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7/30/2019 STRESS: DEFINITION, THEORIES, MEASUREMENT, SOURCES, & coping
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STRESS: DEFINITION,THEORIES,
MEASUREMENT,SOURCES, & coping
FAREZADI ZAFRYSEMESTER 1 2009
FACULTY OF HEALTH
SCIENCES, UiTM
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon successful completion of this lesson
students will be able to:
1. Explain the physiological process of stress2. Discuss the theories that explain stress
3. Describe the measurement of stress
4. Discuss the sources that produce stress
5. Explain factors that influence coping &
effective strategies of coping
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THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS
The Peripheral Nervous System:
• autonomic nervous system (sympathetic &
parasympathetic) - neurotransmitters(acetylcholine, norepinephrine)
The Neuroendocrine System:
• hormones - pituitary gland
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
adrenal glands (adrenal cortex & adrenal
medulla) glucocorticoids (cortisol);
catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine)
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THE PHYSIOLOGY OF STRESS
Physiology of the Stress Response
• Cannon‟s “fight or flight”
1. Sympathetic division of the ANS (adrenomedullaryresponse)
2. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA)(involves all the structures)
• Allostasis – maintaining appropriate level of activation under changing circumstances
• Allostatic load – due to prolonged activation of theSympathetic NS
• Taylor‟s “tend-and-befriend”
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Physiological Effects of Stress
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THEORIES OF STRESS
There is no simple definition as to the term“stress ”
Stress can be defined in three ways;
1. Environmental stimulus - “I have a high-stress job”
2. Physical response - “My heart races when I feel alot of stress”
3. Interaction between environmental stimuli & theperson - “I feel stressed when I have to makefinancial decisions at work, but other types of decisions do not stress me”
Theories/views of stress;
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THEORIES OF STRESS
1. Hans Selye‟s View:
stressor – stimulus; stress – response
defined stress as a nonspecific or generalized
physical response to a variety of environmentalstressors
whenever the body encounters disruptivestimulus, it mobilizes itself in a generalized
attempt to adapt to that stimulus – generaladaptation syndrome (GAS)
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THEORIES OF STRESS
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
• whenever the body encounters disruptive stimulus,it mobilizes itself in a generalized attempt to adapt
to that stimulus• GAS – 3 stages:
1) Alarm reaction – body‟s defenses are mobilizedthrough activation of the sympathetic NS (activates
body systems to maximize strength, & preparesthem for fight-or-flight response); increased arousal
2) Resistance – adapts to/cope with the stressor
3) Exhaustion - body can no longer resist, results in
physiological breakdown; activation of the
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THEORIES OF STRESS
Potential for trauma or illness exists at all 3stages e.g. resistance - ulcers, hypertension,CVD, asthma; exhaustion – depression, death
Selye concentrated on the physiological aspectsof stress, downplaying the psychological ones(e.g. emotional component), & ignoring theperceptual & interpretative processes that can
moderate human experience of stress
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The three stages of Selye’s general adaptation syndrome – alarm, resistance,exhaustion – and their consequences
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THEORIES OF STRESS
2. Richard Lazarus‟ View: person‟s perception (interpretation) of an event is
more important than the event itself
emphasizes psychological factors e.g. cognitivemediation, appraisal, vulnerability, & coping
Psychological stress: “particular r/s between theperson & the environment that is appraised bythe person as taxing/exceeding his/her resources& endangering his/her well-being” -transactional/interactional view ; person‟sappraisal; & situation – threatening, challenging,harmful
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THEORIES OF STRESS
i. Psychological factors• people are harmed by –ve life events only if they
perceive those events as threatening, beingpersonally important, are in vulnerable state, &
believe that they lack the ability to successfullycope with those events e.g. ???
ii. Appraisal
• 3 kinds of appraisal to assess situations; primary,secondary & reappraisal
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THEORIES OF STRESS
a. primary appraisal is one‟s initial judgment of anevent (1st time), may be seen as (1) harmful – damage that has been done e.g. illness, injury (2)threatening – anticipation of harm, or (3)
challenging – confidence in overcoming demands harm, threat, or challenge generates emotion e.g.
anger, fear, excitement
b. secondary appraisal is one‟s perceived ability to
cope with harm, threat, or challenge e.g. optionsavailable
individual attempts to determine sufficient copingstrategies and selects the best
c. reappraisal of an event is ongoing as the situation
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THEORIES OF STRESS
iii. Vulnerability
• stress is likely to be aroused when people arevulnerable; when they perceive a lack of resources (i.e. personal, social) to cope with asituation of some personal importance
• psychological factors
iv. Coping
• ability or inability to cope• involves our constantly changing cognitive &
behavioral efforts to manage specific internaland/or external demands that are appraised as
taxing/exceeding our resources
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THEORIES OF STRESS
• a) a process, constantly changing, b) notautomatic, c) requires effort, & d) effort tomanage, not control
• thoughts & behaviors that enable a person tohandle stress or anticipated stress
• is enhanced by resources such as health,energy, high self-efficacy, problem-solving skills,social skills, & social support
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MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
(1) Physiological measures
(2) Self-reports (life events & daily hassles scales)
1. Physiological Measures• some physiological/biochemical indexes used to
assess stress: blood pressure, heart rate, galvanicskin response, respiration state, stress hormones,
etc.• disadvantage – the equipment & the setting
themselves may produce stress
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MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
2. Life Events Scales
• Self-report instruments to measure stress
• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRSS) –
emphasizes change in a person‟s life; lists 43events arranged in rank order from most to leaststressful
• Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire (USQ) – ask
college students to check a list of sources of stress• Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) – 14-item scale
attempts to measure the degree to whichsituations in people‟s lives are appraised as
unpredictable, uncontrollable, or overloading
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MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
3. Everyday Hassles Scales
• Daily Hassles Scale & Uplifts Scale – emphasizeperson‟s view of event, 117 + 138 items
• Revised Hassles and Uplifts Scale – shorter scale, 53 items
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SOURCES OF STRESS
A. Cataclysmic Events
“Sudden, unique, & powerful single life-eventsrequiring major adaptive responses frompopulation groups sharing the experience”
Affect large numbers of people
May be unintentional major events e.g. naturaldisasters, or intentional major events e.g.
terrorist attack More stressful when they are intentional acts &
when people are in close proximity to the events
People who experience cataclysmic events may
develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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SOURCES OF STRESS
B. Life Events Everyone experiences life events that require
change/adjustment e.g. death of a spouse,getting a divorce, being fired, moving to different
country Can be +ve events e.g. getting married, starting
a new job, becoming parent, & -ve events e.g.losing a job, being a victim of a violent crime,
death of a family member Emphasize the importance of change
Affect a few people or one only
Usually evolve more slowly
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SOURCES OF STRESS
C. Daily Hassles Events that occur as part of everyday life that may
arise from the physical or psychologicalenvironment
a) Daily Hassles & the Physical Environment
• Environmental sources e.g. noise, pollution,crowding, crime, etc.
• Urban press – sources of stress such as noise,pollution, crowding, & fear of crime are associatedwith urban living
• People may feel threats from environmental
pollution, producing stress•
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SOURCES OF STRESS
• Crowding, a psychological condition that arisesfrom the perception of a high-density environment(population density – physical situation), is asource of stress
• Noise & crowding are more stressful when peoplebelieve they have little control over the situation
• The „environment of poverty‟ presents anenvironment that adds fear of crime to the other hassles common in urban life
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SOURCES OF STRESSb)Daily Hassles & the Psychosocial Environment
• From the everyday social environment e.g.community, workplace, family interactions, etc.
• Discrimination can create daily hassles in community
& at work• Ethnic groups & women also experience stress due
to discrimination e.g. racism & sexism
• Other situations that produce stress at work include
jobs with high demands & low control e.g. foodservers, middle-level manager, secretary,construction worker, etc.
• Workplace stress may also affect personal
relationships, producing conflict between work &
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Job Strain – Karasek et al., 1981
DemandsHigh Low
Control
High
physician,
police officer,bank officer
architect,
dentist, naturalscientist
Low
STRAIN
food servers,
secretary,
construction
worker
carpenter, bill
clerk, truck
driver
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COPING WITH STRESS
Coping – strategies people use to managedistressing problems and emotions in their lives
1. Personal resources that influence coping
•
Lazarus & Folkman (1984)• Health & energy ; healthy, robust individuals are
better in managing external & internal demandsthan sick, tired people
• Positive belief ; ability to cope is enhanced whenpeople believe they can successfully bring aboutdesired consequences
• Problem-solving skills ; e.g. knowledge
• Material resources ; e.g. having the money to get
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COPING WITH STRESS
• Social support ; a variety of material & emotionalsupports that people receive from others
Differs from social contacts & social networks(number & types of ppl) in that it is a measure of the
quality of one‟s social contacts Social isolation – absence of meaningful personal
relationship
Can be linked to good health & decreased mortality
May help people‟s health by providingencouragement to adopt healthy habits or seekmedical care, by helping people cope with stress, bychanging the physiological responses to stress, or
by buffering against stress
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COPING WITH STRESS
• Personal control ; confidence that you have somecontrol over the events that shape your lives
Rotter‟s Locus of control (a continuum):
a. Internal locus of control; people who believe that
they control their own livesb. External locus of control; those who believe that
luck, fate, or the acts of others determine their lives
When people are allowed to assume even small
amounts of personal control & responsibility, theylive longer & healthier lives
Personal control may help people cope with stresseither by having an internal locus of control or by
exerting control over one‟s environment
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COPING WITH STRESS
• Personal hardiness ; explanation for why somepeople are resilient to stress & others are not
Individuals who are especially resistant to illness inspite of increased stress, different from other highly stressed people who become ill
Kobasa‟s hardy personality model : hardyindividuals
a.
have a strong sense of commitment to self,b. demonstrate an internal locus of control , &
c. are likely to see necessary adjustments as achallenge
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COPING WITH STRESS
2. Personal coping strategies
• Coping strategies may be classified in many ways,but generally can be divided into problem-focused& emotion-focused coping
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COPING WITH STRESS
A. Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing the source of the stress
managing or changing the event/stressor
is used if situation seems controllable andalterable
confrontive coping
generally more effective than emotion-focused
coping examples: seeking information; think of options;
devise plan; change job; etc.
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Th i f C i
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Theories of Coping:
Problem- & Emotion-Focused
Lazarus & Folkman(1984) (Strategy)
Problem-
Focused
Emotion-Focused
Seeking infoThink of options
Devise plan
Change job
Talk to friendsGoing shopping
Drinking
Relaxing
Avoidance
Resolve cause
of problems
Managing
emotional impact of
problem
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COPING WITH STRESS
• Other categories: Social coping ; e.g. seeking support from others
Meaning-focused coping ; person concentrates onderiving meaning from stressful experience
Proactive coping ; involves taking steps to avoid ananticipated stressor
• Culture might affect the choice of coping strategy
• The relationship between coping strategy andhealth is complex, involving an interactionbetween the type of coping strategy & whether theoutcome is measured in terms of physical or
mental health