Stress in Compounds and Collocations

3 Stress in English compound words and collocations 3.1 Introduction Stress in English compounds, with its varying position, is a real stumbling-block for Spanish-speaking learners due mainly to the rather fixed occurrence word stress has in Spanish. Two types of phenomena are meant by variation: first, the primary stress of English compounds may go on either the first or the second element in the citation pattern and, secondly, this may also vary in connected speech. On the other hand, all citation patterns of Spanish compounds have the primary stress on the second element, irrespective of internal structure and meaning, e.g. saca ›corchos, cuatro ›cientos, cantau ›tor, mercado ›negro, radio re ›loj, etc. This section offers you a simplified taxonomy of the main classes of compounds and collocations. Rather than commit each particular item to memory –an impossible task– you are recommended to memorize the stress-assignment rules and put them into practice every time you come across a new compound. Associations between patterns and meanings as well as constant comparison between similar structures producing contrasting pairs of the type ›walking stick ~ »rolling ›stone, etc. will help identify ‘normal’ examples and exceptions. You are also advised to check word stress in dictionaries whenever you are in doubt and say the words out loud a number of times so as to help fix them in your memory. 3.2 Terminology Quirk et al. (1985: 1567) define compound as ‘a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.’ No account for stress is present in this definition, but later on, at pp. 1592-1593, they characterize compound nouns as generally taking the primary stress on the first element, and although they acknowledge the existence of a smaller number of compounds with the primary stress on the second element, they also admit that ‘in some cases we may be in doubt as to whether we should regard sequences with this stress pattern as compounds or as free syntactic phrases’. Now, if we leave aside stress placement as the basic criterion of analysis and take the semantic aspect as the decisive factor to identify compounds (i.e. the degree of cohesion between the elements), we will also come across certain word combinations whose compound status might be in doubt. For instance, how should we consider relatively common two-element constructions which frequently co-occur, such as slim chance and feeble hope, none of which are given as individual or even subordinate entries in dictionaries? Furthermore, should we rely on dictionary status for a two-element lexical unit to be considered a

Word stress and sentence accent

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compound? Notice that a third criterion, that of spelling, has not been brought into the discussion, due to the fact that a fair degree of variation can be found in the way compounds are written –as one single word, or as two words, either separated by a space or a hyphen. We shall bypass the difficulty posed by compounds by acknowledging the existence of other word combinations which you would also do well to incorporate into your mental lexicon, irrespective of the fact that they may not conform fully to the category of compound. Following Carney (1991: 1) we will adopt the notion of COLLOCATION, which he conveniently defines in phonological terms: ‘Any frequently recurring two-element structure [...] for which a stress pattern may be predicted.’ This category includes collocations you will find in EFL dictionaries of a general kind –not necessarily specialist pronunciation dictionaries–, e.g. virtual reality, national curriculum, etc., plus a few others which have not got (and probably will never get) dictionary status, e.g. insufficient evidence. A random examination of the two standard pronunciation dictionaries, LPD and EPD, reveals interesting differences in the corpus offered, as the following sample of two-element collocations shows, e.g.

artificial insemination • artificial intelligence • • artificial kidney • artificial respiration • • bus conductor • bus shelter • bus station • bus stop • • good afternoon • good book • goodbye • • good day • • good evening • Good Friday • • Good Heavens! • good looks • goodman • good morning • • good night • • good offices • good Samaritan •

LPD EPD


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goodwill • • good-hearted • • good-humoured • • good-looking • • good-natured • • good-tempered • • 3.3 Compound word stress and EFL dictionaries All EFL dictionaries can be of help in matters of information about stress. As with simple words, we will use the tonetic-stress marking system, of generalized use in the British school of prosody, which indicates stressed syllables by means of ‘ »’ (secondary stress) and ‘ ›’ (primary stress), following Kingdon (1958b), Windsor Lewis (1969), Finch & Ortiz (1982) and Cruttenden (2008). These are distributed in compounds and collocations in such a way that –as in simple words– only one primary stress may occur and this is always the last stress; the secondary stress always precedes the primary and never the other way round (but note chapter 1, section 1.5.iii): »user- ›friendly »Third ›World ›Home Office

The following patterns show the distribution of stresses in polysyllabic compounds and collocations as they appear in the standard pronunciation dictionaries and in the present book, e.g.

«person»nel «manager person»nel «manager »person ›nel manager «conti«nental »breakfast «continental »breakfast »continental ›breakfast 3.4 Labels for stress in compounds and collocations The stress patterns of English compounds and collocations have been given different labels in the literature. Most of them describe the placement of the main, primary stress; these are shown in (a). There is a set of labels which refers to the number of stresses and is given in (b), e.g. ›English teacher (=profesor(a) de inglés) »English ›teacher (=profesor(a) inglés(a)) (a) early stress late stress initial stress final stress compound stress phrasal stress

LPD EPD This work


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strong-weak weak-strong (b) single stress double stress (i) The labels ‘early’ and ‘late’, which refer to the fact that it is the first element that has ‘more stress’ than the second, are found in Wells (1990: 150).

(ii) ‘Initial’ and ‘final’ are the names used by Fudge (1984).

(iii) The labels ‘compound’ vs. ‘phrasal’ (Chomsky & Halle, 1968) are misleading because the pattern consisting of a primary stress on the second element (which is typical of noun phrases such as an incredible blonde) can also be found in many compounds, as will be shown in the word-lists that follow; a characterization of compounds in terms of stress placement is, then, unsatisfactory.

(v) The categories strong-weak (sw) and weak-strong (ws), of rhythmic nature, indicate the relative prominence of the two sequences –a basic notion in metrical theory, as expressed, for instance, by Ladd (1996) and, in general, by all supporters of the metrical-autosegmental theory.

(vi) The reasons for the labels ‘single’ vs. ‘double’ (Jones, 1956; Kingdon, 1958b; Finch & Ortiz, 1982) are that (a) by virtue of a generally agreed principle, a primary stress is also considered the last stress in an utterance; (b) a late primary stress –i.e. main stress on the second lexical item– can be (and normally is) preceded by a secondary stress on the first element. In this work we will use the terms ‘single’ and ‘double’ in order to emphasize the role of secondary stresses in processes such as stress shift. For EFL purposes, compounds and collocations can be organized according to the type of stress pattern –e.g. single (early) vs. double (late), i.e. a phonological classification– or according to the function of the resulting collocation –e.g. nouns vs. adjectives, i.e. a syntactic-functional taxonomy. Here we will take the former criterion as the basis for the organization of the corpus, and will indicate the function of the resulting pattern. The patterns exemplified here are all citation forms, i.e. the patterns of compounds and collocations said in isolation. 3.5 Single stress in compounds and collocations

3.5.1 ›shopkeeper (i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (shop) is the direct object of the action of the agent N2 (keeper). The resulting collocation functions as noun. (ii) The agent usually ends in -er, -or , and can be either human or non-human. (iii) Sometimes the direct object relationship between N1 and N2 is less obvious, as can be seen in (b). (iv) Exceptions are: »stage ›manager, in»terior ›decorator.


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(a) ballet dancer bandleader blood donor bookkeeper bricklayer bullfighter cabinet-maker cash dispenser cement mixer DVD player dishwasher dressmaker eggbeater food processor fortune-teller glue-sniffer goalkeeper hairdresser hairdryer holidaymaker housekeeper landowner law-breaker lawnmower lie detector mine detector moneylender newsreader painkiller paper fastener park keeper proofreader purse-snatcher screwdriver shareholder skyscraper songwriter stallholder taxpayer taxi driver tin opener tongue twister word processor (b) babysitter chain-smoker churchgoer coat hanger cradle-snatcher drug dealer fishmonger grasshopper housebreaker hunger striker pressure cooker scaremonger schoolteacher screenwriter slum dweller stockbroker theatregoer vacuum cleaner 3.5.2 ›bookshop (i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (book) delimits the meaning of N2 (shop), by stating ‘what type of thing’ it is. The resulting compound usually functions as noun. (ii) Single stress is the commonest pattern in N1 + N2 collocations. In many other examples, an N1 with more specific reference favours double stress, as in »kitchen ›sink (see section 3.6.1). Similarly, whereas »school ›secretary has specific reference, ›schoolboy has not. In other pairs this criterion does not seem to operate very clearly, e.g. uni »versity ›lecturer vs. ›school teacher. (iii) Single vs. double stress can be responsible for changes in meaning, as in (b). (a) address book advice column aircraft airhostess airline airmail airport air terminal amusement park apron strings aptitude test backache bank account bar code bedclothes bedroom bedspread bedtime birth certificate birth control birthday card birthday party birthplace birthrate blood bank blood group blood presure blood relation blood transfusion blood vessel book club book token bookcase bookmark bookstall bookworm boyfriend bread box cash card child abuse Christmas card clothes brush clothesline clothespeg coffee shop coffee break coffee cup coffee table


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credit card crime rate cupboard love daylight daytime death penalty death rate deposit account dish towel drug abuse drug addict earphones football footnote footpath footstep girlfriend guidebook hairpin hairstyle handbag headache headlamp headline headphone heart attack heart failure heat wave identity card key ring keyboard laptop library card license plate life insurance love affair money order motorbike motorcar motorcycle mountain bike mountain range nail scissors nail varnish newsagent newsletter newspaper newsstand night shift nightclub nighttime ozone layer paper clip paperback paperwork phone book phone box phonecard photo album pocket money pocketbook police force police officer police station post office postcard press conference price tag punctuation mark puppy dog question mark question tag raincoat rainstorm record library roadblock road works rush hour safety belt safety pin saladbar savings account schoolgirl schoolmaster schoolmate schoolmistress schoolwork seafood sea level seaport seashell seashore sex appeal shock treatment shoelace shoeshop shop assistant slot machine sound effects soup plate soup spoon spacecraft spacelab space suit sports car sports jacket stamp collection store detective sunglasses sunroof supply teacher systems analyst tablecloth table tennis teabag teabreak tea party tea towel teamwork teapot tear gas teaspoon teatime time bomb timetable toilet roll toothache toy shop video game watercolour watermelon watermill webpage website wheelchair wind instrument window seat windstorm word order wristwatch (b) ›family name (=surname) »family ›name (=family reputation) ›toy factory (=where toys are made) »toy ›factory (=for a child to play with)


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3.5.3 ›language teaching, ›time-consuming (i) Noun + verb [-ing] (N + V [ing]), where N is the object of V, i.e. ‘X teaches language’, as in (a); sometimes, however, the role of the noun as object is less obvious, as in (b). (ii) Some resulting collocations can function mainly as nouns, e.g. ›language teaching, or mainly as adjectives, e.g. ›time-consuming. (a) bookbinding bookkeeping beekeeping breathtaking childbearing dressmaking fee-paying hairdressing hair-raising hair-splitting heartbreaking horseracing housekeeping labour-saving mind reading money laundering moneylending painstaking proofreading role playing shareholding sidesplitting sightseeing surfriding thought-provoking timesaving troublemaking troubleshooting wind surfing wire-tapping word processing wrongdoing (b) air-conditioning brainstorming handwriting hang-gliding housewarming food poisoning law-abiding oil painting pony-trekking shoplifting ski jumping tap dancing window-shopping (c) Exceptions: »data ›processing, »family ›planning, »zebra ›crossing. 3.5.4 ›walking stick, ›lending library (i) Verb [-ing] + noun (V[ing] + N), where N is not in subject relation to V. Thus, in ›walking stick, the noun does not do the walking itself; the meaning is rather ‘a stick for walking.’ The noun sometimes represents the place or time for the action of the verb, as in ›shopping centre and ›freezing point ; these examples are listed in (a). (ii) In ›lending library the noun does perform the action indicated by the verb, i.e. ‘the library lends books’, but the single-stress pattern can be explained because the action is not in progress; other examples of this type are those in (b). (iii) Contrasting examples due to single vs. double stress can be found in ›moving van (=a removal van) and »moving ›van (=a van actually moving). (a) baking powder boardinghouse boarding pass boarding school bowling alley breathing space building block carving knife changing room climbing frame closing time cooking facilities chewing gum dancing lesson dialling tone dining car dining room drinking water driving licence driving seat


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driving test filing cabinet filling station finishing school fishing rod frying pan hearing aid icing sugar insulating tape ironing board knitting needle living room meeting point melting point parking light parking lot parking meter playing field polling station purchasing power reading matter reading room recording studio rowing boat selling point shaving cream shopping bag shopping list shopping mall singing lesson sitting room skipping rope sleeping bag sleeping car sleeping pill spending money stepping-stone stumbling block swimming pool swimming trunks teaching hospital teething troubles tracing paper tuning fork waiting list waiting room washing powder whooping cough writing paper (b) answering machine cleaning woman humming bird mincing machine nursing home operating system printing press publishing house rocking chair rolling pin sewing machine sparking plug spinning wheel steering wheel sticking plaster teaching practice training college training course travelling expenses vending machine washing machine watering can 3.5.5 ›grandmother, ›baldhead (i) Adjective + noun (A + N) collocations are a very common type of construction in English. They usually take double stress by default, as if they were phrases. (Cf. N1 + N2 compounds in section 3.5.2, which are considered to take single stress by default.) There is, however, another group of A + N collocations with a more specialized meaning which take single stress; some of these can be considered to be long-established compounds. The number of adjectives participating in these constructions is relatively small; they are generally one- or two-syllable long and are of low semantic specialization, e.g. black, free, hard, high, etc. (ii) In some cases there is a potential contrast between the specialized meaning of the compound (with single stress, as in ›blackboard) and the phrase consisting of the same two elements (with double stress, as in »black ›board), as shown in (c). (iii) In summary, the main points regarding A + N collocations are:

(1) A + N collocations functioning as nouns normally have double stress, e.g. a»tomic ›energy;

(2) Some A + N collocations functioning as nouns have a specialized meaning and take single stress, e.g. ›blackberry and the rest of the examples in (a);

(3) Some A + N collocations functioning as nouns and taking single stress are called ‘bahuvrihi’ / »bA˘hu˘ ›vri˘hi/ compounds. They are used to designate a person by


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specifying a physical or mental characteristic, e.g. a man who has a grey beard is a ›greybeard. Others designate objects, e.g. a book with a hard cover is a ›hardback, etc.; see examples in (b).

(a) after effects anybody anyone anyplace anything blackberry blackboard blacklist black people blacksmith black spot bluebell bluebird Christian name coldcream comic strip commonplace current account darkroom deadline deadlock dry dock everybody everyone everything first name freehand freehold freelance freephone freeway funny bone given name grandchild granddaughter grandma grandpa grandson grandstand green belt greengrocer greyhound grey matter hardboard hardware highbrow high jump highlight high school high season high street highway hothouse hotline hotplate last name lowbrow lowland low season madhouse middle man middle name middle school old boy old girl open day quicksand real estate right angle shortbread shortcake shorthand short list sickbay sick leave sick pay smallpox small talk soft spot software special school strongbox stronghold strong point sweet corn sweetheart sweetshop whiteboard whitewash wholesale wildcat wild flower wildlife wise guy (b) bad-mouth big-mouth busybody fathead greenback hardback hardtop heavyweight lazybones loudmouth paleface redbrick redhead redskin sleepyhead slowcoach smart-arse thickhead (c) ›blackbird (=Sp. mirlo) »black ›bird (=any bird which is black) ›blackboard (=writing surface) »black ›board (=any board which is black) ›bluebell (=Sp. jacinto) »blue ›bell (=any bell which is blue) ›common room (=college staff room) »common ›room (=one used jointly) ›crossword (=type of word puzzle) »cross ›word (=an angry word) ›funny man (= a comedian) »funny ›man (=a strange man)


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›darkroom (=for processing films) »dark ›room (= a room which is dark) ›English teacher (=teacher of English) »English ›teacher (=teacher who is English) ›greenhouse (=glass building for plants) »green ›house (=any house which is green) ›Greenland (=Sp. Groenlandia) »green ›land (=any land which is green) ›grey matter (=brains) »grey ›matter (=anything grey) ›heavyweight (=heaviest type boxer) »heavy ›weight (=a weight which is heavy) ›hotplate (=part of a cooker) »hot ›plate (=a plate which is hot) ›special school (=for disabled children) »special ›school (=out of the common) ›White House (=US President’s residence) »white ›house (=any house which is white) 3.5.6 ›moth-eaten, ›V-shaped (i) Noun + participle (N + P) in which N is usually the subject of P, i.e. moths have eaten X; more examples are those in (a). (ii) The relationship between N and P is more complex in (b): in ›corpus based we understand ‘based on a corpus’, in ›toilet-trained, ‘trained to use a toilet’, and in ›egg-shaped, ‘shaped like an egg.’ (iii) The function of the resulting collocation is adjectival and the early-stress pattern of the citation form does not vary when the compound is used either attributively or predicatively, e.g. citation form: ›moth-eaten attributive use: a »moth-eaten ›sweater predicative use: »Those i »deas can be de»scribed as ›moth-eaten. (a) action-packed coin-operated flea-bitten frostbitten heartfelt hen-pecked horror-stricken landlocked moonlit snowbound snow-capped sunburnt sunlit terror-stricken weather-beaten weather-bound windswept (b) air-conditioned blue-coloured bed-ridden cigar-shaped gift-wrapped heartbroken oval-shaped pear-shaped red-coloured shop-bought star-spangled type-written white-washed 3.5.7 ›cookbook, ›daybreak (i) Verb + noun (V + N) result in compounds functioning mainly as nouns and sometimes as adjectives; they are illustrated in (a). Exception: »stop ›press. (ii) Noun + verb (N + V) collocations function as nouns; see (b).


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(a) breakneck call girl carrycot catchword cease-fire chat show cutthroat holdall knitwear know-all pickpocket playboy pushchair rattlesnake spendthrift stopgap swearword talk show telltale (b) corkscrew fire escape firefly landslide rollcall sunrise sunset sunshine 3.5.8 ›take-off Verb + particle (V + Pc), originating double-stress phrasal and prepositional verbs, take single stress when functioning as nouns, e.g. to »take ›off is nominalized as a ›take-off; see examples in (a). V + Pc can also function as adjective, as in a ›breakaway faction. backup blackout breakdown breakthrough breakup brush-up ckeckin checkout comeback countdown cutback cutout fallout flashback go-ahead handout hangover hideaway kickoff knockdown knockout letdown letup lookout playback play-off press-up pullover push-up rip-off roll-on runaway see-through shoot-out sit-down sit-in spin-off standby stopover tailback takeaway turnover write-off write-up 3.5.9 ›background Adverb + noun (Adv + N) originate compounds which function mainly as nouns, e.g. aftereffect Antichrist crossroads forearm foreground foreman foresight foretaste in-patient infrastructure outlaw overcoat overdose overheads overtime postscript subsection supermarket underclothes underground


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3.5.10 ›Oxford Street The noun street does not take stress in street name collocations, which makes the pattern single-stressed. On the contrary, all other words denoting thoroughfares are stressed (see section 3.6.3). Bond Street Downing Street Fleet Street Princess Street Regent Street 3.5.11 Miscellaneous 3.5.11.1 Verb + adverb originate nouns. get-together know-how standstill 3.5.11.2 Abbreviation + noun originate nouns. A-level O level L-driver T-bone T-junction U-turn V-neck

3.6 Double stress in compounds and collocations 3.6.1 »city ›centre (i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 has specific reference, as in »city ›centre (=the centre of the city). In all cases the resulting compound functions as noun. Sometimes N1 may represent an organization, a location, or a time, as in (a). (ii) N1 can also be a value, as in (b). (iii) Noun-genitive cases are included in (c). (a) academy award bank holiday bay window bedroom slippers bedroom window block letters bottom drawer camp bed daylight robbery diningroom table district nurse family allowance family doctor family planning family tree fellow citizen fellow creature girl Friday girl guide ground floor group therapy hall porter headmaster lawn tennis kitchen sink life expectancy life imprisonment lump sum mass production morning paper mother tongue night watchman office party pedestrian precinct platinum blonde Saturday night school hall school uniform school year shop window


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town hall trade union twin beds zebra crossing (b) dollar bill peso coin pound note (c) devil’s advocate gentleman’s agreement students’ union teacher’s pet women’s lib 3.6.2 »baby ›boy Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where the referent is both N1 and N2, e.g. in »baby ›boy the referent is both a baby and a boy. acid rain baby girl clock radio garden city guardian angel infant prodigy learner driver mother hen poison gas queen bee queen mother radio telescope strip cartoon student teacher twin brother twin sister washer-dryer woman driver woman writer 3.6.3 »Buckingham ›Palace (i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (and sometimes also N2) is a proper name; the majority are place names, as in (a). Examples of street names are those in (b). Group (c) includes proper noun-genitive examples. (ii) Some exceptions are: ›Home Office, ›Lake District, ›Labour Party. See also section 3.5.10. (a) Achilles heel Atacama Desert Cambridge University Channel Tunnel Chicago Tribune Christmas Day Davis Cup Father Christmas Gaza Strip Greater London Hudson River Hyde Park James Bond Jane Eyre Loch Ness London Airport London Bridge Magellan Strait Manchester United Mexican wave Mexico City Morse code Mother Nature Niagara Falls Nobel Prize North Sea Paddington Station Panama Canal River Thames Sherlock Holmes Sherwood Forest Shetland Islands Tom Collins Union Jack World Bank World Cup (b) Gloucester Avenue Oxford Circus Milton Close Bedford Crescent Stainburn Drive Hammersmith Flyover Spring Gardens Plymouth Grove Penny Lane Oxford Road Leicester Square Mancunian Way


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(c) Adam’s apple Aladdin’s cave Hobson’s choice Noah’s ark 3.6.4 »apple ›pie (i) Noun 1 + noun 2 (N1 + N2), where N1 (apple) is frequently a mass noun N2 (pie) is made of. All these imply intentionality, i.e. they are man-made. (ii) Exceptions to this rule are single-stressed collocations mainly with juice and cake, e.g. ›lemon juice, ›orange juice, ›cheesecake, ›chocolate cake; also ›cornflakes, ›sandcastle. (iii) Other exceptions involve ‘unintentional accumulations’ rather than ‘intended constructions’, e.g. ›breadcrumb, ›raindrop, ›sawdust, ›snowflake, ›soap bubble, ›waterfall. (iv) Double vs. single stress may produce different meanings, as illustrated in (b). (a) bacon sandwich brick wall bronze medal camomile tea carbon dioxide chocolate biscuit cotton wool cream cracker crystal ball fish finger fruit salad gold medal iron gate lemon curd lemon squash log cabin mince pie mud pie plum pudding pork pie pork chop rag doll rice pudding rope ladder rubber band rubber stamp sausage roll semolina pudding silver medal stone wall suede shoes (b) »paper ›bag (=bag made of paper) ›paper bag (=bag for newspapers) »cheese ›biscuit (=one made of cheese) ›cheese biscuit (=one for eating with cheese) 3.6.5 »public ›transport, »second- ›hand (i) Adjective + noun (A + N) collocations which function as nouns usually take double stress by default, which makes this group a very productive one. The adjectives can be of high semantic specificity, as in (a), and may take the form of ‘-ed’ adjectivals, e.g. »guided ›missile. (ii) Other, less specialized, adjectives participating in compounds are shown in (b). Most of the items in this section function as nouns and a few, mainly as adjectives. (iii) Section (c) includes collocations involving proper names. The main exceptions in this group are ›Home Office, ›Long Beach, ›West Country, ›White House. (iv) A + N collocations can also function as adjectives, some of them as either pre- or postmodifiers (i.e. attributively and predicatively), such as double-stress »second- ›hand, and others mainly or only as premodifiers (i.e. attributively), such as single-stress ›greenhouse in ›greenhouse effect (see section 3.5.5). The »second- ›hand type of compound is illustrated in section (b). (v) Notice the capacity of double-stressed adjectives to participate in stress-shifted contexts, as explained in section 1.9. This can be seen in some of the collocations in (a), e.g. »conti ›nental ~


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»continental ›breakfast; »undi ›vided ~ »undivided at ›tention. (a) absolute majority accidental death ancient monument artificial respiration atmospheric pressure atomic energy audiovisual aids automatic pilot barbed wire cardinal point citric acid civil war classified ad common sense continental breakfast current affairs definite article diplomatic immunity direct object dirty trick domestic animal domestic appliance foreign affairs further education general knowledge genetic engineering glottal stop honourable mention identical twin industrial revolution intellectual property intensive care literary criticism live performance minimum wage mobile library national anthem native speaker natural history natural science nervous breakdown personal computer plastic surgery political prisoner possessive pronoun practical joke prime minister private detective private school professional advice proper noun public library public opinion public relations public school sacred cow secret admirer secret service sexual discrimination sexual harassment sexual intercourse skimmed milk square root stringed-instrument syllabic consonant undivided attention vicious circle virtual reality wishful thinking (b) back garden bad news best man bestseller black eye black market black pudding broad beans brown rice brown sugar close shave cold feet dark glasses dark horse dead end double bed double-decker easy chair false alarm first aid first-class first-rate front door front page full house full moon free port full-length full stop full-time good cause green fingers happy medium hard cash hard currency hard disk hard drugs hard labour red carpet hard shoulder high-class high fidelity high tea last night last straw long-distance long-term lost cause lost property loudspeaker low tide middle class middle finger old man open-air part-time plain-clothes red tape round figures round trip


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safe sex second best second class second thoughts short circuit short story slow motion small change small print soft furnishings strong language sweet nothings tall story wet blanket white elephant (c) Arctic Circle Black Sea Common Market European Community Good Friday Grand Canyon Greater London Holy Ghost Holy Scripture Middle Ages Middle East New York Old Testament Open University Pacific Ocean Promised Land Red Cross Red Sea Roman alphabet Royal Highness Scottish Gaelic Supreme Court Wild West Yellow Pages 3.6.6 »brand- ›new (i) Noun + adjective (N + A) collocations give rise mainly to adjectives. These double-stress patterns frequently undergo stress shift: as premodifier they take early-stress and as postmodifier, late stress, cf. a »navy-blue ›sweater ~ I pre»fer navy- ›blue; see (a). (ii) A small group of N + A collocations can also function as nouns and are listed in (b). (iii) Exceptions taking single stress are relatively few: ›homesick, ›accident-prone, ›colour-blind, ›poverty-stricken, ›streetwise. (a) bone-dry bone lazy bottle green brick-red class-conscious dirt cheap duty-free knee-deep navy-blue ozone-friendly pitch-black pitch-dark post-free rent-free sea-green sky-blue sky-high snow-white stone-blind stone-cold stone-dead stone deaf stone sober tax-free user-friendly worldwide (b) Amnesty International attorney general director general God almighty notary public poet laureate president elect prince consort secretary-general surgeon general 3.6.7 »old- ›fashioned Adjective + noun + adjectival [-ed] (A + N[-ed]) combinations give rise to a group of very common adjectives with double stress in their citation patterns. Stress shift modifies this default pattern in a way similar to that in the previous sections, e.g. »totally absent- ›minded ~ an »absent-minded pro ›fessor.


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absent-minded bad-tempered broad-minded blue-eyed close-fisted cold-blooded dark-haired double-breasted empty-handed empty-headed fat-bottomed four-legged high-pitched high-priced high-spirited ill-humoured long-winded middle-aged narrow-minded one-sided open-minded quick-tempered quick-witted round-shouldered short-sighted stiff-necked strong-minded sweet-tempered three-storeyed tightfisted 3.6.8 »home- ›made, »ham- ›fisted Noun + participle (N + P) and Noun 1 + noun 2 + adjectival [-ed] (N1 + N2[-ed]) collocations result in adjectives with double stress by default; this pattern is modified by the stress shift rule in the regular fashion, i.e. attributively: a »self-contained ›flat and predicatively: she is »very self-con ›tained. air-conditioned bell-bottomed filter-tipped ham-fisted hand-knitted handmade handwritten machine-made man-made middle-aged self-centered self-contained self-employed self-made self-satisfied self-taught tailor-made value-added 3.6.9 »rolling ›stone Verb [-ing] + noun (V[-ing] + N) originate nouns in which N is usually the subject of the verbal action in V, i.e. ‘the stone rolls’. The corresponding collocation with single stress (i.e. section 3.5.4) is much more productive. developing country falling star finishing touch flying colours flying saucer floating voter freezing cold helping hand leading article leading actor leading author leading question living fossil living memory living wage loving kindness missing link moving picture moving staircase paying guest revolving door running commentary running total running water shooting star sitting target sitting tenant sleeping policeman sliding door spitting image standing order standing ovation supporting role underlying form visiting professor weeping willow working-class working week


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3.6.10 »dark ›blue Adjective 1 + adjective 2 (A1 + A2) produce double-stressed adjectives by default, which are readily subject to stress-shift, e.g. »Anglo-A ›merican ~ An »Anglo-American a ›greement. Anglo-American Anglo-Chilean Anglo-Saxon bitter-sweet British-American dark green deaf-mute double-quick Latin American light blue light green red-hot royal blue 3.6.11 »good- ›looking Adjective + verb [-ing] (A + V[-ing]) give rise to adjectives with double stress and, consequently, to the possibility of stress-shifted versions, e.g. An »easygoing ›teacher (attributively) ~ He’s »very easy ›going (predicatively). ever-changing everlasting far-reaching forthcoming hard-working heavy-going long-lasting long-running long-standing long-suffering outgoing 3.6.11 Miscellaneous 3.6.11.1 Self + verb [-ing] originate adjectives: self-catering self-defeating self-raising self-supporting 3.6.11.2 Noun (agent) + adverb originate nouns: hanger-on looker-on runner-up passer-by 3.6.11.3 Adverb + participle give origin to adjectives: farfetched far-flung far-gone 3.7 Three-word compounds and collocations The following lists contain some common three-word collocations in alphabetical order and classified according to their stress patterns. The pattern in 3.7.1, the most frequent, contains mainly stress-shifted modifiers attached to a final stressed noun. Conversely, in 3.7.3, the final noun is unstressed. The great majority of examples function as nouns.


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3.7.1 »Second World ›War apple pie bed audiovisual aids back-alley abortion ballpoint pen blackboard jungle broken-hearted lover closed circuit television commonsense decision first degree murder five-pound charge five-star hotel happy-go-lucky hard-boiled egg middle-age spread nationwide broadcast nextdoor neighbour old age pension one-track mind one-way traffic post-dated cheque read-only memory rearview mirror roll-top desk self-confessed liar self-made man soft-boiled egg ten-pound fee test-tube baby two-sided problem three-ring circus top-class model twenty-pound fine two-piece suit well-balanced diet 3.7.2 »morning ›after pill April Fool’s Day big bang theory good luck charm intensive care unit left-luggage office love-hate relationship no-go area no-win situation non-stick frying-pan odd-job man parent-teacher association red blood cell school-leaving age 3.7.3 ›merry-go-round attention-deficit disorder breast cancer research coffee-table book fire-insurance policy greenhouse effect inkjet printer mature-age student water balloon fight windscreen wiper


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Practice material 1. The following noun + noun collocations take single stress by default. Mark them and read them aloud: gift shop flight attendant committee member potato grower power cut power point 2. The following noun + noun collocations take stress on the first noun by default. Notice that the first noun is double-stressed, so stress shift does not apply. Mark them and read them aloud: population explosion examination paper concentration camp multiplication table registration number recreation ground Independence Day magazine stand unemployment benefit 3. The following list contains noun + noun collocations, some of which are single- and others, double-stressed. Sort them out, mark them, and read them out loud: rubber ball cycle lane health food head teacher 3. The following adjective + noun collocations take double stress by default. Mark them and read them aloud: frozen food heavy industry natural gas native speaker personal computer preventive medicine illegal immigrant juvenile delinquency derelict house postgraduate student electric car scented candle nuclear disarmament 4. The following adjective + noun collocations take double stress by default. Notice that the adjective is double-stressed, so stress shift applies. Mark them and read them aloud: low-fat food homegrown vegetables occupational therapy heaven-sent opportunity oceanic waters 5. The following verb[-ing] + noun collocations take double stress because the noun is the subject of the verbal action. Mark them and read them aloud: closing remark pioneering work practising teacher cutting edge 6. Some of the following verb[-ing] + noun collocations take single and others, double stress. Identify the stress patterns, sort them into groups and read them aloud: sticking point learning disability firing-squad losing battle running shoe mining industry fishing ground greeting card learning process consulting room pronouncing dictionary 7. The following collocations derive from noun + verb [-ing] constructions and take single stress because the noun is the object of the verb. Mark them and read them aloud:


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habit forming namedropping decision-making phone-tapping 8. The following + collocati 9. Mark the following pairs and explain the different patterns: 1. visiting professor - visiting hours 2. family doctor - family man 3. living fossil - living standard 4. drinking water - running water 5. Home Office - home office 6. steel band - steel mill 7. sex offender - persistent offender 10. Organize the following three-word collocations according to their stress patterns: Third World countries infant mortality rate front-page news silver wedding anniversary public-address system peak time traffic computer aided design redbrick university teacher training-college second-class citizen daylight saving time left-hand drive New Year’s Eve fairy godmother fancy dress party great-grandmother all-night party New York City stone-cold sober old-people’s home 11. Mark the following utterances and read them aloud. Explain your marking: 1. 2. The girl was accused of shop-lifting at a shoe shop. 3. The forthcoming election will certainly be a close-run thing. 4. At my workstation, I have a photocopier, a filing cabinet and a fax machine. 4. some washing-up liquid. 5. We have to go our separate ways. 6. No hard feelings

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Stress in Compounds and Collocations