empowerment.

In most CDD operations, stakeholders includethe following groups:

■ Project management teams at each institutionallevel.

■ Central and regional government: Governmentministries, including the local government min-istry, the ministry of planning and decentrali-zation, the ministry of health, the ministry ofcommunity affairs, the ministry of women’s af-fairs, relevant sectoral ministries, and youth agen-cies.

■ Local government: Sectoral ministries, commu-nity development officers, communication andoutreach officers, and management committees.

■ Community: Traditional leaders (opinion lead-ers, religious leaders), teachers, committees and

associations, community-based organizations,and outsiders (including facilitators of commu-nity-based PM&E processes, extension workers,entrepreneurs, and private sector entities).

■ Civil society: NGOs and advocacy groups at alllevels, academics, local and national media, theprivate sector, and health workers.

■ International organizations: Bilateral and multi-lateral donor agencies and international NGOs.

IV. CRAFTING MESSAGES

Perceptions, needs, ideas, and conditions can beextraordinarily diverse within a community, de-pending on members’ age, socioeconomic status,gender, and other factors. The communication spe-cialist needs to craft messages for each group andchoose the appropriate media, methods, and for-mat in order to ensure inclusion, participation, andempowerment. A well-developed message shouldfocus on stakeholders and objectives.

An action plan normally lists ideas for mes-sages for modifying behavior, providing incentives,clarifying roles, or achieving other objectives. Ide-ally, the development of messages for each groupof stakeholders emerge out of exercises such asbrainstorming sessions, small consultation work-shops, and inputs from communication workinggroups. In most cases, however, the project com-munication specialist or team develops the mes-sages, with the help of journalists, writers, or publicrelations experts. Sometimes senior project officialsor government officials suggest or influence thetheme for the messages. For illustrative purposes,following are some examples of key ideas (groupedby theme) around which appropriate messagesshould be developed in a CDD operation.

Theme: Participation, inclusion, and voice

■ Lack of participation and social exclusion existand represent a threat to the success andsustainability of development.

■ Groups typically excluded include the very poor,women, youth, the illiterate, the elderly, andpeople with disabilities.



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■ There are numerous benefits to participation,including a shared vision (and shared risks),innovative ideas for development, greater voice,mobilization of power, better development out-comes, and improved relations with other com-munities and local government.

■ Participation and inclusion are critical from theinitial stages of both a program and commu-nity-based subprojects to build trust, ownership,and mobilization.

■ Participation is not limited to one-way consul-tation; it encourages the expression of voice anda two-way communication flow.

■ Guidelines, safeguards, and procedures that pre-vent disbursement of funds to communities areaimed at preventing elite capture and social ex-clusion.

Theme: Direct transfer of funds to communities

■ Funds are available and untied.■ Access to funds is based on specific criteria,

guidelines, conditions, and safeguards that in-clude the level of poverty, experience with self-help projects, accountability, and inclusion.

■ Access to funds is contingent on matching grantsfrom the community and the local governmentand from collection of user and maintenancefees.

■ Communities can obtain direct access to fundsfrom a central fund unit and can manage fundsindependently, without involvement of local gov-ernments.

■ Local governments set some requirements, re-lated mostly to technical assistance, reporting,and monitoring.

■ Training and assistance on budgeting and ac-counting are available.

Theme: Community design, implementation, andmaintenance of subprojects

■ Subprojects are selected based on a shared vi-sion of local development by all members ofthe community. Project priorities can bebased on discussions and specific technical in-formation.

■ Management committees must be formed andclearly identify and agree on roles and responsi-bilities, including monitoring and evaluation, ac-countability, and reporting.

■ Communities should facilitate subcontracting tolocal entrepreneurs, possibly in collaborationwith the local government association.

■ All community members, including local entre-preneurs, have opportunities to participate in theproject.

■ Matching grants and user fees to cover recur-ring costs are critical and mandatory for main-tenance and sustainability.

■ Process information regarding reporting, ac-countability, disbursement, and utilization offunds is essential.

■ Communities can exchange knowledge andlearning with other communities.

■ Critical reflection and learning about process andoutcome are crucial.

Theme: Power relations and accountability

■ Current power relations among various stake-holders can be leveraged for realistic and effec-tive project implementation; they can alsoimpede development. They should therefore berecognized and accounted for. Power relationscan be associated with access to resources, in-cluding, money, information, prestige, and tra-ditional sociocultural roles.

■ Corruption, nepotism, favoritism, and misman-agement of funds are unacceptable and have sig-nificant negative ramifications.

■ People in positions of power are critical forproject success and should be closely engagedin the development process and utilized for buy-in, ownership, mobilization, and informationdissemination and gathering.

■ Power relations at any stakeholder level, particu-larly within the community, can be dealt withthrough clear segmentation of the populationinto strategic subgroups, which are approachedseparately in appropriate conditions.

■ Traditional power relations, especially relationsbetween communities and local governments,may reflect significant distrust, cynicism, and



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miscommunication. Incentives for participationand contribution should therefore account forthese hurdles.

Theme: Capacity issues

■ Existing capacity and resources may be signifi-cantly greater than they seem and should be rec-ognized and tapped into, particularly by thecommunities themselves.

■ Capacity is best built through a learning-by-doing process, in which engagement and involve-ment are critical and mistakes are allowed.

■ Capacity assistance and training are available atall levels (media, accounting, general manage-ment, sectoral skills and knowledge, and soforth).

■ Certain project components are designed forcapacity building purposes and may evolve andchange as capacity is increased.

Theme: Incentive structure

■ Accountability, transparency, and participationare conditions for project involvement. There arenumerous positive (benefits) and negative (pun-ishments) incentives for compliance.

V. DEVELOPING ACTIVITIES AND TOOLS

Whether they serve as management tools or asvalue-added stand-alone activities, strategic com-munication activities should be mainstreamed intoall operational components. Strategic communi-cation frameworks should become key elements ofthe project’s management component.

In addition, many CDD operations, includingthose for HIV/AIDS projects, need or could greatlybenefit from a stand-alone communication com-ponent or subcomponent. Examples include aware-ness and behavior change campaigns involvingparticular groups, establishment of a network ofcommunication centers across communities, facili-tation and establishment of grassroots radio sta-tions, and facilitation of broad-based journalisttraining programs The need for and role of suchstand-alone components are usually identified in

the course of developing and thinking through thebroader strategic communication framework.

Some examples of key activities and stand-alonecommunication components that may be includedin a comprehensive CDD communication strategyare described below. Most occur during implemen-tation; some occur throughout the program cycle(Figure 3).

A. Major communication activities during projectidentification and preparation include the fol-lowing:

1. Sensitization workshops. At the initial stages ofproject design and implementation, custom-ized sensitization workshops should be con-ducted for each stakeholder group. Theseworkshops should include relevant informa-tion about the proposed project, including itsobjectives, procedures, stakeholders,timeframe, and project cycle. A flyer could beprepared with general project information andan explanation of the World Bank project cycle.

2. Stakeholder consultation meetings and work-shops. Stakeholder consultations should em-phasize bottom-up communication and voicefor the poor, the development of trust, own-ership by and relationships among all stake-holder groups, and exploration of needs,concerns, incentive structures, power dynam-ics, capacity, experience, potential roles, ben-efits, and tradeoffs.

B. Major communication activities during the ini-tial stages of project launch include the follow-ing:

1. Project-related information dissemination formanagement and recruiting purposes. Fromthe very beginning of a project, it is impor-tant to use mass communication to recruitcommunity facilitators and disseminate in-formation to the public about the project. Ac-tivities include press conferences, radiocampaigns, and distribution of pamphlets.

2. Management training and production of train-ing materials. Training activities may be avail-



19

able for community-based facilitators of par-ticipatory rural appraisal processes, projectmanagement unit, and community membersfor budget, procurement and accountingmanagement, and other managerial purposes.Activities may include integration of a com-prehensive communication module intotraining, awareness-raising activities on theavailability of training, and production ofrelated materials.

3. Production of user-friendly operational manu-als. Operational manuals can be instrumen-tal in facilitating learning, understanding, andempowerment among stakeholders at all lev-els and reducing the chances of bottlenecks,bureaucratic delays, and miscommunication.

The production of user-friendly materialsshould include, and possibly be conductedby, stakeholders. Following some initial ex-perience with subproject design and imple-mentation, communities can help producecommunity-friendly instruction and guid-ance materials that could be used by othercommunities as well.

4. Journalist education. Print and electronicmedia journalists can play a key role in ad-vancing project objectives. They can helpmobilize the community, build awareness,educate the public, effect behavior change,monitor and evaluate local government per-formance, and build relationships. Where ba-sic capacity exists, the communication

Communication interventions in different phases of the CDD project cycle

FIGURE 3

• Assess communicationintervention

• Conduct participatory impact evaluation

• Disseminationof new knowledge

• Stakeholder consultation

• Beneficiary analysis

• Communication assessment

• Manage expectations

• Preparation and implementation of communication campaigns

• Material production

• Training (facilitators, journalists, etc)

• Management Information System and other M&E tools (at all levels)

• Stakeholder networking

• Communication for community basedappraisal and learning

• Community to community extension

• Articulate differences,concerns, challenges andopportunities

• Define conditions


• Identify and cost out line items based on action plan

• Modify action plan

• Assign budget to the communication intervention


The projectcycle for CDD

Preparation

Identification

Appraisal

Evaluation

Negotiations

Implementationand Supervision


• Operational- communicationanalysis

• Initial draft of communicationstrategy and action plan

• Sensitization workshops and consultation

• Identification of communicationfunctions/capacity



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specialist should educate journalists about thegeneral objectives of the project and journal-ists’ potential roles in furthering those ob-jectives.

5. Development of a Management InformationSystem. The Management Information Sys-tem (MIS) is developed at project launch andused throughout implementation. This toolis used to collect, analyze, store, and dissemi-nate information that is useful fordecisionmaking. A good MIS builds on aproject’s success while using lessons fromearlier experiences to improve project per-formance. An MIS for a CDD project differsfrom those for other projects, because thedemand-driven approach makes precise plan-ning and forecasting virtually impossible. Forthis reason, the MIS needs to be very flex-ible. It also needs to track many antipovertyindicators, contractors, and different typesof disbursement and procurement methods.Management activities may be decentralizedto the field; many important activities, suchas training, outreach, and monitoring, mayalso be subcontracted. The MIS must be ableto process all of these and other types of in-formation.

C. Major communication activities throughoutimplementation and evaluation include the fol-lowing:

1. Public education and awareness campaigns.Public education and awareness campaignsare usually designed to support broad mes-sages aimed at raising general awarenessabout particular topics. Such campaigns maybe related to HIV/AIDS, environmental pro-tection, education, or other broad issuesThese campaigns may be launched at theinitial stages of the project, when funds areonly beginning to become available to com-munities. They are often complemented laterby customized campaigns. General awarenesscampaigns may use any form of popular massmedia. They are likely to involve local com-munication capacity and the production of

materials, videos, radio programs, and jour-nalist training.

2. Stakeholder networking and knowledge shar-ing activities and tools. At the initial stages ofthe project and throughout implementation,knowledge sharing among institutional stake-holders can help identify project synergiesand best practices and establish an overallcommunity of practice. Ongoing activitiesmay include periodic workshops and semi-nars (for community facilitators or projectmanagement units at the regional level) andthe production of electronic or print news-letters for networking and sharing knowledgeabout project issues.

3. Creation and implementation of participatoryand two-way targeted public information andeducation campaigns for behavior change.Communication activities for raising aware-ness and changing behavior are likely to besignificantly more effective if messages, chan-nels, and tools are customized and clearlysegmented to selected topics and stakeholdergroups. Such activities should be designedbased on focus group consultation and stake-holder feedback and they should includemonitoring and evaluation. Youth could bemotivated to assume leadership roles in peereducation and behavior change related to re-productive health. Teachers could be sup-ported to facilitate information andeducation events for the community aboutthe link between hygiene, sanitation, andlearning. Such activities could be facilitatedby local drama troupes, regionally producededucational videos to be viewed at the localcommunication center, and locally producedposters and leaflets, distributed through aseries of learning and sports events coordi-nated by youth clubs. The timing for imple-menting such activities may be critical givendecisionmaking processes associated with thesubproject cycle.

4. Community-based participatory rural ap-praisal. A participatory rural appraisal in-volves a communication process basedon participation, inclusion, awareness



21

building, mobilization, reporting, education,self reflection, and knowledge-baseddecisionmaking objectives. Communicationactivities—usually facilitated by the partici-patory rural appraisal facilitator, in collabo-ration with the local community outreachofficer—focus on reaching out to all com-munity subgroups, together and separately.Participatory communication activities in-clude, but are not limited to, the following:

a. Village mapping. In this exercise groupsin the village make drawings of how theysee their village. Each group decides whatit wants to represent in its map and how.This exercise usually generates enthusi-asm among participants. Since mappingis done by various social groups separately,it enhances the voice of each and fostersdialogue among them.

b. Semistructured interviews. The semistruc-tured interview falls somewhere betweena general discussion and an organizedsurvey. It is an excellent tool for gaininginsights into a particular issue. To ensurefree expression by the vulnerable, the in-terview is carried out in subgroups. Itthrows light on the activities of the dif-ferent socioprofessional groups,village organizations, and administrativeorganizations involved with the commu-nity, as well as the utilization of resources.

c. Transect. A transect consists of a walkthrough a village, the surrounding land,or an urban neighborhood. During thiswalk, villagers discuss the various aspectsof their physical reality, including soil,water supply, sanitation, roads, land is-sues, and erosion. The findings and con-clusions of the walk are then sketched asa diagram that can be shared with theother members of the community. Mixedgroups—men, women, young, and old, allwalking together—enhance the value ofa transect.

d. Venn diagram. The Venn diagram is amethod for visualizing and analyzing the

relationships among actors in a village.By drawing this diagram, villagers expresstheir perception of relations betweengroups in the village and with outsiders.Each group in the village draws its owndiagram. This highlights cases in whichsome groups benefit more from externalservice providers than others. For ex-ample, households headed by womentypically have less access to extensionagents than other farmers.

e. Identification of priorities. In diagnosticexercises, villagers usually identify a longlist of problems (sometimes includingmore than 100). Priorities must be set bythe community, with safeguards (dis-cussed below) to try to ensure that vul-nerable sections have an adequate voice.Groups can use several techniques to iden-tify priority problems, including pair-wisecomparison, ranking, and voting. Thevery act of wrestling with priorities helpspeople develop skills in coalition build-ing, evaluating tradeoffs, and appreciat-ing the need for user charges to increaseresources and expand the number of pri-orities that can be accommodated.

f. Problem and solution analysis. The prior-ity problems villagers identify are oftenlarge, complex, and very difficult tohandle—their perceived magnitude is onereason why communities have failed toaddress them. “Problem trees” help vil-lagers analyze their priorities by identi-fying the causes that lead to a problem(the “roots”) and its consequences (the“branches”). The construction of a prob-lem tree raises awareness among partici-pants that problems that may at first seemvery great and difficult to address are ac-tually caused by factors that are deter-mined by the villagers themselves.Demystification of perceived problemsthrough the creation of problem trees isa powerful tool for improving villagers’awareness of their capacity to influencetheir environment. Once the problem tree



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has been created, participants discuss thesolution tree. Specific actions are dis-cussed to attack the identified causes ofthe problem.

g. Local education campaigns. The produc-tion and execution of targeted public in-formation and education campaigns(described above) is integrated into thePM&E process and throughout the vari-ous cycles of the subproject cycle.

5. Community-Local Government Authority(LGA) relationship building and performancemonitoring activities:

a. Participatory meetings and field visits.Communication activities involving lo-cal communities and their representativesshould try to facilitate the building of trustand collaboration between these twostakeholder groups. Such activities couldinclude involving LGA representatives inthe PM&E process as observers and con-tributors of knowledge and information(without control), promoting theparticipation of community representa-tives in LGA committee meetings. Post-ers describing LGA performance andopportunities for access to informationcan be posted on community bulletinboards.

b. Citizen report cards. Citizen report cardsare an effective and participatory com-munication tool with which communitymembers can voice their feedback anddemand for service provision by localrepresentatives. Citizen report cards arerecognized by both community membersand members of the local government asa reliable and consistent source of feed-back and communication. They enablecommunity members to use informationto monitor their local governments andhold them accountable for service. Theyprovide local governments with politicaland financial incentives to improve per-formance.

c. Governance scorecards. Governancescorecards are a communication tool forgovernment reform and community em-powerment. Based on a set of practicaland reform-oriented governance indica-tors linked to several key performance ar-eas and criteria, these scorecards can beused to assess and consequently reformlocal government performance and com-petence in service provision to commu-nities and overall management. Throughthe assessment and selection process, thescorecard can serve as a tool with whichto distinguish governments that are cor-rupt, dysfunctional, or both from thosein which administrative systems govern-ing policymaking, budgeting, and basicservice provision may be insufficient butare functioning. Where political will forchange exists and the government is func-tioning, the objective is to provide incen-tives and training for capacity buildingand knowledge and to establish a clear un-derstanding of standards of good perfor-mance. The primary objectives of thegovernance scorecard are twofold. Thefirst is to provide a practical, simple, andsystematic strategy for establishing a uni-versal benchmark of local government as-sociation performance standards based onwhich these associations can be assessedand selected for program participation.The second is to empower local govern-ment associations and communities withknowledge of simple, specific, and objec-tive performance criteria based on whichperformance expectations can be legiti-mately expressed and specific capacitybuilding objectives can be established.

6. Community-to-community learning and fieldvisits. Communication activities that promotecommunity-to-community learning andknowledge sharing are critical to mobilizingand empowering communities. These activi-ties may lead to the identification of syner-gies, cost savings, best practices, and other



23

benefits to all communities involved. Activi-ties such as organized tours and field visitsare usually coordinated by the communitymanagement committee’s outreach officer.

7. Community-based critical reflection and learn-ing days. Related communication activitiesaim to enable communities to reflect on theiractivities, processes, contributions, and im-pact on local development efforts in the sub-project cycle and to better understand andappreciate their own resources and capaci-ties. Learning days may include recreationaland entertainment activities along with pub-lic announcements, discussions, reporting,and presentations by the community man-agement committee and other participants.Learning days are organized by the manage-ment committee’s outreach officer through-out the subproject cycle.

8. Grassroots media capacity development andprogramming:

a. Development of community radio capac-ity and radio programs. Community ra-dio is one of the most effectivecommunication tools in the developingworld. It can be used to build awareness,provide information, educate and changebehavior, build relationships, and moni-tor performance. Building grassroots ra-dio capacity is therefore a keyempowerment tool for local communi-ties. It may involve the establishment ofnew radio stations, the distribution ofradios to communities, the training oflocal people as radio managers and jour-nalists, and the purchasing of airtime forproject-related programming (interviews,documentaries, public relations cam-paigns, public service announcements).

b. Use of community communication centers.Telecenters are local establishments thataim to stimulate and respond to demandfor information and communication ser-vices. These centers may have televisions,

telephones, fax machines, personal com-puters with Internet connections, andphotocopying machines. They may pro-vide an extremely useful infrastructure notonly for learning, education, and com-munication but also for networking andmobilizing communities. Communitymembers use telecenters to gather infor-mation about markets and better under-stand governance issues, mobilizationoptions, access to resources, and civil so-ciety organizations, all relevant andcritical for development-related empower-ment efforts.

c. Information and communication technol-ogy. Information and communicationtechnology is empowering communitiesby providing them with access to infor-mation. This technology provides com-munities and individuals with easy accessto market information and communica-tion. Use of the Internet, e-mail, e-learn-ing, electronic chat rooms, andtext-messaging depends on the level ofeducation, income, socioeconomic status,and cultural dynamics of the target audi-ence. Identifying appropriate technologiesfor achieving a particular communicationobjective is crucial if technology is to beused effectively, especially given the highcost of these technologies and the capac-ity building efforts required to ensure thatthey are used effectively. Timing is alsoan important factor, since an interventionmay require more time than the projectcycle allows. Combining information andcommunication technology tools withother communication media (such as tele-phone, television, and radio) has provedeffective in providing communities withaccess to different types of information.

VI. IDENTIFYING CHANNELS AND NETWORKS

Identifying channels and networks is essential todelivering messages, disseminating information,



24

and collecting feedback. In many cases the selec-tion of an activity indicates the type of communi-cation channel or network to be used. However, itis sometimes necessary to identify the channels andnetworks to reach the target audience. For example,a public service announcement can be disseminatedusing television, radio, newspapers, magazines, andother media The selection of networks can helpreach the target audience effectively and credibly.Local journalists associations or civil society forumscan be used to develop two-way communicationfor disseminating information and collecting feed-back on a regular basis.

VII. DEFINING A TIMELINE AND DETERMINING THE

FREQUENCY OF INTERVENTIONS

Defining a timeline for and determining the fre-quency of an activity is critical to the success of aCDD operation. This should also be considered asa strategic issue while developing a communica-tion action plan. A well-planned but flexibletimeline uses human and financial resources effi-ciently. The effectiveness of a communication ac-tivity or success in reaching a target audience orobjective depends on timing. During a World Cupfootball match, for example, it would not make senseto try to conduct a workshop on participatory moni-toring, but airing a public service announcementon television or radio could be very effective.

Repeating a communication activity helpsmaintain momentum and ensure the sustainabilityof the process. Both timing and frequency help in-stitutionalize the process of a strategic communi-cation intervention and establish a regular two-waycommunication process.

Some key issues related to the timing of com-munication interventions in CDD include the fol-lowing:

■ Communication for relationship building andfacilitation of ownership, trust, buy-in, andknowledge-based decisionmaking are key dur-ing project design and project launch.

■ Communication activities related to managingexpectations are also key.

■ Communication activities for effective and ac-countable management must be maintained fre-quently, through newsletters, meetings, electroniccommunications, Web site updating, workshopsand seminars, and other means.

■ Communication activities for knowledge shar-ing and behavior change are critical, particularlyat the community level during the initialstages of the PM&E process and throughout thesubproject cycle (during identification of localpriorities, subproject design, mid- and end-of-project impact evaluation, and usage and main-tenance).

VIII. ASSIGNING RESPONSIBILITY

Assigning responsibility is critical to ensuring thesuccessful and timely implementation of activitiesas planned. Dividing responsibility among variousgovernment and nongovernmental groups, units,departments, and line ministries in collaborationwith the communication specialist or team in theproject management unit helps develop ownershipof the intervention. Assigning responsibility is alsoimportant in terms of using human and financialresources efficiently. Communication/outreachofficers or NGOs identified for each institutionallevel at the capacity identification stage are usuallyresponsible for designing and delivering commu-nication activities.

IX. PREPARING A BUDGET

Creating a budget, including all main line items andcost factors associated with each activity recom-mended in the action plan, helps the communica-tion specialist map the strategic process ofcommunication activities and focus on the mostrealistic and important activities. Once a budget iscalculated for the various elements of each activ-ity, a total budget for the entire communicationcomponent is estimated. Identifying the totalcost of the operation is important in order to pre-vent the termination or delay of communicationactivities during the project because of lack of re-sources.



25

■Po

litica

ldy

nam

ics■

Econ

omic

cond

ition

■Ti

min

g

Prom

ote

the

impo

rtanc

e of

build

ing

rela

tions

hips

betw

een

com

mun

ities

TABL

E 4.

SA

MPL

E M

ATRI

X F

OR

A C

OM

MU

NIC

ATIO

N A

CTIO

N P

LAN

Chan

nels

/Ti

min

g/M

onit

orin

gO

bjec

tive

Stra

tegi

c is

sues

Stak

ehol

ders

Mes

sage

sA

ctiv

itie

sne

twor

ksfr

eque

ncy

Resp

onsi

bilit

yBu

dget

item

s in

dica

tors

■Co

mm

unity

mem

bers

■Co

mm

unity

-ba

sed

orga

niza

tions

(NG

Os,

yout

hgr

oups

, and

othe

rs)

■Lo

cal p

rivat

ese

ctor

■Lo

cal m

edia

■Be

nefit

s to

com

mun

ityfro

mpa

rtner

ship

s(s

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gies

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ning

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ends

hip,

mob

iliza

tion

pow

er)

■In

tere

st fr

omot

her

com

mun

ities

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nsiti

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nw

orks

hops

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ochu

res,

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cale

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mm

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ts, a

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■W

orks

hop

eval

uatio

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sm fo

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ithin

and

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ics■

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uage

and

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re■

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l iss

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and

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ion

lead

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■Co

mm

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bers

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ass

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over

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foru

m o

fco

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d tri

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slette

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prog

ram

s,in

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26

TABL

E 4.

SA

MPL

E M

ATRI

X F

OR

A C

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MU

NIC

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N A

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N P

LAN

(co

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min

g/M

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orin

gO

bjec

tive

Stra

tegi

c is

sues

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ders

Mes

sage

sA

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itie

sne

twor

ksfr

eque

ncy

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bilit

yBu

dget

item

s in

dica

tors

■La

ngua

ge■

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ral a

ndso

cial i

ssue

s■

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ing

■M

anag

ing

expe

cta-

tions

■Co

mm

unity

mem

bers

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mm

unity

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sed

orga

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ns.

■Co

mm

unity

med

ia■

Relig

ious

and

opin

ion

lead

ers

■Pr

ivate

sect

or

■Im

porta

nce

and

bene

fits

of o

ngoi

ngco

mm

unica

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n■

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ory

iden

tifica

tion

of s

pecif

iciss

ues

and

timin

g th

atar

eim

porta

nt to

shar

e

■Br

ochu

res,

post

ers,

leaf

lets

■Ra

dio

prog

ram

s■

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icse

rvice

anno

unce

-m

ent

■Re

ligio

usev

ents

■Sm

all

grou

ps■

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s m

edia

■Jo

urna

lists

asso

ciatio

n■

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l soc

iety

asso

ciatio

ns,

netw

orks

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gula

rlyth

roug

hout

proj

ect a

ndsu

bpro

ject

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over

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tpr

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tte

ams

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bpro

ject

team

and

staf

f

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eria

lpr

oduc

tion,

even

ts,pr

ogra

ms,

and

othe

r com

po-

nent

s

■N

umbe

r of

broc

hure

prin

ted

and

dist

ribut

ed■

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ysis

ofth

ede

mog

raph

-ics

of t

here

cipie

nts

ofpr

int

mat

eria

ls■

Attit

udin

alsu

rvey

s

Ensu

re a

regu

lar f

low

of in

form

a-tio

n an

daw

aren

ess

build

ing



27

X. MONITORING INDICATORS

By identifying appropriate indicators, the commu-nication manager is able to articulate the connec-tion between communication objectives and thespecific implications of a desired change. Indica-tors may refer to any monitorable change in aware-ness, behavior, access to knowledge and services,attitudes, or other measures. These indicators canbe monitored through surveys, focus groups, andquestionnaires. Channels through which objectivescould be attained may also be monitored. It is im-portant that indicators truly reflect changes in out-comes. Successful completion of a sensitizationworkshop, for example, may not necessarily indi-cate that a communication objective (in this case,awareness building) was achieved. A better indica-tor could measure the level of understanding of aparticular issue and subsequent change in behav-ior or attitude. This might involve a set of variablesthat could be measured through a set of specificactivities in the communication action plan con-tributing to the achievement of a specific opera-tional objective of the CDD operation.

STEP 4IMPLEMENT COMMUNICATION

ACTIVITIES

Once the strategy and its action plan are developed,implementation can begin. Following the timelineis critical. Officials in the project management orimplementation unit take various preparatory stepsfor implementing each of the communication ac-tivities laid out in the action plan matrix. They hireconsultants, including communication firms toproduce print and electronic materials, pollingcompanies, and people to conduct training andworkshops.

It may be useful to prepare and maintain animplementation calendar with a detailed timelineof activities and related preparatory work. The cal-endar would be based on the timeline included inthe communication action plan. Say, for example,that one of the activities in the action plan is to

produce a promotional video by December 15. Acalendar would include all the steps needed to pro-duce the video—preparation of the terms of refer-ence for hiring a consultant or video productionfirm, procurement, arrangement of funds—to-gether with a realistic timeline. The technical as-pects of the video production includepreproduction, production, and postproductionphases, including research, planning, script writ-ing, gathering or shooting footage, producinggraphics, and editing.

STEP 5CONDUCT MONITORING AND

FEEDBACK ACTIVITIES

Monitoring and feedback allow the impact of com-munication activities to be assessed. A good feed-back system helps refine the strategy and action planduring the project cycle to ensure the effectivenessof the communication intervention. Monitoringand feedback can be used both to measure the ef-fectiveness of the communication activities listedin the action plan and to measure the impact ofthe entire strategic communication intervention inthe CDD operation.

Monitoring and feedback mechanisms can bedesigned in different ways. A feedback system isgenerally simple and can be a small-scale activity.This could include an evaluation questionnairefollowing a workshop or a content analysis of aparticular issue in various media channels.

A larger, comprehensive feedback system canbe established for understanding or measuring theimpact of the overall strategic communication in-tervention. This should include the developmentof a set of indicators based on sociocultural, eco-nomic, and behavioral issues affected by the stra-tegic communication intervention.

Feedback mechanisms include attitudinal oropinion surveys, opinion research, focus groups,course evaluation, and media monitoring (such ascontent analysis). These activities could be part ofthe action plan, or a separate matrix for feedbackmechanisms could be developed.



28

CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES

Capacity building and budget are the two maincross-cutting issues crucial for the successful designand implementation of strategic communicationinterventions in CDD operations. These two ele-ments of a communication program can be designedseparately, with inputs from the action plan, or theycan be integrated into the action plan itself. In manycases, capacity building is included as one of thecommunication objectives in the action plan, andthe budget for this element is prepared accordingly.

A. CAPACITY BUILDING FOR SUSTAINABLE STRATEGIC

COMMUNICATION INTERVENTION

In some operations the building of sustainable com-munication capacity and channels in the commu-nity may be identified as a priority. The buildingof such capacity may involve stepping beyond therecommended individual communication activi-ties (such as mobilizing the community throughbehavior change campaigns and visits to other com-munities) and the investment in permanent insti-tutional mechanisms and structures for ongoingcommunication. These capacity building activitiescould include opening communication centers,training local journalists, establishing new radiostations, and training station managers.

B. BUDGET FOR STRATEGIC COMMUNICATION

INTERVENTIONS

Task managers need to arrange for and allocateresources for a strategic communication programand determine how to use limited resources in themost efficient and useful manner. The size of thecommunication budget depends on various issues,including the size of the project, its location, andexisting communication capacity in the country.

A CDD strategic communication program in-volves two types of costs. The first are the costs ofhuman resources. The second are the costs of pro-ducing and implementing specific communicationactions.

Human resource costs. The costs of permanent andterm staff and consultants associated with both theWorld Bank project task team and the implement-ing agency of the government must be taken intoconsideration while designing a strategic commu-nication program. The World Bank task teamshould include a communication specialist to pre-pare or supervise the implementation and scalingup of the CDD operation. On the government side,communication professionals are typically part ofthe project management unit, relevant ministries,or departments at the local, regional, and centrallevels. Whether or not a communications profes-sional participates in a project usually depends onthe size and type of the operation. The CDD ap-proach also requires communication capacity at thecommunity level. Allocation of funds for humanresources at the community level is often includedin either the capacity building matrix or the gen-eral action plan.

Cost of communication activities and capacity build-ing. The composition of the budget reflects themethods and media selected for a particular project(Tables 5 and 6). Line items include the costs ofproducing print and electronic materials; purchas-ing radio and television airtime; distributing printor electronic materials; maintaining electronicproducts (such as Web sites, databases, and elec-tronic newsletters); organizing seminars, work-shops, capacity building events, and study tours;conducting surveys and opinion research; prepar-ing knowledge products (such as case studies); de-veloping community radio stations and content;and sponsoring entertainment activities (such asdramas, concerts, and street shows).

The allocation of resources could be organizedin various ways, depending on the context andneeds. It could be organized by major objective ortheme, such as public education, awareness cam-paign, and capacity building, or by major activi-ties, such as development of a communicationstrategy and action plan, production of print andelectronic materials, training workshops, and su-pervision.



29

World Bank staffStaff time: 2 person weeksTravel and per diem: 1 missionTotal cost: US$___

Government staff/national consultantStaff time: 6 person weeksTravel per diem: Regional travelTotal cost: US$___Total cost: US$___

Activities/issues Cost

TABLE 5. SAMPLE BUDGET FOR DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGY AND ACTION PLAN

■ Hold small group meeting to craft communicationstrategy.

■ Develop a draft communication action plan.■ Brainstorm to help communication team finalize

communication activities, timeline, channels, responsibili-ties, resource allocations, and other issues.

■ Hold workshop to develop messages (if needed).■ Develop plan for building communication capacity and

training at different levels■ Prepare budget for the strategic communication interven-

tion.

Lump sum

Item Unit 2005 2006 2007 2008 Quantity Total unit Total costcost (US$) (US$)

TABLE 6. SAMPLE BUDGET FOR COMMUNICATION COMPONENT OF A CDD OPERATION

A. Office materialsStationery for communityfacilitators

40,000

B. Promotional materialand literature

Program information kit 1 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5 20,000 100,000

Program posters 1 9,000 9,000 12,000 12,000 1 42,000 42,000

Local governmentassociation assessmenthandbook

1 0 3,600 0 0 5 3,600 18,000

Environmental manage-ment handbook

1 0 12,000 0 0 5 12,000 60,000

Community-basedoperational manuals

1 0 12,000 0 05

12,000 60,000

Newsletter 2 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 2 8,000 16,000

C. Promotional productsBadges, certificates,trophies

Lump sum 70,000

D. Sensitization andlearning eventsSPSU sensitization 1 27,000 27,000 36,000 36,000 3,000/state



30

Item Unit 2005 2006 2007 2008 Quantity Total unit Total costcost (US$) (US$)

TABLE 6. SAMPLE BUDGET FOR COMMUNICATION COMPONENT OF CDD OPERATION (continued)

Local governmentassociation andcommunity sensitizationevents

1 27,000 27,000 36,000 36,000 3,000/state

1 27,000 27,000 36,000 36,000 3,000/state

E. Media promotionRadio programs (air time) Lump sum 150,000

Shows 2 2 2 2 10,000 8 80,000

Newspaper supplement 2 12,500 12,500 12,500 12,500 0.25 100,000 25,000

F. Consultant/publicrelations firmCampaigns and productdevelopment Lump sum 50,000

Radio programs Lump sum 20,000

Community facilitators’events

TV programs

Video programs Lump sum 10,000

Total cost 741,000


31

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

Anyaegbunam, C., P. Mefalopulos, and T. Moetsabi.1998. Participatory Rural Communication Ap-praisal: Starting with the People. Food and Agri-culture Organization/Southern AfricanDevelopment Community, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Binswanger, Hans, and Swaminathan Aiyar. 2003.“Scaling Up Community-Driven Development:Theoretical Underpinnings and Program DesignImplications.” Policy Research Working Paper3039, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Dongier, Philippe, Julie Van Domelen, ElinorOstrom, Andrea Rizvi, Wendy Wakeman, An-thony Bebbington, Sabina Alkire, Talib Esmail,and Margaret Polski. 2002. “Community-DrivenDevelopment.” In Poverty Reduction StrategySourcebook. World Bank, Washington, DC.

Mefalopulos, P., and C. Kamlomgera. 2002. Partici-patory Communication Strategy Design. Food andAgriculture Organization/Southern AfricanDevelopment Community, Harare, Zimbabwe.

Mozammel, Masud, and Barbara Zatlokal. 2002.“Strategic Communication in PRSP.” In PovertyReduction Strategy Sourcebook., World Bank,Washington, DC.

h t t p : / / p o v e r t y . w o r l d b a n k . o r g / f i l e s /12981_comm0916.pdf

Paul, Samuel 2002. Holding the State to Account:Citizen Monitoring in Action. Bangalore: Booksfor Change.

Schechter, Galia 2002. “Communication forChange.” Paper prepared for CDD TrainingWeek. World Bank, Africa Region, Washington,DC.

Santucci, F.M. 2003. “Strategic Communication forRural Development Projects.” World Bank, De-velopment Communication Division, ExternalAffairs, Washington, DC.

Silva, Samantha de 2002. Communities Taking theLead: A Handbook on Direct Financing of Com-munity Subprojects. World Bank, Washington,DC.

Verzosa, Cecilia 2003. Strategic Communication forDevelopment Projects. World Bank, Washington,DC.

World Bank. 2000. “A Vision of Poverty Reductionthrough Empowerment.” Africa Region, Com-munity-Driven Development, Washington, DC.

—. 2003a. Empowerment and Poverty Reduction: ASourcebook. Washington, DC.

—. 2003b. Sourcebook for Community Driven De-velopment in Sub-Saharan Africa. Poverty Reduc-tion and Economic Management Network,Washington, DC.



Documents

Strategic Communication forsiteresources.worldbank.org/EXTDEVCOMMENG/Resources/...Strategic Communication for Community-Driven Development A practical guide for project managers and