STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION-AGROFORESTRY TRAINING - South.docx

7/29/2019 STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION-AGROFORESTRY TRAINING - South.docx

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STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

IN THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

TRAINING COURSE ON AGROFORESTRY

AUGUST 2010

THABA-TSEKA, MOHALES HOEK AND MAFETENG

Prepared by Teboho M. Maliehe (National Expert in Agroforestry)


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1. Agroforestry

Agroforestry is a concept that holds great potential in curbing land degradation

processes, improving the productivity of farming systems and to some degree

addressing problems and challenges related to climate change. Its potential lies in its

diversity and multiple use of tree crops within an agricultural land use system.

Properly applied, agroforestry is a land use system that is both productive and

environmentally sound. It has the potential not only to increase food, fuel, and

income for farmers on marginal and other lands, but also to help stop the destruction

of forest areas.

While forests are appreciated for their timber, fruits and medicinal values, the

opportunity presented by agroforestry to communities in the region is not well known.

Agroforestry technologies that can be readily adopted include the planting of

nitrogen-fixing trees, the domestication of indigenous fruit trees, medicinal trees, livefences, and multipurpose woodlots. Regional cooperation, including through sharing

of experiences and lessons on effective resource management, may improve

opportunities.

The International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), now known as the

World Agroforestry Centre (WAC), gives the following definition of agroforestry:

Agroforestry is a collective name for all land use systems and technologies in

which woody perennials (trees, shrubs, bamboos, palms, etc.) are deliberately

combined on the same land management unit with herbaceous crops and/or

animals, either in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In

agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economic interactions

among the different components.

1.1 Experiences in southern African countries and further afield

Farmers in a number of southern African countries have adopted different coping

mechanisms as far as climate change is concerned. Some of the agroforestry

systems or technologies adopted by farmers have been used for many decades, and

not necessarily because of climate variability, but because they are traditional

systems that have been used for subsistence for a long time. However, it appears

that some of these traditional agroforestry systems have managed to withstand

climate variability quite appreciably over the years.

In South Africa farmers have generally preferred hardy trees in their agroforestry

systems that can tolerate all manner of climatic extremes. The following are some of

the systems employed by South African farmers:

Small farmers in rural areas who retain wild fruit trees in their fields. The trees

serve as a source of fuelwood (dead branches) and provide shelter, fodder for

livestock and food. Some of the wild indigenous tree species retained in thefields include marula (Sclerocarya birrea), the ana tree (Faidherbia albida


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formerly known as Acacia albida), white karee (Rhus viminalis) and other

Rhus species, and a number of other cold and drought tolerant species.

Small farmers who utilize mopane trees (Colophospermum mopane),

(renowned for the much relished worms that feed on the trees' leaves) forfodder, fuelwood and poles, as well as the collection of mopane worms for

domestic consumption and as a means of income generation.

Fruit and nut farmers who establish windbreaks to protect orchards. These

windbreaks also serve as a source of fuelwood, timber and in some cases,

veneer wood. Sometimes the orchards are underplanted to pasture in order to

include a livestock factor. Occasionally some farmers include a beekeeping

component within the orchard. The main windbreak species used around

many orchards is the Australian beefwood (Casuarina cunninghamiana).

Farmers who grow fodder tree and shrub species in "fodder banks" for

livestock. These trees also provide other benefits such as fuelwood and poles.

Some of the species used include old man saltbush (Atriplex nummularia),

tagasaste or tree lucerne (Chamaecytisus palmensis), leucaena (Leucaena

leucocephala), elephant bush (Portulacaria afra) and mesquite (Prosopis

spp.).

Figure 1. Windbreaks of beefwood (Casuarina cunninghamiana) in a kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis) orchard in Limpopo

Province, South Africa


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Some commercial forestry companies in South Africa also allow agroforestry to be

practised in their plantations. For example, in KwaZulu-Natal, Sappi Forests and

Mondi Forests (both pulp and paper companies) have outgrower schemes which

allow farmers to grow vegetables such as tomatoes, beans and cow peas between

the rows of trees before the trees close canopy. This also takes place in largeplantations. Here the advantage for the companies is that weeding is done virtually

free in their plantations. On the other hand, the farmers establish their crops on land

that has already been prepared by the companies in readiness for tree planting.

Another form of agroforestry allowed by these companies is the silvopastoral system.

This entails allowing livestock belonging to adjacent communities to graze in the

plantation once the trees have reached a specified height and are out of danger of

trampling and or/browsing by the animals.

Figure 2. Matchstick poplar (Populus deltoides) with an understorey of rye grass and cattle in a silvopastoral system on

a Lion Match Company plantation near Greytown, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

An additional benefit to the communities around Sappi's and Mondi's plantations is

that during pruning and thinning operations, and after the trees have reached

maturity and have been harvested, they (communities) are allowed to go into the

area to collect branches that remain as fuelwood, which they use at home or sell for

extra cash.


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A commercial agroforestry system which has been practised in the Western Cape

Province of South Africa, and has in the past few years been introduced in the

Eastern Cape Province, is that involving the growing of olives (Olea africana subsp.

europaea) for the production of olive oil and table (edible) olives. Other than O.

africana, a number of otherOlea species grow naturally in the two above mentionedprovinces, including the wild olive (O. europaea subsp.Africana), the false ironwood

(O. capensis), the dune olive (O. exasperata), the forest olive (Olea woodiana), and

the common pock ironwood (Chionanthus foveolatus). However, new cultivars are

continually being developed for various characteristics, including disease resistance

and tolerance of certain climatic and edaphic conditions. In South Africa, many

varieties exist under three categories:

Olive oil varieties, which normally provide 15-20% of olive oil;

Table olives, (green and black), which are consumed as a drupe, and

Dual purpose varieties, suitable for oil production and for the table.

However, the most well-known varieties are the following:

a. Mission: so called because some Franciscan missionaries planted it

first in Mexico and then in California.

b. Manzanilla: a very popular variety of Spanish origins.

c. Kalamata: bears the name of the greek island it originates from.

d. Leccino: of Italian origin and probably the most widely cultivated variety

in South Africa.

e. Frantoio: also of Italian origin, it is a very productive variety which

produces excellent quality oil.

f. Spanish Queen: despite the name, its country of origin is very uncertain.

However, with olives, when arriving at the decision of selecting the right varieties for

adoption, it is advisable not to venture in search of exotic cultivars (which number

more than 500), unless such a decision is supported by encouraging research

effectuated in the area concerned or by local growers' experience.

In South Africa there are two agroforestry systems based on olive culture. One

involves the growing of olive trees in rows (with varying inter-row spacings) and

planting suitable crops/vegetables between the rows of trees, especially in the years

before the trees start bearing fruit (it takes 4-6 years before the olive begins to

produce fruit). The other (see Figure 3 below) involves the establishment of olive

windbreaks around crop fields or fruit orchards. The trees in this instance serve a


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dual purpose: protecting the fruit trees against strong winds and for the production of

olives.

The advantage with olive trees is that they remain productive for a very long time (up

to between 1 000 and 1 500 years in some cases), and remain evergreenthroughout. This could be very useful, especially considering that trees are known to

contribute to global carbon sequestration.

Figure 3. A windbreak of olive trees (Olea europaea subsp. africana) surrounds a vineyard (Vitis spp.) in

Stellenbosch, Western Cape Province, South Africa. The trees provide an annual harvest of olives

The reason for this rather protracted elucidation on olive culture is because it holds

strong potential for certain areas of Lesotho. For a start, the African olive (O.

africana) ormohloare in Sesotho, grows very well in virtually all the physiographic

regions of the country. In the Western Cape, a growing olive oil production industry

has existed for many years. Hence much of the requisite technical and economicinformation and know-how are available, and can be readily acquired by growers in

Lesotho. The introduction of olive culture in Lesotho would help increase forest cover

and at the same time provide a means of income generation for interested farmers.

This would also entail the design and development of agroforestry systems in

Lesotho based on olive culture.

There is a huge diversity of agroforestry systems throughout southern Africa. These

differ mainly in terms of climatic conditions prevailing in each country, and the types

of crops and livestock favoured by the locals. The most common system in southern

African countries such as Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia and


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Zimbabwe is the homegarden system. This is essentially a form of land use on

private lands surrounding individual homesteads with a definite boundary fence. In

this system several species of trees are grown together with a variety of annual and

perennial crops, often with the inclusion of small livestock and poultry. There are

many forms of such gardens varying in how intensively they are managed and theirlocation with regard to the homestead.

Another commonly practised system in southern Africa and many other African

countries is alley cropping. In this system species of trees and shrubs are planted at

spacings relatively close within row and wide between rows, to leave room for

herbaceous cropping, that is, in the "alleys".

Of significance to Lesotho is what is termed the "sloping agricultural land technology"

(SALT) model. This is a form of alley cropping which is being which was broadly

promoted in the Philippines in the early 1990s and is now being implemented in hilly

areas (Tacio, 1992). Since 1975 this model has been developed on demonstration

farms as a highly productive and potentially sustainable system. Contour hedgerows

ofLeucaena leucocephala are mixed with maize, which yields three to four times as

much as non-SALT farms and net returns are better. As the name implies, this

system is specifically designed for sloping lands in mountainous areas, and could be

adapted for different countries.

Figure 4. Areas such as this in Lesotho could benefit from SALT agroforestry as practised in the Philippines


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Livestock production is very important to Basotho society. The existing livestock

population cannot be fed adequately with the available resources. Therefore, the

plan is to maximize future production. With regard to the present situation, and the

problems and potential for developing fodder resources, the following practices have

been considered to sustain and improve livestock productivity, without furtherdegradation of the natural resources.

Community forestry is aimed at the protection and management of existing forests in

favour of fodder production, by ensuring natural regeneration. This can be achieved

by drafting practical operational plans for community forest management, which seek

to manipulate fodder species and divert grazing pressure from poorly regenerated

forest land, and to allow the latter time to recover and revert to its former

productiveness. Planting more fodder trees as appropriate augments this process.

Consideration has been given to improving fodder/forage supplies through planting

uncultivated fallow land with fodder trees, and encouraging farmers to protect and

manage community forests in favour of fodder production. Phased handing over of

parts of the trees/forest reserves and devolving to them the right to develop an

operational plan in the way they see fit, combined with some subsidies, should assist

hill farmers to be self-sufficient in fodder production in the longer term.

The above are only a handful of agroforestry systems and technologies which

potentially could be implemented or adapted in Lesotho.

1.2 Experiences in Lesotho

1.2.1 Projects and Programmes

For many years, numerous donor funded projects and programmes supporting

government departments or NGOs in the implementation of activities in the

agricultural sector have operated in Lesotho. Many of them have dealt with forestry

and/or agroforestry.

The Soil and Water Conservation and Agroforestry Project (SWaCAP) mentioned

earlier, was financed by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).

It was mainly aimed at improving extension services in the northern districts of the

country. In addition, this project supported agroforestry research within the ARD. The

creation of an agroforestry laboratory with a small library, specific training courses

and several field trials were conducted over a number of years. Initially, several small

private nurseries in the area of operation were supported, but most of these were

soon abandoned. In the agroforestry trials the main emphasis was placed on

intercropped orchards and alley cropping with fruit or fodder trees along contours.Large scale implementation of intercropped orchards was supported in Leribe,


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Berea, and Maseru districts, attracting considerable interest from farmers (orders

received for 400 intercropped orchards in 1993/94). Unfortunately subsidy levels

used for the promotion of intercropped orchards were quite high (50% on fruit tree

growing stock). This resulted in many of these orchards being unsuccessful soon

after project termination. Another challenge to the farmers is that there was no readymarket for their produce. Marketing had not been a major issue in the project.

As with SWaCAP, the Production Through Conservation Programme (PTC II),

funded by the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), aimed to support

the agricultural staff of the southern districts (Mafeteng, Mohale's Hoek and Quthing)

to improve the performance of the extension services by reviewing approaches and

methods. Agroforestry or forestry were merely peripheral activities for this

programme. Some experience in community forestry was accumulated in one of the

predecessor projects of PTC II in Mohale's Hoek., the Farm Improvement and Soil

Conservation Project. FISC established a small nursery in Mohale's Hoek and wasinvolved in the establishment of community woodlots, conservation plantings,

intercropped orchards and the sale of fruit tree growing stock.

Plenty Lesotho, an area-based project at Ha Makoae in the Quthing district, was

definitely one of the best examples of support activities in agroforestry/forestry in

Lesotho. Plenty Lesotho was funded by the NGO Plenty Canada, SIDA, the

European Community (EC) and several other smaller donors. Since 1982, the

population of this remote project area along two river catchments (Quthing and

Sebapala rivers) on the boundary between the foothills and highlands were

encouraged to get involved in tree planting, on communal, group or individual basis.A tree nursery, numerous communal woodlots, two private nurseries and several

intercropped orchards were either established by the project or their establishment

was supported with technical advice, transport, planting stock and funds.

One of the outstanding achievements of this project was the creation of several well-

organized and capable village tree committees, some of which got involved in the

marketing of fuelwood ( with Plenty providing free transport) or thatching grass

produced in their woodlots. Another example was the close cooperation between the

project and herdboy groups involved in tree planting on mountain slopes. Plenty

Lesotho was the only project at the time to introduce the idea of individual treelots

planted in blocks on several hectares. The area was shared equally by a number of

individuals, either holding separate Form Cs or having a joint Form C for the whole

group. Each plot was planted with approximately 100-200 tree seedlings, depending

on its size. Hall and Green (1989) pointed out that this system was an approach

which could have the most potential to overcoming land tenure and misuse problems

in woodlots situated in grazing areas. Finally, the Plenty nursery at Ha Makoae was

well stocked with a variety of tree and shrub species, with an emphasis on locally

available plant material including indigenous species due to the remoteness of the

area.


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The Social Forestry Project (SFP), which was funded by GTZ and KfW of Germany

from 1993 until 2003 was intended to introduce or improve community forestry and

agroforestry practices in the two districts of Maseru and Mafeteng. Totally integrated

into Forestry Division of the MoACM, this project had access to all the expertise and

infrastructure available in the Forestry Division and in the Community ForestrySection in particular. Upgrading of the FD nursery facilities in the two districts,

training support of field staff and improvement of extension on forestry matters were

the major challenges faced by the project.

The SFP did quite well in both districts, helping in the training of a number of farmers

in nursery management and the propagations of both fruit and non-fruit tree species.

It also assisted in the establishment of a number of private nurseries, individual

treelots and community woodlots.

The Soil and Water Conservation Project (SOWACO) in Mohale's Hoek and the

Semonkong Rural Development Project (SRDP) in the Semonkong area of Maseru

district both had some limited field activities in agroforestry. SOWACO, funded by the

Dutch government and implemented by the FAO, established a small nursery in

Mohale's Hoek, established some species trials, assisted farmers in establishing

intercropped orchards, woodlots and planting fruit trees in individual gardens. The

SRDP, funded by KfW of Germany, assisted the FD in establishing and later

upgrading its nursery in Semonkong, established MPT species trials and

emphasized the integration of fruit tree in vegetable gardens. The SRDP was, at the

time, one of the few projects with a strong agricultural component working in the

highlands and thus faced extreme climatic conditions which impacted quite stronglyon tree planting activities, especially in the selection of species for cold tolerance. All

agroforestry and forestry activities started by the SRDP were gradually taken over by

the SFP in order to avoid duplication of efforts in this part of Maseru district.

The Matelile Rural Development Project (MRDP) started operating in parts of

Matelile in the Mafeteng district in July 1986. The project later expanded its area of

operation to cover the whole of Matelile ward, Ribaneng and those parts of the

Tajane ward falling into Mafeteng district. This area-based project was jointly funded

by the German Ministry of Technical Cooperation and the Government of Lesotho

and implemented by GTZ and the MoACM.

The forestry/agroforestry activities of the project were initially intended to support

activities of the FD in the area. Consequently, a contract was signed between the

MRDP and the FD covering the planting of 150 hectares of woodlots in Matelile with

financial support from MRDP. Subsequently, the establishment and equipping of a

small nursery at Ha Seeiso was planned in order to produce seedlings for woodlots

locally. Staffing of the nursery was arranged by the FD. The Ha Seeiso nursery was

established in 1989 and the planting of the 150 ha of woodlots by the FD and locally

employed labour went according to plan between 1987 and 1990.


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In the early stages of the project, emphasis was placed more on the promotion of

tree planting in general, and not so much agroforestryper se. A necessity to diversify

the choice of tree species in communal and later individual plantings became

obvious with time. The tree seedlings purchased by the MRDP from FD nurseries

were mainly those of fuelwood species. People wanted trees and/or shrubs forhedges, for shade and for planting in dongas/gullies. When informed about the

possibilities of fodder yielding species, a keen interest in this aspect of tree planting

developed. In order to get a greater number of people involved in tree planting, all

the possible uses of trees under Lesotho conditions and satisfying the needs of the

local populace were explored. A pragmatic approach to awareness creation and

forestry promotion was chosen when cash or food-for-work incentives in tree planting

were excluded from the very beginning. Interest in this activity was stimulated mainly

by making a variety of suitable species available, improving access to planting

material and offering technical advice. Learning by doing was given priority over

theory and lecturing.

In 1988 the MRDP decided that the search for suitable tree and shrub species other

than those available at FD nurseries necessitated the establishment of a project

nursery situated at 'Malere near Qaba. A nursery with a capacity of 120 000

seedlings per year was then established. In addition, trial sites covering the most

important soils, microclimatic situations and elevations were selected in Matelile.

Thirteen (13) trial sites were selected, with a total of 207 different tree or shrub

species either on trial or already well proven enough to be used in tree planting

programmes on a regular basis. The trials were meant to identify several suitable

species for each category of potential use, viz. fuelwood, fodder, hedges, live

fencing, poles, shade, soil conservation in dongas/gullies and soil improvement and

aesthetic or ornamental purposes.

Figure 5. One of the first MRDP agroforestry trial sites in Matelile in 1988


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In early 1989 trials on structural and biological reclamation of dongas/gullies and

other degraded lands were started by the project in two of the trial sites and were

monitored over some years to observe the development of donga rehabilitation over

time. The results obtained provided the experience necessary to successfully

implement donga reclamation with farmers in Matelile and beyond. Today some ofthe formerly badly eroded and gullied areas in Matelile cannot be recognized

because of the rehabilitation work that has been done. These former dongas gullies

now provide fuelwood, fruit, grasses and fodder trees for animal browse, all of which

some of the farmers sell for extra income (see Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9 below).

Figure 6. Spectacular gully erosion in Matelile before reclamation work by MRDP commenced

Figure 7. Donga reclamation work commences with the planting of cuttings of various tree species and seeding of

grasses on the donga floor


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Figure 8. Donga reclamation takes hold at Matelile two years after commencement

Figure 9. A reclaimed donga full of trees, shrubs, grasses and a variety of other herbaceous plants and already

providing benefits to the farmer four years from commencement


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In the summer planting season of 1989/90 individuals who wanted to plant larger

numbers of trees and shrubs on their privately owned land were supported for the

first time by the MRDP with technical advice and free planting material. The

uncertainty regarding ownership of the communal woodlots encouraged an ever

increasing number of villagers to request tree seedlings to be planted on their ownland. A general rule was developed which required, in order for individuals to qualify

for free seedlings, that each prepare in advance a minimum of 100 up-to-standard

pits. Tree and shrub species grouped into categories according to their uses were

usually presented to villagers in a meeting for selection, where guidelines for planting

and maintenance were also presented. Between 1989 and 2002 over 1 500

individuals in Matelile participated in the individual woodlot programme. On average

and individual planted 140 seedlings comprising usually at least four species.

Other agroforestry systems tried by the MRDP and which have proved popular with

the people of Matelile included protective hedges and live fences aroundhomesteads and homegardens. Suitable species for these systems were selected in

previous years. The MRDP also promoted windbreaks, intercropped orchards and

dispersed tree planting in rangelands. The project also did trials on intercropped

fodder banks, alley cropping systems, and trees on pastures with promising results.

Other past projects which had limited activities in forestry/agroforestry (with varying

degrees of success) include the Lesotho Institutional Support Programme (LISP) in

the Quthing district, Lesotho-Durham Link in the Maseru district, Thabana Morena

project in the Mafeteng district and a Christian Council of Lesotho (CCL) project

which operated in the Ha Sekake area of Qacha's Nek. The Environment Division ofthe Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA) also had a Community

Forestry Project which carried out some species trials and agroforestry promotion

(especially agrosilvicultural and silvopastoral systems) activities in the villages

around the Katse dam catchment and other parts of the Lesotho Highlands Water

Project. This project was implemented through CARE Lesotho.

1.2.2 The Lesotho Agroforestry Network

In 1990 a working group of 17 government departments, NGOs and

projects/programmes dealing with agroforestry in one way or another wasestablished under the chairmanship of SWaCAP. Also, the individuals in this group

represented a broad spectrum of disciplines (e.g. forestry, agronomy, horticulture,

soil conservation, agrometeorology, land use planning, livestock, range

management, education and training, etc.). This group was initially named the

Agroforestry Forum, but was subsequently renamed the Lesotho Agroforestry

Network. The Networks objective was to establish close cooperation among all the

players striving to promote agroforestry practices in Lesotho. The Network held

quarterly meetings, with each of the members hosting a meeting in turns.


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The Lesotho Agroforestry network became an important forum for the exchange of

ideas, information, joint training activities and elaboration of documents. Several

agroforestry packages were prepared by members and discussed in the plenary

sessions. The formulation of jointly approved packages paved the way for the

introduction of uniform agroforestry practices in Lesotho and simplified the training ofextension staff. The Agroforestry Network also produced and published a technical

bulletin (a multipurpose tree list) compiled by all members. The bulletin reflected the

then current state of knowledge on the subject.

The Lesotho Agroforestry Network was a valuable example of how close cooperation

and support among projects and others could be established in a particular field of

interest. But sadly, once the chair of the Network, SWaCAP, came to an end, so did

the Network become dormant.

The foregoing illustrate that there is a substantial body of work that has been

undertaken on agroforestry development and promotion in Lesotho in the past. This

could be a good starting point for the further advancement of agroforestry in the

country, not only in terms of climate amelioration, but also as a means for

communities to improve their livelihoods.

Figure 10. Tree lucerne or tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis), a fodder tree species with greatpotential for Lesotho being used in donga stabilization in Matelile

2. POTENTIAL AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS FOR THE TWO PROJECT

AREAS OF MOHALES HOEK AND MAFETENG


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From the literature review and field visits to the three project areas, a number of

agroforestry systems have been identified which hold much potential for the

improvement of livelihoods in the three project areas. These systems have been

shown to be effective in meeting the various basic needs of communities elsewhere

in southern Africa and further afield, as well as in a few cases in Lesotho.The selection of appropriate agroforestry systems is usually based what is already

happening on the ground in an area, as well as several other factors. These include:

climate, soil conditions, the level of soil erosion, livestock population, availability of

pastures, household food supply and nutrition, and fuelwood requirements.

Figure 11. A homestead orchard of peaches intercropped with maize at Ha Mafa, Thaba-Toeu, Mafeteng district.

Management of these types of agroforestry systems can be improved so that they are more productive


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Figure 12. Alley cropping in Mpumalanga, South Africa. Here Leucaena leucocephala is planted with spinach. Leucaena,

being a N2-fixing species helps with the maintenance of soil fertility

Figure 13. A windbreak of beefwood (Casuarina cunninghamiana) at Ha Mafa, Thaba-Toeu, Mafeteng district


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Figure 14. Farmer in his homegarden at Ha Rantsimane, Thaba-Tseka. Note apple tree in foreground and peaches in the

background

(v) Alley cropping: Alley cropping is possible in the lowlands due to the relativelylarge number of cropping areas as well as large pieces of land for gardens and

orchards, many of which are sitting unused. The trees used should ideally include

nitrogen fixing species plus some indigenous ones such as the white stinkwood (Celtis

africana), oldwood or troutwood (Leucosidea sericea), silky oak (Grevillea robusta),

which grows quite well in the lowlands, and would probably perform equally well in both

Mabalane and Ha Mafa, and all the fruit trees mentioned in the homegardens system.

Nut trees may also be used in alley cropping.

(vi) Windbreaks: As indicated earlier, strong winds occur in the lowlands, especially

around the months of August September, which sometimes prove disastrous to localcommunities. It would therefore be advisable for windbreaks to be established around

homesteads. The windbreaks may also protect the soil against wind erosion. The

species that may be used in the lowlands include Acacia baileyana, Casuarina

cunninghamiana, Eucalyptus species, Pinus species, Eleagnus angustifolia, Schinus

molle, Populus nigra, P. simonii, Cupressus spp., Cedrus deodara. Deciduous species

that can be used include Acer negundo, Fraxinus pennsyvanica, Maclura pomifera,

Morus alba, Morus nigra, Salix caprea and Sophora japonica.

(vii) Hedges and live fences: The problems of trespassing are much higher in the

lowlands than in any of the other four three regions due to the high population density.


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Therefore, protective hedges and live fences should be established around

homesteads against both human and livestock.

Suitable species for hedges include the privets (Ligustrum spp.), broom (Cytisus

scoparius), Cotoneaster spp., Teline monspessulana, Chamaecytisus palmensis and

Spartium junceum. Live fencing species are Agave americana, Pyracantha spp.,Maclura pomifera, and Ulex europeus.

(viii) Fodder banks: This system would probably be more applicable to the two project

areas where grazing resources are rather poor. In other African countries livestock

owners have long recognized the importance of trees and shrubs in the feeding of

animals. In arid and semi-arid areas where the growth of herbaceous plants is limited

by lack of moisture, leaves and edible twigs of trees and shrubs can constitute well over

50% of the biomass production of rangeland. At high altitudes, tree foliage may provide

over 50% of the feed available to ruminants in the dry season, branches being

harvested and carried to the animals (Bennison and Paterso, 1993). Even in regions of

higher rainfall where grass supplies the major proportion of the dry matter eaten by

ruminants, tree leaves and fruits can form an important constituent of the diet,

particularly for small ruminants.

The species that could be used here are tree lucerne or tagasaste (Chamaecytisus

palmensis), Teline monspessulana, saltbush (Atriplex nummularia, A. lentiformis),

Colutea arborescens and tree lupin (Lupinus arboreus). These trees could be planted in

rows intercropped with herbaceous annual or perennial fodder crops such as Bana

grass, elephant grass, lucerne, clover, rye grass, vetches (Vicia spp.), triticale, barley,oats, and fodder sorghum.

Figure 15. A fodder bank of tree lucerne or tagasaste (Chamaecytisus palmensis) in the Western Cape, South Africa


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Figure 15. Donga reclamation at Ha Mafa undertaken by an individual (pictured) using various tree and shrub species

and grasses

Figure 16. Donga rehabilitation work by SANReMP at Ha Mafa, Thaba-Toeu, Mafeteng district


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3. SELECTION AND USE OF TREE SPECIES3.1 Criteria for the Selection of Suitable Tree and Shrub Species

Many of the failures of forest plantations and tree-planting activities in agroforestry

programmes can be traced back to the selection of inappropriate species. Use of thefollowing criteria may improve the selection process.

(i) Adaptation to site conditions. Climate, soils (especially structure anddepth), water regime, and so forth, must be known. A site classificationshould be made, and results should be laid out in maps and supported byaerial photography. Based on this data, the site characteristics can bematched with the requirements of the trees considered.

(ii) Easy and safe establishment. Low inputs, seeds or other growing stockof selected quality should be obtained. Vegetative propagation may be

possible. Preference should be given to species direct seeding. A specialeffort should be made to keep costs low for establishment andmaintenance (for example, reducing cost of production, pesticides,fertilizer).

(iii) Fast growth, high yields, multiple-use suitability may be essential,including the possibility of intercropping. Growth and yield often are not theonly considerations.

(iv) Compatibility with other land uses. This is important under agroforestrymanagement and also in mixed stands within the forest. The speciesselected should not negatively affect crops, grazing, farmland, orinstallations, and should not attract insects, fungi, birds, rats, or otherpestsharmful to agricultural crops.

Plantations with exotic tree species should be limited to sites where the natural treevegetation evidently fails to meet present or future demands. There are a number ofreasons for this recommendation. First, the full use (or use potential) of local plantsis not yet sufficiently known or statistically recorded. It may well be that theirreplacement by exotics will result in permanent, seasonal, or occasional deficiencies(for medicines, for example) which may impair or even make livelihoods difficult

within communities.

Secondly, the introduction of new species implies increasing ecological andmanagement risks. Exotic species should be thoroughly evaluated in terms ofperformance and on-site consequences of their planting before they are extensivelyused in a new region. It is not easy to identify exotic tree species whose overallbenefits can be compared to those of the local species. Thirdly, the conversion to aplantation forest or even enrichment planting (and maintenance) is more expensivethan natural forest management on a sustained-yield basis, making use of naturalregeneration.

There are, however, a number of exotic species that should be tested in the threeproject areas, primarily for use in afforestation activities on land currently without


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forest cover, for specific benefits that cannot be obtained from local species andthat can best be provided by planting outside the forest, in villages, alongroadsides, and on particularly degraded or endangered sites, within the context ofagroforestry.

4. THE ROLE OF NURSERIES IN AGROFORESTRY

Seedling production is a key element in most agroforestry projects. The question ofhow best it should be organized has been a subject of considerable debate, whichranges from the use of centralized and highly controlled nurseries to decentralizedfarmer-run nurseries. However, what is very clear is that farmers in rural areas oftenface difficulties regarding the availability of seedlings of various species for specificpurposes.

4.1 Centralized Nurseries

The advantage of centralized nurseries is that they enable a seedling productionsystem to be set up quickly. If it is a project-run nursery, they also allow the project tocontrol the quality and number of seedlings produced.

The main problem with centralized nurseries is seedling distribution. It is oftenforgotten that, even if farmers consider seedlings useful, they rarely rank them highon their list of priorities. One project found that farmers were willing to walk more that2 km to collect seedlings (Kerkoff, 1989). In many areas, however, the averagedistance between the central nursery and farmers is twenty or more kilometres, andsometimes much further. It is therefore not surprising that the uptake of seedlingshas often been disappointing.

The problem can be alleviated by transporting seedlings to villages, schools andother collection points. But this is only possible if vehicles are available at plantingtime. Even then, there can be problems for lorries and pick-up trucks attempting touse bad rural roads during the rainy season. As a result of these difficulties, largenumbers of seedlings are often wasted. It is not uncommon to find that less than halfthe seedlings grown in a central nursery find their way to the local community.

4.2 Group Nurseries

A number of projects have promoted communal or group nurseries at the villagelevel as a way of decentralizing seedling production. The techniques used tend to besimpler than in standard forestry nurseries and they are usually much smaller. Mostare supported by government projects or government agencies and are providedwith polythene bags, too and equipment, and advice.

Group nurseries can go a long way towards solving the seedling distributingproblem. But it has been found that establishing and sustaining them is not alwaysan easy task. It requires a strong extension organization and above all, an interest intree growing among the people.

Some projects have offered incentives for villagers to establish nurseries. Oneproject provided inputs such as water points and donkey carts and paid for thenursery staff. This confuses the issue to some extent as it raises the question of


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whether people really want the nursery or are just out to get the benefits provided.Projects therefore face a deliberate choice. If they provide too little assistancegroups may not be interested in setting up nurseries. But if they provide too much,the motivation of groups may be distorted so the whole operation becomesunsustainable.

Problems of this kind are common in many rural areas where agroforestry projectsare being implemented. In most projects, group nurseries accounted for well underhalf of total seedling production, and usually much less. Despite this, however, therewas a widespread feeling that group nurseries do play an important role inencouraging communities to learn about tree growing and take responsibility rightfrom seedling production onwards.

4.3 Farm Nurseries

It has been generally assumed that farmers need to be provided with seedlings if

agroforestry programmes are to have an impact. However, a survey carried out inKenya in 1984 by the Kenya Woodfuel Development Project (KWDP), found that asmany as a third of households were already raising their own tree seedlings withoutany outside assistance (Kerkoff, 1989).

The cost and work involved are usually negligible. The seedlings are mainly raised atthe beginning of the rainy season so that watering is not required. Polythene bagsare not used, there is no root pruning of the seedlings and little effort is made toprotect the nursery against animals. The seedlings are planted on farmers' ownlands or are sold or given to others.

Since then, there has been increasing interest in promoting or assisting such 'farmnurseries'. A number of projects now provide farmers with assistance in the form ofseeds, polythene bags, technical advice, and sometimes watering cans. Extremelyencouraging results have been reported in some places. For example, in Koro inMali, it was expected that seedling production by individuals would exceed that fromcentral nurseries in a very short space of time.

The aforementioned KWDP in Kenya has made considerable efforts to promote farmnurseries. It has used films, radio and mass meetings as ways of reaching largenumbers of people. It also provides farmers with seeds. The project has suggestedways in which the nurseries might be improved but it seems that few farmers areinterested in accepting this advice. They refuse to carry out root pruning, forexample, despite the improvement it brings in the survival of seedlings after theyhave been planted out.

Some projects have used cash incentives to encourage farmers to grow seedlingson their farms. These are then bought at a fixed price and used on the project. Butas in any case where money is given, questions arise about the sustainability of thepractice.

The discovery that farmers are perfectly able to produce their own seedlings when

they wish to is important. It means that centralized seedling production may notalways be necessary as has been assumed in the past.


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Figure 17. A simple but functional village nursery which uses locally available materials such as milk cartons

For the three project areas of Rantsimane, Mabalane and Ha Mafa, indications arethat seedling availability may prove to be a bit of a challenge in the long term.Whereas both tree (fruit and non-fruit) and vegetable seedlings can be obtained fromnurseries and garden centres in the nearest towns, it would almost certainly be in thebest interests of the concerned communities to establish their own seedling

production facilities. In this regard they would probably need training in plantpropagation (including the propagation of fruit trees) and nursery management.Otherwise any attempt to introduce agroforestry systems in an area where seedlingavailability is not assured may not be successful.

Already a number of individuals have established private nurseries in Mafeteng,Maseru and the northern districts of Berea, Leribe and Butha-Buthe. However, theproblem with these nurseries is that they are usually established strictly for incomegeneration, and as such they rely almost exclusively on government (MoFLR) to buytheir seedlings, in the absence of any other reliable market. This state of affairs iscertainly not sustainable. It would therefore be important for any seedling production

endeavour to be based on what might be termed "the long-term agroforestrymanagement plan". This plan would also indicate what the seedling requirements ofthe farmer or a group of farmers would be over a number of years in terms ofquantities and species.

5. GAPS IN THE TECHNICAL SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE OF FARMERSAND EXTENSION PERSONNEL IN AGROFORESTRY

Since agroforestry is made up of a number of disciplines, it follows therefore that itwould also cover a wide range of technical issues or topics. Although the term"agroforestry" and the practice of agroforestry have been around for more than 25years, different people still have different conceptions of it, and the situation is nodifferent in Lesotho. This is where the basic problem lies, to get different


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stakeholders to agree on what agroforestry is and what it entails. The need to knowmore about agroforestry cuts across all stakeholder groups, from farmers toextension staff to senior government officials in the relevant ministries, particularlythe Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security (MoAFS). Some members of staffwithin the MoFLR also need to know more about the technical aspects of

agroforestry.

In discussions with individual staff members of the relevant ministries in Thaba-Tseka, Mafeteng and Mohale's Hoek, it became evident that many were not familiarwith agroforestry practices and their implication on land use. Interviews that wereheld with the concerned communities in the three districts also revealed a certainapathy with regard to tree planting in general, and almost no knowledge whatsoeverabout agroforestry, although there were some indications of rudimentary systems inplace in some instances (e.g. home gardens, donga reclamation with trees andgrasses, intercropped orchards, windbreaks and live fencing).

From the initial field visits, observations made and discussions with the stakeholders,the gaps in technical skills and knowledge that could be identified could be dividedinto 4 categories as follows:

a. The definition of agroforestry and what it involves

Definition Types of agroforestry systems Components of agroforestry systems and their functions Special emphasis on one particular component: multipurpose trees and

shrubs, and how they interact with the crop and animal components.

b. Domestication of indigenous species

Opportunities for the domestication of valuable indigenousmultipurpose trees and shrubs.

The use of indigenous knowledge, especially concerning the choice ofmultipurpose trees and production technologies.

Processes and issues on how multipurpose trees are identified andselected, what products they can provide, and how they can be

propagated.

c. Agroforestry technologies

How agroforestry components are combined to form differentagroforestry technologies.

For each technology, how its layout in space and time should be. The niches where a particular technology may be suitable, and how it

can be managed.


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d. Characterization of land use systems

Understanding how a particular land use system works from both bio-physicaland socio-economic points of view is fundamental for the adoption ofagroforestry. The characterization methods include: Diagnosis and Design,

Participatory Rural Appraisal and other similar methods. The bio-physical environment: land, soils, topography, vegetation farming

systems and farm enterprises. Environmental issues such as biodiversity,conservation and climate. Ecosystems analysis, an expose of theconsequences of tree-crop-animal interactions at the farm or watershed level,depending of the type of agroforestry system envisaged.

Soils, being the main medium in which agroforestry interactions take place,should be given adequate attention. Nutrient management under natural andman-made systems and land husbandry should also receive attention.

The socio-economic environment deals with the social, cultural and economicsetting: land use policies and laws, aspects of land and tree tenure, genderissues and taboos. The economic analysis of farming systems in terms offinancial costs and revenues, labour and other costs and benefits is important.With this knowledge it is possible to identify problems more accurately and tochoose more acceptable solutions.

e. Participatory research

Agroforestry experimentation with farmers on their own land. Farmer-managed experiments (on-farm research). Technology transfer (e.g. farmer-to farmer).

f. Nursery practice

Nursery environment and facilities. Types seedling containers to use. Growing media (substrates). Seed and its treatment (scarification) Fertilizers (organic vs. inorganic). Nursery and plant hygiene. Seedling quality. Nursery management (plans and schedules).

6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Regardless of the agroforestry systems preferred or adopted by farmers in the three

project areas, the original objectives of this project have to be kept uppermost in

mind. The adoption of agroforestry systems is intended to be just one way of

increasing forest cover in Lesotho, and does not preclude the planting of trees in

other situations such as roadside plantings, plantings in parks, school and church

yards, and other similar public places.


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It should also be recognized that agroforestry has the potential to contribute to

poverty reduction and food security through the multitude of products and services it

can provide to farmers and their households.

The following recommendations arising out of observations and discussions with

stakeholders during the field visits and the literature review. They are not intended tobe directives per se, but rather should be taken as guidelines to go along with

whatever local knowledge and practices there are already in the project areas.

6.1 General recommendations

i. Education and awareness campaigns should be undertaken to familiarize

stakeholders with agroforestry and its potential and benefits. This could be in

the form of pamphlets, posters, radio and TV programmes, and workshops

and seminars for government staff.

ii. The capacity of stakeholders should be built at grassroots level. This could be

done by supporting the formation of farmers' groups, facilitating direct farmer-

to-farmer training in villages, training of farmer trainers who will lead

community-based extension, and technology-related skills training such as

that on nursery and tree management. It has been found elsewhere that this

'farmer first' approach in capacity building is very efficient. It is estimated to

cost about US$5.00 to train one farmer, who then reaches about ten other

farmers.

iii. Suitable MPT germplasm should be made available at village level. This could

be done by supporting decentralized grassroots level germplasm production

and supply networks. Emphasis should, wherever possible, be placed on

locally available indigenous species. The community's capacity to produce

and distribute quality germplasm should be built up.

iv. Partnerships and relationships among stakeholders should be improved.

Workshops and joint among field visits for all stakeholders (or their

representatives) should be organized. Stakeholders should also be

encouraged to plan activities, and assess successes and failures together.

v. Lead farmers should be identified and training in leadership and conflict

resolution should be provided.

vi. Information should be collected and used to improve the marketing of

agroforestry products. For example, farmers opting for intercropped orchard

systems will need to be able to market their produce.

vii. New products that meet customer demand and can be successfully marketedshould be identified.


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6.2 Technical

As far as the technical aspects of agroforestry systems are concerned, the following

recommendations are made:

i. As much as possible farmers should be made aware of the tree species (bothfruit and non-fruit) available for inclusion in specific agroforestry systems. This

could be done in the form of workshops or descriptive pamphlets.

ii. As a start in the implementation of the suggested agroforestry systems in thefour physiographic regions of the country, the Department of Forestry shouldappoint a dedicated officer who will handle all matters related to thedevelopment and promotion of agroforestry systems in each project district.

iii. Ideally, systems which have the potential to yield early returns for farmersshould receive preference. For example, orchards and homegardens

iv. Technical agroforestry packages for all identified systems should be preparedand given to farmers. Ideally these should be in Sesotho.

v. Farmers should undergo training regarding the technical agroforestrypackages and the implementation of different systems.

vi. From the suggested agroforestry systems, two or three should be selected ineach project area to be implemented on a pilot basis. Two or three farmers orgroups should be selected in each area, who will participate in the pilot run.

vii. An in-depth 'Diagnosis and Design' exercise should be planned for each sitetargeted for the pilot run. A team to undertake the detailed D&D exerciseshould be put together by DoF. Each team could be made up of staff from theDistrict Agricultural Office and District Forestry Office in each selected district.The staff should be thoroughly familiarized with the D&D procedure prior togoing out to meet the farmers. Ideally, a two to three week practical trainingworkshop should be organized for them.

viii. Specific attention should be given to the choice of appropriate multipurposetree species for inclusion in agroforestry systems in three project areas. Such

choice should follow internationally accepted methods such as thosedescribed in Section 9 of this report. Any choice of tree species should alsobe done in cooperation with farmers.

ix. It is noted that the range of tree and shrub species used in Lesotho is verynarrow. Accordingly, the range should be broadened to include tree speciesrecommended in the reports of Armstrong (1992), Bazill (1992), Leslie (1992),Leslie, Bazill and Rok (1992), Maile (1993), and Rok (1993).

x. In terms of the agroforestry systems recommended for adoption by Lesotho

farmers, beekeeping should receive special attention. This is in view of thefact that so far the role of beekeeping in crop production has not been given


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much attention in the country. Recent research has shown that losses in cropand fruit production due to poor pollination are in the order of 25% (peaches),90% (watermelon and sunflower) and 95% (apples and pumpkins). Lossesalso vary for other crops, vegetables and fruit depending on the area. Sincefood shortage is one of the major problems contributing to poverty in Lesotho,

it is recommended that beekeeping be incorporated in the agroforestrysystems of the two southern lowlands project areas in particular, so that croppollination is enhanced and food production yields are improved.

xi. It is recommended that appropriate research be undertaken on olive and nut

tree culture in Lesotho, and suitable varieties/cultivars be bred for specific

environmental conditions prevalent in Lesotho.

xii. A village/community nursery should be established in each project area with

fully trained staff.

xiii. Nursery staff should receive training in all aspects of tree propagation,

including budding and grafting.

xiv. In order to reduce pressure on the meagre forest or tree resources of the

three project areas, communities should be encouraged to use solar cookers,

biogas and fuel efficient wood burning stoves. This also helps reduce CO2

emissions.

xv. Water harvesting, through the construction of small dams and roof-watertanks should be done in order to water homegardens and orchards, especially

soon after tree planting in the orchard or garden.

xvi. Farmers should be taught to make their own compost in and around the

homestead for use in their gardens and orchards.

Documents

STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION-AGROFORESTRY TRAINING - South.docx