Structures in Earthquake Regions

7/31/2019 Structures in Earthquake Regions

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1. SeismicCodesandRelevantDataLayerforHazardandRiskAssessment1.1DescriptionofNationalCodeDevelopment

Indonesiahasdevelopedtheearthquakecodesince27yearsago.Ithadaimtoimprovetheregulationoftheearthquakeresistanceforbuildingwhichwasinterpretedinthestandard

code(DesignMethodofEarthquakeResistanceforBuildings).Thiscodewasproposedby

Beca Carer Hollings, Ferner Ltd and Indonesians expert engineers. The result of this

investigationwaspublished inIndonesianEarthquakeStudiesvolume1until7at1979.

Based on this investigation, the hazard map was published for period 500 years. In the

hazard map, the earth quake zone map of Indonesia is divided into 6 zones and it is

classifiedby2(two)subsoilconditionstype,stiffsoilandsoftsoil.

Nowadays, there are many technologies and research to investigate the occurrences of

earthquakemuchmoredetails.Theimprovinganddevelopingofthisresearchispublished

intheBuildingCodethatmustbe fulfilled inordertogeneralizethedesignscalculationandgiveasafetyfactorforbuildingsandusers.Indonesiaisaoneofdangerouslocationsin

theworldasithasalotofearthquakeoccurrences;hencetheIndonesiagovernmentmakes

aregulationandreferenceforengineerstodesignabuildingand infrastructurebyusinga

code which is called Design Method of Earth quake Resistance for Buildings Indonesia

Standard National 172602. This standard is intended as a replacement of Indonesian

NationalStandard(SNI0317261989).

IndonesiagovernmenthasstartedanewcodeafterTsunamidisasterwhichwasoccurred5

yearsago.Wewereawarethatthecurrentcodeisnotrelevantanymoretobeimplemented

fordesigningofbuilding.Manybuildingsandinfrastructuresweredestroyedbyearthquake

and tsunami due to lack of quality and wrong construction method. This code is beingaccomplished by government which consider higher safety factor including construction

methodforhousingandhighbuilding.Thisisnecessarytogiveknowledgeforengineersand

architectstobuildabuildingaswellasnewcode.

1.2Recentcodesituation

1.2.1ElaborationofNationalSeismicZoningMaps

Currently,IndonesiahasthreeearthquakehazardmapsissuedbyDepartmentofPublic

Works.Thefirstmap isPeakGroundAcceleration(PGA)mapatbedrockfor500years

returnperiodintheStandardforEarthquakeResiliencePlanningStructureBuilding(SNI

0317262002).Thishazardmap isused fordesigninggeneralbuildings.Thesecond is

thehazardmaps fordesigningwaterworks (dam).ThismapwasdevelopedbyTheoF.

NajoanandpublishedbyResearchcentreforWaterworksDepartmentofPublicWorks.

ThethirdmapisusedfordesigningbridgeandroadconstructionpublishedbyResearch


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CentreforRoadsandBridgeworks.ThismapisreferredtothemapdevelopedbyTheo

F.Najoanwithareturnperiodof50and100years.

The map for PGAat bedrock in the SNI 0317262002 (Figure 1e) was developing by

averagingvalues from four seismichazardmapsdevelopedby fourdifferent research

groupsinIndonesia(Figure1ato1d).Thisseismichazardmapwasdevelopedusingtotal

probability theorem (Cornel,1968)andbyapplying area sourcesmodel (2dimension

model).This2dimension(2D)modelhassomelimitationsinmodelingthefaultsource

geometries. Moreover, several great earthquake occurrences in Indonesia in the last

two years inquire revision of seismic hazard parameters in SNI 0317262002. These

earthquake events must be considered in determining seismic hazard parameters

especiallymaximumcredibleearthquakemagnitude(MCE).


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Figure1. IndonesiaHazardMapfromfourresearchesandasinSNI0317262002.

1.2.2 SpecificationofCodeProvisions

1.2.2.1.GeneralRequirement.

Thisstandarddefinestheeffectofdesignearthquakethatmustbeexaminedin

thebuildingstructuredesignandvariouspartsandcomponentsingeneral.Due

totheeffectofdesignearthquake,overallbuildingstructuremuststayerected,

albeit innearcollapsingcondition.Thedesignearthquake isdefinedtohavea

reoccurrenceperiodof500years,soitsprobabilityinthe50yearsbuildinglife

spanis10%.

Thedesignrequirementsofearthquakeresistantbuildingstructuresdefinedin

thisstandarddonotapplyforthefollowingbuildings:

Buildingwithuncommonstructuresystemorbuildingsstillrequiringproving

oftheirworthiness.

Buildingsusingbaseisolationsystemtoabsorbearthquakeeffectonthe

upperstructure.

CivilEngineeringStructuressuchasbridges,irrigationbuilding,wallsandpiersofharbor,offshoreoilstructure,andothernonbuildings.

Onestoreyhouseandothernontechnicalbuildings.

Thisstandardhasaproposethatthebuildingstructurewhichitsearthquake

resistanceisdesignedconformingtothisstandardcanfunction:

Topreventhumancasualtiesbythecollapseofbuildingbecauseofastrong

earthquake


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Toreducebuildingdamageduetolighttomediumearthquake,sothe

buildingisrepairable.

Topreventtenantdiscomfortforbuildingtenantsduringlighttomedium

earthquakes.

Tomaintainatalltimevitalservicesofbuildingfunction.

1.2.2.2.ImportanceFactor

For various building categories, depending on the probability of building

structurecollapsing forthe lifeandexpectedageofthebuilding,theeffectof

design earthquake on it must be multiplied with a significance factor I

(ImportanceFactor).

BuildingCategory SignificanceFactorI1 I2 I(I1xI2)

Generalbuilding,suchasforresidential,tradeandoffice 1.0 1.0 1.0

Monumentandmonumentalbuildings 1.0 1.6 1.6Post earthquake important buildings such as hospital,

cleanwater installation,powerplant,emergency rescue

center,radioandtelevisionfacilities.

1.4 1.0 1.4

Buildings for storing dangerous goods such as gas, oil

products,acid,toxicmaterials1.6 1.0 1.6

Chimneys,toweredtanks 1.5 1.0 1.5

Table1.Importancefactor

I1 = the significant factor to adjust the reoccurrence period of the earthquake related to

probabilityadjustmentoftheearthquakeoccurrenceforthelifeofthebuilding.

I2 = Significant factor to adjust earthquake reoccurrence period related to the building age

adjustment.

1.2.2.3.Regularandirregularbuilding

Abuildingstructureisdefinedasaregularbuildingunderthefollowingterms:

Heightofthebuildingstructuremeasured from lateralclamping levelmay

notbemorethan10storiesor40m.

Shape of the building is rectangular without protrusion, if there is an

protrusion,thelengthoftheprotrusiondoesnotexceed25%ofthelargest

sizeofthebuildingstructureinthedirectionoftheprotrusion.

Thebuilding structuremapdoesnot showany cornernotch, if there isa

notch, the length of the side of the notch does not exceed 15% of thelargestsizeofthebuildingstructureinthenotchsidedirection.

The building structure system is formed by the lateral load bearer

subsystemswhichdirection isperpendicular toeachotherandparallel to

orthogonalmainaxisofoverallbuildingstructuremap.

Thebuildingstructuresystemdoesnotshowa leapofthefrontplane, ifa

leapofthefrontplane,sizeofthestructuremapofthebuildingprotruding

ateachdirectionisnolessthan75%ofthelargestsizeofstructuremapof


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1.2.2.

thelo

2store

.Ductilityof

Building st

buildingstr

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yieldingy

Build

perfo

Full El

Partial

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ecessarilyc

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1,52,02,53,03,54,04,55,0

23445678

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ase,roofho

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) is a ratio

fthedesign

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m

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1.091.171.261.351.441.511.611.70

,5 1.75

rformance le

sestructure

causefrontp

rthquakeloa

of maximum

earthquake

cturedeflec

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R =

Page

whichisles

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ing

deflection t

henreachi

ionwhenth

e m

y y

V

V

=

1

y

n

Vf

V=

2

m

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Vf

V

=

1 2.f f= =

1. e

n

Vf

V =

of51

than

o the

gthe

efirst

m

n


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Where:

Ve=Maximumloadingduetoeffectofdesignearthquakeabsorbablebyafully

elasticbuildingstructureintheconditionofnearcollapsing.

Vm=Maximumloadingduetoeffectofdesignearthquakeabsorbablebyafully

ductilebuildingstructureintheconditionofnearcollapsing.

Vy=Theloadingthatcausesthefirstyieldinginthebuildingstructure.Vn=Thenominalearthquakeloadingduetoeffectofdesignearthquakewhich

mustbeexaminedinbuildingstructuredesign.

f1=theloadandmaterialextrastrengthfactorincludedIthebuildingstructure,

f1=1.6

f2=Thestructureextrastrengthfactor

R=Theearthquakereductionfactor1.2.2.5.CapacityDesign

Theearthquakecode,whichiscalledSNI172602,explainsthefailure

mechanismwhichisstillinthesafezoneduetoearthquakeload.This

mechanismiscalledSideSway

Mechanism(picture2)wheretheplastichinge

onlyoccursontheedgeofbeamsandcolumns.Toreachthismechanism,the

strongcolumnweakbeammustbefulfilledthecapacitydesign.Thisconcept

explainsthatthecolumnsmusthavenominalflexurecapacitywhichislarger

thanbeams.Sideswaymechanismisexpectedinthedesigntopreventthe

collapsemechanismatthecolumnwhereitiscalledasSoftStoreyMechanism

(Picture3).

figure3.SideSwayMechanism

figure4.SoftstoreyMechanism


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IntheStrongcolumnweakbeamconcept,thecapacitydesignneedsamultiplier

to enlarge the column capacity against beam, which is called Overstrength

factor(OF).Thisconceptcouldbeinterpretedinequilibriumasbelow:

c gM OFx M

Where:

Mc=Amountofcolumnmomentsinthejointbeamcolumn

Mg=Amountofbeammomentsinthejointbeamcolumn

OF=OverstrengthFactorvalue(6/5)

1.2.2.6.Typeofsoilandpropagationofearthquakewave

Soiltypesaredeterminedashardsoil,mediumsoilandsoftsoil.Forthe

uppermostlayeratamaximumthicknessof30m,therequirementinthetable

issatisfied:

SoilType Averageshearwavepropagationspeed AverageStandardPenetrationTestResult

N

AverageNonFlowingshearstrengthSu

(kPa)

HardSoil Vs 350 N 50 Su 100

MediumSoil 175 Vs 350 15 N


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Consideringtheshortnaturalfrequencyperiodof0 T 0.2second,thereisan

uncertainty,bothinsoilmovementcharacteristicoritsstructureductilitylevel,

theearthquakeresponsefactorCisdeterminedbytheequationbelow:

ForT Tc;C=Am

ForT>Tc;C=Ar/T

Where:Ar=Am.Tc

Zone HardSoil

Tc=0.5sec

MediumSoil

Tc=0.6sec

SoftSoil

Tc=1.0sec

Am Ar Am Ar Am Ar

1 0.10 0.05 0.13 0.08 0.20 0.20

2 0.30 0.15 0.38 0.23 0.50 0.50

3 0.45 0.23 0.55 0.33 0.75 0.75

4 0.60 0.30 0.70 0.42 0.85 0.85

5 0.70 0.35 0.83 0.50 0.90 0.90

6 0.83 0.42 0.90 0.54 0.95 0.95

Table5.Accelerationvalueforeachsoiltype


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Figure5.ResponseSpectraGraphforeachzone

1.2.3 BasicEquationforPredictingtheEquivalentHorizontalForces

1.2.3.1.Limitationoffundamentalnaturalfrequencyperiod

Fundamentalperiod isbasicallyabletobedeterminedbyusingequationfrom

UBC97:

T=0.0853H3/4(forsteelframe)

T=0.0731H3/4(forconcreteframe)

T=0.0488H3/4(forothersframe)

WhereHistotalheightofbuilding

Topreventausageofoverflexiblebuildingstructure,thefundamentalnatural

frequencyperiodT1ofthebuildingstructuremustbelimited,dependingonthe

coefficient fortheSeismiczonewherebuildingislocatedanditsstoreytotalnisaccordingtotheequation.

T1


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Accordingtothetableabove,itcanbeclearlyseenthatthecriticalzone(6)is

expectedtohavelowerperiodratherthanotherzones.

Fundamentalnaturalfrequencyperiodofaregularbuildingstructureineach

mainaxisdirectioncanbedeterminedusingRayleighformulaasfollows:

Where:

Wi =Thefloorweightoftheithincludingcorrespondingliveload

Fi =Equivalentstaticnominalearthquakeloads

di =Thehorizontaldeflectionoftheithfloor

g =Gravitationalacceleration(9.8m/sec2)

1.2.3.2.Eccentricityofcenterofgravityagainsttherotationcenterofstoreyfloor

Thecenterofgravityofstoreyfloorofabuildingstructureistheresultantpoint

of dead load, including corresponding live load working at that floor. On the

building structure design, the center of gravity is the resultant point of

equivalentstaticloadordynamicearthquakeforce.

Storeylevelrotationcenterofabuildingstructureisapointatthestoreyfloor

which ifahorizontal load isworkingon it, thestorey floorwillnotrotate,but

only translates,while theother levelsnotexperiencinghorizontal loadwillall

rotateandtranslate.

Betweenthecenterofgravityandthecenterofrotation,adesignedeccentricity

edmustbeexamined. If the largesthorizontal sizeof thebuilding structurea

storeyfloor,measuredperpendiculartoearthquakeloadingdirection,isstated

asb,thedesignedeccentricityedmustbedeterminedasfollows:

For00.3b

Ed=1.33e+0.1b or ed=1.17e0.1b

1.2.3.3 Equivalentstaticnominalearthquakeload

Aregularbuildingstructurecanbedesignedagainstnominalearthquakeloading

due to effect of design earthquake in the direction of each main axis of the

structuremap,informofequivalentstaticnominalearthquakeload.

TheequivalentstaticnominalbasicshearloadVoccurringatthebaselevelcan

becalculatedaccordingtotheequation:

2

1

1

1

6,3

n

i i

i

n

i i

i

W dT

g F d

=

=

=


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1

1

C IV W

R=

Where: C1 =Theearthquakeresponsefactor

I =Importancefactor

W1 =ThetotalweightR =earthquakereductionfactor

NominalbasicshearloadVmustbedistributedalongtheheightofthebuilding

structuretobeequivalentstaticnominalearthquakeloadsFiworkingatthe

centerofgravityattheithlevelaccordingtoequation:

1

i ii n

i i

i

W zF

W z=

=

Where:

Wi =Thefloorweightoftheithincludingcorrespondingliveload

Zi =Thefloorheightoftheithfloormeasuredfromlateralclampinglevel.

Iftheratiobetweentheheightofthebuildingstructureanditsmapsizeinthe

earthquake loading direction equals or exceeding 3, then 0.1 V must be

considered as a horizontal loads centralized at the center of gravity of the

uppermostlevel,whiletheremaining0.9Vmustbedistributedalongtheheight

ofthebuildingstructuretobeequivalentstaticnominalearthquakeload.

1.2.3.4.ServiceLimitPerformance

Service limit performance of a building structure is defined by the interlevel

deflection due the effect of design earthquake which limit the occurrence of

steelyieldandexcessive concrete cracking.To satisfy this requirement, inter

level deflection calculated from the building structure deflection may not

exceed0.03/Rofheightoftherespectivelevelor30mm.

1.2.3.5UltimateLimitPerformance

Theultimate limitperformanceof thebuilding structure isdeterminedby the

deflectionandmaximum interleveldeflectionofthebuildingstructuredueto

effectofdesignearthquakewhen thebuilding structure isnearcollapsing.To

limittheoccurrencepossibilityofbuildingstructure collapsingwhichcancause

human casualties and to prevent dangerous collisions between buildings or

between earthquake load parts separated by separation space (dilatation

clearance).

Forregularbuildingstructure

=0.7R

Forirregularbuildingstructure


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0.7

_

R

scale Factor =

WhereRisearthquakereductionfactorofthebuildingstructure.

Tosatisfythebuildingstructureultimatelimitperformancerequirements,inall

conditions, the interlevel deflection calculated from the building structure

deflectionmaynotexceed0.02oftherespectivestoreyheight.

1.2.3.6ResponseSpectrumAnalysisbySRSS

Thisapproachpermitsthemultiplemodesofresponseofabuildingtobetaken

intoaccount(inthefrequencydomain).Thisisrequiredinmanybuildingcodes

for all except for very simple or very complex structures. The response of a

structurecanbedefinedasacombinationofmanyspecialshapes(modes)that

inavibratingstringcorrespondtothe"harmonics".

Combinationmethodsincludethefollowing:

absolute peakvaluesareaddedtogether

squarerootofthesumofthesquares(SRSS)

completequadraticcombination(CQC) amethodthatisanimprovement

onSRSSforcloselyspacedmodes

Inthisreport,IwillcomparetheEquivalentstaticresultwithSRSSresult.

TheequilibriumofSRSSmethodis:

1.3ElaborationofFurtherInformation

1.3.1GeneralInformation

Indonesia,located inSoutheastAsia,isanationconsitingofover13,000islands(some

publications citemore than17,000 islands).Only6000of these islandsare inhabited.

TheislandsspreadbetweentheIndianandPacificoceans,linkingthecontinentofAsia

and Australia. The main islands are Sumatera (473,606 sq.km), Kalimantan (539,460

sq.km),Sulawesi(189,216sq.km),IrianJaya(421,981sq.km),andJava(132,187sq.km).Indonesia shares the islandsofKalimantanwithMalaysian,and IrianwithPapuaNewGuinea.

Indonesia is recognized as archipelagos country which has more than ten thousand

islands.60%ofpopulationisconcentratingintheJavaIslandandtherestaredistributed

inSumatra,Kalimantan,SulawesiandIrianIsland.

( )2

1

N

i ij j

j

MPF =

= 1

2

1

N

k kj

kj N

k kj

k

m

MPF

m

=

=

=

1

i ii N

k k

k

mF V

m

=

=


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3. Sl

1.

b

Slabis16

Column

cm

Figur

9.Layoutofbuildingstru

2. Beam

cture

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2.1.2.MaterialProperties

Intheetabssoftware,wecouldapplythematerialpropertiessuchasbelow:

Figure10.Materialproperties

Accordingtopictureabove,

concretedensityis2500kg/m3

concreteCompressionStrengthis2800000kg/m2

Reinforcementyieldstressis42000000kg/m2

2.1.3LoadCases

Thereareseveralloadcaseswhichareappliedintoaccount.TheseloadcasesareDead

Load(DL),LiveLoad(LL)andEarthquakeLoad(E).

Thedetailofeachloadcaseiscalculatedinthetablebelow:

Table7.LoadCasescalculation

kN/m2

c h b L1 Load

Load [kN/m3] [m] [m] [m] [kN/m]

DeadLoadSlab 25 0.16 5 20

Plastering 1.25 5 6.25

Partitions 1.25 5 6.25

Superimposed Load 32.5

Roof 5.75 5 28.75

LiveLoad 2 5 10FrameLoad

Column300mmx300mm 25 0.3 0.3 2.25

Column400mmx400mm 25 0.4 0.4 4

Beam300mmx450mm 25 0.45 0.3 3.375


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2.1.4EquivalentstaticnominalearthquakeloadCalculation

Beforecalculatingtheshearforce,wehavetodeterminetheweightateachstorey

whichiscalculatedastablebelow:

Table8.Weightdistributionforeachstorey

Accordingtotheequivalentstaticequilibrium,thebaseshearforeachseismiczoneis

Table9.Equivalentstaticdistribution

Weight each Storeyh1 h2 h3 h4 L2

[m] [m] [m] [m] [m]

w4 3.2 3 5 24 16 893.85

w3 3.2 3 5 24 16 1101.45

w2 3.2 3 5 24 16 1191.05

w1 3.05 3 5 24 16 1186.25

4372.6

Sub Total (KN)n-beam n-columnn-slab

Wi zi Wi*zi

[kN] [m] [kN.m]

4 893.85 12.65 11307.20

3 1101.45 9.45 10408.70

2 1191.05 6.25 7444.06

11186.25 3.05 3618.06

4372.60 32778.03

Storey


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Table10.Shearforceresultforallzones

0.2 0.08 0.05 0.5 0.23 0.15 0.75 0.33 0.23 0.85 0.42 0.3 0.9

hard

Soil

medium

Soil

soft

Soil

hard

Soil

medium

Soil

soft

Soil

hard

Soil

medium

Soil

soft

Soil

hard

Soil

medium

Soil

soft

Soil

hard

Soil

m

218.63 87.45 54.66 546.58 251.42 163.97 819.86 360.74 251.42 929.18 459.12 327.95 983.84 5

4 75.42 30.17 18.85 188.55 86.73 56.56 282.82 124.44 86.73 320.53 158.38 113.13 339.39

3 69.43 27.77 17.36 173.57 79.84 52.07 260.35 114.55 79.84 295.06 145.80 104.14 312.42

2 49.65 19.86 12.41 124.13 57.10 37.24 186.20 81.93 57.10 211.02 104.27 74.48 223.43

1 24.13 9.65 6.03 60.33 27.75 18.10 90.50 39.82 27.75 102.56 50.68 36.20 108.60

00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

218.63 87.45 54.66 546.58 251.42 163.97 819.86 360.74 251.42 929.18 459.12 327.95 983.84

zone3 zzone4

Storey

Zone

Cv

Base Shear

(kN)

zone1 zone2


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Page19of51

Figure11.baseShearforcedistributionforeachzone


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Figure12.BaseShearForceforeachsoiltype

0

1

2

3

4

0.00 100.00 200.00 300.00 400.00

Storey

BaseShear(kN)

HardSoilzone1

zone2

zone3

zone4

zone5

zone6

0

1

2

3

4

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00

Storey

BaseShear(kN)

MediumSoilzone1

zone2

zone3

zone4

zone5

zone6

0

1

2

3

4

0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00

Storey

BaseShear(kN)

SoftSoilzone1

zone2

zone3

zone4

zone5

zone6


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Table11.eigenmodeforeachstorey

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

UY UX RZ UY UX RZ UY UX RZ U

STORY4 -0.0057 0.0058 -0.00085 -0.0045 0.0044 -0.00069 -0.0032 -0.0032 -0.00052 -0.

STORY3 -0.0046 0.0046 -0.0007 0.0015 -0.0015 0.00015 0.0059 0.006 0.00088 0.0

STORY2 -0.0026 0.0026 -0.00044 0.0053 -0.0053 0.0008 -0.0021 -0.0021 -0.00021 -0.

STORY1 -0.0011 0.0011 -0.00019 0.0033 -0.0033 0.00053 -0.0034 -0.0033 -0.00057 0.

normalization

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

UY UX RZ UY UX RZ UY UX RZ U

4 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1

3 0.81 0.79 0.82 -0.33 -0.34 -0.22 -1.84 -1.88 -1.69 -4

2 0.46 0.45 0.52 -1.18 -1.20 -1.16 0.66 0.66 0.40 11

1 0.19 0.19 0.22 -0.73 -0.75 -0.77 1.06 1.03 1.10 -1

base 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0


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Figure13.modeshapeforeachmode


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Table12.SRSScalculation

4 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85

3 1101.45 888.89 717.35 873.56 692.83 907.08 747.00 -367.15 122.38 -375.49 128.01 -

2 1191.05 543.29 247.81 533.92 239.34 616.54 319.15 -1402.79 1652.18 -1434.67 1728.13 -1

1 1186.25 228.93 44.18 224.98 42.67 265.16 59.27 -869.92 637.94 -889.69 667.27 -2554.95 1903.19 2526.31 1868.69 2682.63 2019.28 -1746.01 3306.35 -1806.01 3417.25 -1

MPF

5

UX

1 2

UX

3

RZ

4

UY

1.34 1.35 1.33 -0.53 -0.53

UY

893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85 893.85

-2030.80 3744.28 -2065.22 3872.29 -1863.99 3154.45 -4405.80 17623.20 -4405.80 17623.20

781.63 512.94 781.63 512.94 481.00 194.25 13697.08 157516.36 13697.08 157516.36

1260.39 1339.17 1223.32 1261.55 1300.31 1425.34 -17793.75 266906.25 -18090.31 275877.27 -

905.07 6490.24 833.58 6540.63 811.17 5667.89 -7608.63 442939.66 -7905.19 451910.68

10

UY

-0.02

UX

11

-0.02

8

UX

0.130.14

RZ

9

0.14

UY

7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

MPF 1.34 1.35 1.33 -0.53 -0.53 -0.50 0.14 0.13 0.14 -0.02

4 1.80 1.83 1.76 0.28 0.28 0.25 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.00

3 1.17 1.15 1.20 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.00

2 0.37 0.37 0.47 0.39 0.41 0.34 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.04

1 0.07 0.07 0.09 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.07

3.42 3.41 3.52 0.85 0.87 0.76 0.12 0.10 0.11 0.11

1.85 1.85 1.88 0.92 0.93 0.87 0.34 0.31 0.33 0.33

mi i UY mi i UY mi i RZ

4 1652.53 1650.68 1677.74

3 1013.48 1029.80 959.302 405.45 372.12 389.77

1 394.20 405.47 370.86

mi i 3465.67 3458.08 3397.66


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Figure14.BaseshearForceforzone6


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2.1.5AxialForce,ShearForceandBendingMomentDiagram

AccordingtotheresultfromETABSsoftware,theforcesandmomentdiagramaregivenasfollows:

a. DeadLoad(DL)

AxialForce ShearForce

BendingMoment

Figure15.LoaddiagramsforDeadLoad


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b. LiveLoad(LL)


BendingMoment

Figure16.LoaddiagramsforLiveLoad


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c. EarthquakeForce


BendingMoment

Figure17.LoaddiagramsforEarthquakeLoad


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3.BehaviorofBuildingTypesDuringRecentEarthquake3.1RecentEarthquakes

In this recent century, Indonesia has been impacted by a lot of Earthquakes every year.

MostofbigislandsandcitiesinIndonesiahaveearthquakeoccurrenceswhichcausesmall

and big damage. There are many historical earth quake including magnitudes and

intensitieswhichwererecordedbygeologists.

Date Location Magnitude Fatalities Description117970210 Sumatra 8.4>300

TherewasTsunamithatwasparticularlysevere

nearPadang

218331125 Sumatra 8.89.2 'numerous'

alargetsunamithatfloodedthesouthwestern

coastoftheislandTherearenoreliablerecordsof

thelossoflife

318610216 Sumatra 8.5

'several

thousand'

adevastatingtsunamiwhichledtoseveral

thousandfatalities.Theearthquakewasfeltasfar

awayastheMalaypeninsulaandtheeasternpart

ofJava419170120 Bali 1,500

519380201 BandaSea 8.5

itwastheninthlargestearthquakeinthe20th

centuryItgeneratedTsunamisofupto1.5metres,

butnohumanlivesappeartohavebeenlost.

619760625 Papua 7.1 5,000

719921212 FloresRegion 7.8 2,500

820000604 SouthernSumatra 7.9 103

920021010 WesternNewGuinea 7.6 8

1020021102 NorthernSumatra 7.4 3

1120030526 Halmahera 7 1

1220040128 Seram 6.7

1320040205 WesternNewGuinea 7 37

1420040207 WesternNewGuinea 7.3

1520040725 SouthernSumatra 7.3

1620041111 KepulauanAlor 7.5 34

1720041126 Papua 7.1 32

1820041226 SumatraAndamanIslands 9.3 283,106

inundatingcoastalcommunitieswithwavesupto

30meters(100feet)high

1920050101

OfftheWestCoastof

NorthernSumatra 6.7

2020050219 Sulawesi 6.5

2120050226 Simeulue 6.8

2220050302 BandaSea 7.1

approximately500kmfromEastTimoronMarch2,

2005.ResidentsofDarwin,Australiafelttheimpact

quitestrongly,despitetheepicenterbeinglocated

approximately140kmaway


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2320050328 NorthernSumatra 8.6 1,313 mostlyontheislandofNias

2420050410

KepulauanMentawai

Region 6.7

2520050514 NiasRegion 6.7



2820051119 Simeulue 6.5

2920060127 BandaSea 7.6 Thelocationwas200kmsouthofAmbonIsland

3020060314 Seram 6.7 4


3220060526 Java 6.3 5,749

36,299peoplewereinjured,135,000houses

damaged,andanestimated1.5millionleft

homeless

3320060717 Java 7.7 730

itshypocentreatadepthof48.6kmbelowthe

seabed

3420060723 Sulawesi 6.1 itshypocenteratadepthof86.2km

3520061218 NorthSumatra 5.8 7

3620070121 MoluccaSea 7.5 4

3720070306 Sumatra 6.4,6.3 68

hitnearthenorthernendofLakeSingkarakin

Sumatra,Indonesia,Over60fatalitiesand460

seriousinjurieshavebeenreported

3820070809 Java 7.5[2]

Thequakewaslocated70miles(110km)east

northeastofJakarta,atadepthof175miles

(282km).[3]

3920070912 Sumatra 8.5,7.9,7.1 23

ItcausedbuildingstoswayinJakarta,andsome

buildingswerereportedtohavecollapsedinthe

cityofBengkulu

4020080220 Simeulue 7.4 3

4120080225

KepulauanMentawai

Region 7.0,6.4,6.6

4220081116 Sulawesi 7.5,5.6 4 Fourpeoplewerekilledinthequakeand59injured

4320090104 WestPapua 7.6 4

tenbuildingshadbeentotallydestroyed,including

severalhotelsandthehouseofagovernment

official

4420090816 Siberut,MentawaiIslands 6.7

Theepicentreofthequakewaslocated43

kilometres(29miles)southeastofSiberutIslandoff

westernSumatra

4520090902 Java 7 15killingatleast79people,injuringover1,250,anddisplacingover210,000

4620090930 Sumatra 7.6 1,117

around135,000houseswereseverelydamaged,

65,000housesweremoderatelydamagedand

79,000houseswereslightlydamaged

4720100519 Sumatra 7.2 Unreported

Itwasoneofasequenceoflargeearthquakes

alongtheSundamegathrustin2000s


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Table14.MaximumearthquakeinIndonesia

Figure18.MaximumEarthquakedistributionmapinIndonesia

3.2Damagecaseson26December2004

TherearesomedamagecasesaffectedbyearthquakeinIndonesia.Itisdependentonbuildingstocksandvulnerabilityclasses.Inthisreport,Iwilldescribesomeearthquakecaseswhichoccur

severalyearsago.

The2004 IndianOceanearthquakewasanunderseamegathrustearthquakethatoccurredat

00:58:53 UTC on December 26, 2004, with an epicenter off the west coast of Sumatra,

Indonesia. The quake itself is known by the scientific community as the SumatraAndaman

earthquake.

Theearthquakewascausedbysubductionandtriggeredaseriesofdevastatingtsunamisalong

the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing over 230,000 people in

fourteencountries,andinundatingcoastalcommunitieswithwavesupto30metershigh.Itwasone of the deadliest natural disasters in recorded history. Indonesia was the hardest hit,

followedbySriLanka,India,andThailand.

USGSrecordedthiseventwherewecouldfinditintheUSGSwebsiteasfollowingbelow:

Magnitude 9.1

DateTime Sunday,December26,2004at00:58:53(UTC)Sunday,December26,2004at7:58:53AMTimeofEarthquakeinotherTimeZones

Location 3.316N,95.854E

Depth 30km(18.6miles)setbylocationprogram

Region OFFTHEWESTCOASTOFNORTHERNSUMATRA

Distances 250km(155miles)SSEofBandaAceh,Sumatra,Indonesia300km(185miles)WofMedan,Sumatra,Indonesia1260km(780miles)SSWofBANGKOK,Thailand1590km(990miles)NWofJAKARTA,Java,Indonesia

LocationUncertainty horizontal+/ 5.6km(3.5miles);depthfixedbylocationprogram

Parameters Nst=276,Nph=276,Dmin=654.9km,Rmss=1.04sec,Gp=29,


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Table15.Earthquakeon26December2004

Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the

region of the original epicenter in the hours and days that followed. The largest aftershock,

whichoriginatedoffthecoastoftheSumatranislandofNias,registeredamagnitudeof8.7.

Theearthquake thatgenerated thegreat IndianOcean tsunamiof2004 isestimated tohave

released theenergyof23,000Hiroshimatypeatomicbombs,accordingtotheU.S.Geological

Survey(USGS).

Theearthquakewas the resultof the slidingof theportionof theEarth'scrustknownas the

India plate under the section called the Burma plate. The process has been going on for

millennia, one plate pushing against the other until something has to give. The result on

December26wasa rupture theUSGSestimateswasmore than600miles (1,000kilometers)

long, displacing the seafloor above the rupture by perhaps 10 yards (about 10 meters)

horizontallyandseveralyardsvertically.Thatdoesn'tsoundlikemuch,butthetrillionsoftonsof

rock thatweremovedalonghundredsofmilescaused theplanet toshudderwith the largest

magnitudeearthquakein40years.

Therearetwotypesofdamagecasesoverbuildingsandinfrastructuresduetoearthquakeand

tsunamion26December2004,whichis:

a. Structural(Engineered)buildings.

b. Nonstructural(nonengineered)buildings.

c. RoadAccess

d. Port

e. Powersupply

f. Telecommunication

g. WaterSupply

h. Industrial

3.2.1 Structural(Engineered)buildings.

The causesof typicaldamage of reinforced concrete engineeredbuildings during the

SumatraearthquakeinBandaAcehweremostlyduetoverticalirregularities incertain

RC buildings creating abrupt changes in stiffness and strength that may concentrate

forcesinanundesirableway.Alsopoorqualityofconcreteanddetailingcontributedto

thecollapseofthoseengineeredbuildings.


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Figure19.ThemostobviousdamageoccurredtoKualaTripahotel,a5storyRCbuilding.

Itsufferedafirstsoftstorycollapse.Thesecondandthirdfloorwasseverelydamaged

because of the impact but the building as a whole did not collapse. The collapse was

causedbypoordetailing.

Figure20. Anothervisiblecollapsewasa three story supermarket, thePantePirak.The

collapsewasduetopoorqualityofconstruction.

Figure21.Anotherbuilding thatpartiallycollapsedwas theofficeof thedepartmentof

finance. One of the wings suffered a pancake type of collapse. From the damaged

columnsitcanbeseenthatthedetailingwaspoor.

3.2.2 Nonstructural(nonengineered)buildings

ThemajorityofthebuildingsthatcollapsedinBandaAcehcity,andvillagesinLhokNga,

KruengRaya,andMeulabohcity,arenonengineeredbuildingsconsistingoftwotypes.

The first type isaoneor two storiesbuildingsmadeofburntbrickconfinedmasonry

using sand and Portland cement mortar. The roof mostly consists of galvanized iron

sheets.AllthosebuildingsusedRCpracticalcolumnsandbeamsasconfinement.Thesecondtypeistimberconstructionconsistingofatimberframeandalsotimberplanks

wallsandusuallyusegalvanizedironsheetsasroof.

Almostnoneofthepeopleshousing,onetotwostorymasonrybuildingscollapsedby

theshaking,eventhoughsomehadcracksinthewalls.Thedestructionwascausedbythetsunamiforces.


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Mostofthebuildings inthecoastalareasconsistofnonengineeredtimberstructures

andconfinedmasonrystructures.Theratioofthosetwotypesofstructuresisestimated

tobe30%to70%.

Figure22.burntbrickconfinedmasonry

Figure23.timberconstruction

3.2.3 RoadAccess

Someroads inBandaAcehwerescouredbytsunamibut themajoritywasstill intact.

Most of the main roads in zone 1 were covered by huge amount of tsunami debris.

SeveralpartsoftheroadfromBandaAcehtoMeulabohwerewashedawaybytsunami.

Figure24.SomeoftheDamageofRoads

andBridgesfromBandaAcehtoMeulaboh

Figure25.UlhueLhebeach


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Figure26.LhokngaBeach Figure27.UlhueLhebeach

3.2.4 Bridges

InBandaAceh,severalbridgesweredestroyed,theoneatJlIskandarMudaandtheone

leadingtoLhokNga.TheLhokNgaBridgehasamainspanof20mandsecondaryspanof10mmadeofgalvanizedsteel frames.Bothweredumped intotheriver.Alongthe

road from Banda Aceh to Meulaboh (distance approx 270 km), several bridges were

washedawaybytsunami.

Figure28.TheLhokNgaBridge

3.2.5 Ports

Generally,jettiesandwharfofports inBandaAcehand inKreungRayaaswellas the

jettyofthecementfactoryLhokNgawereslightlydamagedbutcouldstillfunction.Part

oftheplatformofthejettyinMeulabohwaswashedawaybytsunami,butthesupports

werestillintact.ThemainbuildingoftheUlhueLheharborinBandaAcehwasdamagedandonlytheframeremained.


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Figure29.LhokNgaCementFactoryJetty

3.2.6 Powersupply

MainPowergeneratingplantinBandaAcehwasnotaffectedbytheshakingortsunami.

However,manydistributionpolesandwiresindevastatedareascollapsed.

Figure30.

MainPowergeneratingplantinBandaAceh

3.2.7 Telecommunication

Somemobilephoneantennastowersweredismantledbythetsunamianddraggedup

to 2 km from its foundations. Many telephone junction boxes were practically

destroyed.

Figure31.mobilephoneantennastowers


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3.2.8 Watersupply

WaterTreatmentplant inBandaAcehwasnotaffectedbyneithertheshakingnorthe

tsunami,however,thepipingsystemsweredestroyedbyscouringofthetsunami.

Figure32.WaterTreatmentplantinBandaAceh

3.2.9 Industrial

Figure33.CementFactory,LhokNga

Figure34.PertaminaOilDepot,KruengRaya


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3.3BuildingCodeBeforeandAftertheEarthquake

ThelateststandardcodeusedforearthquakeisSNI17262002whereitwaspublishedbaseon

somereferences,whichis:

1. SNI0317261989,EarthquakeResistanceDesignMethodforHousesandBuildings.

ItwaspublishedbytheOfficeoftheStateMinisterofCivilWorks,TheDirectorateofthe

TechnologyEducationandtheDirectorateGeneralofCiptaKaryain1997.

2. National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHERP). This was proposed for

SeismicRegulation forNewBuildingsandOtherStructures in1997,andFEMA302 in

1998.

3. Uniform Building Code (UBC) 1997, Volume 2, for Structural Engineering Design

Provisions,InternationalConferenceofBuildingOfficials,April1997.

In2010,IndonesianGovernmenthasintroducedarevisedcodewhichwasdevelopedbyateam

ofIndonesianscientistsinrecognitionoftheseriousearthquakeriskIndonesiaisproneto.It

estimatesthechancesofgroundshakingcausedbyearthquakesacrossIndonesiaandrevises

nationalbuildingstandardstoensurethatbuildingsandinfrastructureareresilienttoearthquakesinordertoreducethenumberoffatalities.

Thenewhazardmapincorporatesthelessonslearntfromrecentdeadlyearthquakesin

IndonesiasuchasthoseinSumatraandJava.Ithasbeendevelopedusingbetterinformation

andmoreadvancedmethodologiesthanpreviousearthquakehazardmaps.Itaimstosupport

buildingstandards,tobeusedtoeducatepeopleabouttheearthquakerisksthattheyface,and

tohelpthemtobetterprotectthemselvesandtheirfamiliesfromfutureearthquakes.

Thiscodeisbeingdevelopedbyexpertteams.Itwillbeaccomplishedsoonasanewhazardmap

whichconsidersallearthquakeoccurrences.

4.ElaborationsoftheTypicalNationalBuildingTypesanditsVulnerabilityClasses4.1TypicalBuildingTypes

Indonesiahasalotofbuildingtypeswhicharestillexistineverylocationevenitisallocatedin

thecriticalearthquakezone.Thesebuildingtypesareassociatedinsomecategories,whichare:

1) Masonrya. Adobes

b. Temples

c. UnreinforcedwithRCFloors

d. ReinforcedorConfined2) ReinforcedConcrete

a. FramewithModerateLevelofEarthquakeResistantDesign

b. WallswithModerateLevelofEarthquakeResistantDesign

3) Steela. SteelStructuresb. LGSstructures

4) Wood


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a. TimberStructures

b. BambooStructures

4.2MacroseismicIntensityScale

Thebuildingtypesabovearecomparablewithmacroseismicintensityscalewhichisgenerated

byEMS(EuropeanMacroseismicScale)98andtheworldhousingencyclopediafromEERI

(EarthquakeEngineeringResearchInstitute).

ThisisatableforvulnerabilityclassfromEMS:

Figure35.EMS(EuropeanMacroseismicScale)98


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4.3VulnerabilityClass

4.3.1Masonry

Mostofbuildings/housingsinIndonesiaareconstructedbymasonry.Therearesome

pictureswhichdescribetypicalmasonrybuildinginIndonesia.

Adobe StonebuildinginBali

Unreinforcedbuilding Reinforcedbuilding

Figure36.VulnerabilityClass formasonry

IfitiscomparedwithworldhousingencyclopediafromEERI,theSeismicVulnerabilityofUnreinforced

MasonryBuildingis:


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Structural and Architectural Features

Structural/Architectural

FeatureStatement

Most appropriatetype

TRUE FALSE N/A

Lateral load path

The structure contains a complete load path for seismic force

effects from any horizontal direction that serves to transfer inertialforces from the building to the foundation.

BuildingConfiguration

The building is regular with regards to both the plan and theelevation.

Roof constructionThe roof diaphragm is considered to be rigid and it is expectedthat the roof structure will maintain its integrity, i.e. shape andform, during an earthquake of intensity expected in this area.

Floor constructionThe floor diaphragm(s) are considered to be rigid and it isexpected that the floor structure(s) will maintain its integrity duringan earthquake of intensity expected in this area.

Foundationperformance

There is no evidence of excessive foundation movement (e.g.settlement) that would affect the integrity or performance of thestructure in an earthquake.

Wall and framestructures-redundancy

The number of lines of walls or frames in each principal directionis greater than or equal to 2.

Wall proportions

Height-to-thickness ratio of the shear walls at each floor level is:

Less than 25 (concrete walls);Less than 30 (reinforced masonry walls);

Less than 13 (unreinforced masonry walls);

Foundation-wallconnection

Vertical load-bearing elements (columns, walls) are attached to thefoundations; concrete columns and walls are doweled into thefoundation.

Wall-roofconnections

Exterior walls are anchored for out-of-plane seismic effects at eachdiaphragm level with metal anchors or straps

Wall openings

The total width of door and window openings in a wall is:

For brick masonry construction in cement mortar : less than of the distance between the adjacent cross walls;For adobe masonry, stone masonry and brick masonry in mudmortar: less than 1/3 of the distance between the adjacent crosswalls;For precast concrete wall structures: less than 3/4 of the lengthof a perimeter wall.

Quality of buildingmaterials

Quality of building materials is considered to be adequate per therequirements of national codes and standards (an estimate).

Quality ofworkmanship

Quality of workmanship (based on visual inspection of few typicalbuildings) is considered to be good (per local constructionstandards).

MaintenanceBuildings of this type are generally well maintained and there areno visible signs of deterioration of building elements (concrete,steel, timber)

Other

Table16.Structural and Architectural Features


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Seismic Features

StructuralElement

Seismic DeficiencyEarthquake

ResilientFeatures

Earthquake DamagePatterns

Wall 1. Clay-brick with very low compressive

strength 2. The quality of clay-brick variesdepends on the local clay-soil material 3. Theclay-brick material is very brittle and doesn'thave any ductility.

Shear crack, flexure crack

or combination of both inclay brick walls.

Frame(columns,beams)Roof andfloors

Timber truss system for roofing without anyspecial connection with the clay brick walls.

The roof sliding off fromthe clay brick walls.

Table17.Seismic Features

Overall Seismic Vulnerability Rating

Vulnerability high medium-high

medium medium-low

low very low

very poor poor moderate good very good excellent

VulnerabilityClass

A B C D E F

Table18.Overall Seismic Vulnerability Rating

4.3.2 ReinforcedConcrete

FramewithModerateLevelofEarthquake

ResistantDesignWallwithModerateLevelofEarthquakeResistant

Design

Figure37.VulnerabilityClassforReinforcedConcrete


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4.3.3 SteelStructure

SteelStructure LGS(LightGaugeSteel)structure

Figure38.VulnerabilityClassforSteel

4.3.4TimberBuilding

Timberstructure BambooStructure

Figure39.VulnerabilityClassforTimber


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4.4 DamageGrades

AccordingtoEMS98,therearesomedamagegradeswhichareusedtoinvestigatethecertaincondition

occurrences.

Figure40.DamageGradesaccordingtoEMS98


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4.4.1Masonry

Afterearthquakeoccurrence,somebuildingsweredevastatedanddestroyedbyearthquake

oversomemasonrybuildingsandhistoricalbuildings.Thesearesomedocumentationwhich

explainssomedamagecasesinthemasonrybuildingtypes.

AdobeDamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

UnreinforcedbuildingDamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Stonebuilding(temple)

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Reinforcedbuilding

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Figure41.Damagegradesformasonry


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FramewithModerateLevelofEarthquakeResistantDesign

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Figure41.DamagegradesforReinforcedConcrete

4.4.3 Steel

SteelStructure

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

LGSStructure

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Figure42.DamagegradesforSteel


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4.4.4 Timber

Timberhouse

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Bamboohouse

DamageGrade

1 2 3 4 5

Figure43.DamagegradesforTimber

4.5AfterEarthquake

4.5.1Masonry

Some International Organizationsand countriesdonated somemoney to help reconstruction

and retrofitprogram in IndonesiaafterEarthquakedisaster.Theyjustconsiderconstructinga

reinforcedbuildingforhousesasitisusableforlongtimeandthematerialshavetobeprovided

bylocalareatomakeitmucheasiertobuild.Thetypeofbuildinghastobeeasyimprovedifthe

housesownerneedstoexpandthesizeofhouse.Thesearesomedocumentationofbuildings

whichwerereconstructedafterearthquakeandtsunamidisaster.

Figure44.ReinforcedConcreteforhousesfromGermanyGovernment


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Figure45.FramewithModerateLevelofEarthquakeResistantDesign

4.5.3 Steel

Figure46.LGSstructureforhouses

4.5.4 Timber

Figure47.BuildingStockisstillexistduetobracing Figure48.Timberhouses


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5.ConclusionsAccordingtodescriptionsabove,wecouldconcludesomerecommendations,whichare:

1) NewEarthquakeandTsunamiCodearebeingdevelopedbyexpertteamwhoisresponsibleto

concludeitaccordancewithoccurrenceofthesecatastrophes.

2) ShearforcesdistributionfromSRSShasinclinationtobesoftstoreyat2ndfloor.Itisdifferent

fromShearforcesdistributionfromequivalentstaticinclination.

3) Modeshapes foreachdirectionare relativelysimilaras theshapeofbuilding is rectangular

andpositionofelementsissymmetric.

4) Baseon figure11, shear forcedistribution forhard is relativelyhighercompare tomedium

andsoftsoilatzone3,4,5and6.

5) Baseon figure12, itcanbeclearlyseen thatshear forcedistribution forhard,mediumand

softsoilatzone3,4,5and6havethesame inclination,whereaszone1and2 isrelatively

differentinclinationcomparetootherzones.

6) Vulnerability class is important to be developed in each country where it has a lot ofearthquakeoccurrences.

7) Bracingelementsarereallyimportanttobeconstructedinsimple(traditional)housewhichis

usedtoresistearthquakeload.

8) Routine maintenance for steel building should be done to investigate the construction

elementfromcrackorcollapseduetoearthquakeoccurrences.Thisisimportantasthesteel

elementsarecoveredbyconcretewhichisnotvisuallyseen.

9) ForbuildingwhichisneartoTsunamiregion,weshoulddesignitbyconsideringminimumtwo

storeybuildingwherethepeoplecouldescapefromlowtsunami.Atleast,thehighofthefirst

storeyishigherthanmaximumfloodlevel.

10)LGS (LightGaugeSteel)elementsareusedasmain frameofbuildingas longas the typeofbuildingissimplestructureandithasrigidfoundation.

11)Qualityandquantityofshearreinforcementshouldbe improvedforresidentialbuildingand

highrisebuilding.

12)Additionalbeamandcolumnareneededtoinstallneartotheopeningsectiontoenlargethe

buildingcapacity.

13)For ancient building (temple) should be conducted a retrofit treatment to increase the

buildingcapacityforlongperiod.


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6.References1. IndonesiaNationalStandardforearthquake17262002.

2. WorldhousingencyclopediafromEERI(EarthquakeEngineeringResearchInstitute),theSeismic

VulnerabilityofUnreinforcedMasonryBuilding.

3. MacroseismicintensityscalebyEMS(EuropeanMacroseismicScale)98.4. UniformBuildingCode(UBC)1997

5. ComputersandStructures,Inc,Berkeley,California,USA,ETABSv.9.0.9softwaremanual,

November2005.

6. SumateraEarthquake26December2004,TeddyBoen.

Documents

Structures in Earthquake Regions