SES 1Students will investigate the composition and formation of Earth systems, including the Earth's relationship to the solar system.

SES 1.a. Describe the early evolution of the Earth and solar system, including the formation of Earth's solid layers (core, mantle, crust), the distribution of major elements, the origin of internal heat sources, and the mechanism by which heat transfer drives plate tectonics.

Ch 27-1 part (pgs. 685-690) Ch 10-2 part (pgs. 247-254)

Big Bang Theory:

prevailing model for the history of the Universehttps://search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?p=big+bang+theory+explained+video&ei=UTF-8&hspart=mozilla&hsimp=yhs-002

EVIDENCE

1.1. The Universe is expanding

EVIDENCE2. Cosmic Microwave Background: heat left

over from the big bang surrounds us in space

EVIDENCE3. Abundance of the elements: theory

correctly predicts the observed distributions of elements in the Universe

EVIDENCE4. Evolution of Galaxies: The further into the

past we look, the less organized galaxies become

EVIDENCE5. Multiple methods of calculating age of

Universe arrive at same result: 13.8 BY

TIMELINE OF THE BANG

The Nebular Hypothesis: The birth of OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Proposed by Pierre Simon, a French mathematician in 1796.

Modern scientific calculations support this theory

The sun is composed of about 99% of all of the matter that was contained in the solar nebula.

https://search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?p=nebular+theory+https://search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?p=nebular+theory+explained+video&ei=UTF-8&hspart=mozilla&hsimp=yhs-001explained+video&ei=UTF-8&hspart=mozilla&hsimp=yhs-001

1.Our Sun is a STAR.

Our SUN is one of about 100 BILLION stars contained in the GALAXY we call the Milky Way.

...located at the center of our SOLAR SYSTEM.

27-1 Formation of the Solar Systemsolar system - the sun and all of the

planets and other bodies that travel around it

solar nebular - a rotating cloud of gas and dust from which the sun and planets formed; also any nebular from which stars and planets may form

planetesimal - a small body from which a planet originated during early solar system development

planet - any of the primary bodies that orbit the sun; a similar body that orbits another star

Formation of the Planets

In 1796, In 1796,

Formation of Inner Planets

The four protoplanets closest to the sun became Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

The features of a newly formed planet depended on the distance between the protoplanet and developing sun.

The inner planets are smaller, rockier, and denser than the outer planets. They contain large percentages of heavy elements, such as iron and nickel.

Lighter elements may have been blown or boiled away by radiation from the sun, and gravity was not strong enough to hold the gases.

Mercury

Ancient Romans named the planet after the messenger of the gods, who moved very quickly.

Mercury, the planet closet to the sun, circles the sun every 88 days. Mercury rotates on its axis once every 59 days.

Mercury’s surface is heavily cratered due to asteroid impacts.

The absence of a dense atmosphere and the planet’s slow rotation contributes to the large daily temperature range on Mercury, as high as 427°C during the day, and as low as –173°C at night.

Venus Venus is the second planet from the sun and has

an orbital period of 225 days. Venus rotates very slowly, only once every 243

days. Venus and Earth are of almost the same size,

mass, and density, but differ greatly in other areas.

Venus’s Atmosphere Venus’s atmospheric pressure is about 90 times

the pressure on Earth. Venus’s high concentration of carbon dioxide,

96%, and its relative closeness, results in a type of heating called runaway greenhouse effect causing the average surface temperature to reache 464°C.

The surface of Venus is also somewhat cratered. Scientists discovered landforms such as

mountains, volcanoes, and lava plains indicating tectonic plate movement

Earth Earth is the third planet from the sun. The orbital period of Earth is 365.25 days. Earth completes

one rotation on its axis every day. Earth has one large moon named Luna. Earth is tiled at a 23.5° angle.

Water on Earth

Earth’s unique atmosphere and distance from the sun allow water to exist in a liquid state.

Other planets are too close or far away from the sun

Life on Earth

Earth is the only known planet that has the proper combination of water, temperature, and oxygen to support life.

More on EARTH to come……….

Mars Mars is about 50% farther from the sun than Earth is. Its orbital period is 687 days, and it rotates on its axis every

24 hours and 37 minutes. Mars’s seasons are much like Earth’s seasons because its

axis tilts at nearly the same angle that Earth does.

Martian Volcanoes Mars has several volcanic regions. The largest volcano on

Mars is Olympus Mons, which is nearly 24 km tall. It is three times as tall as Mount Everest. The base of Olympus Mons is 600 km across, about the size of Nebraska.

Scientists think that the volcano has grown so large because Mars has no moving tectonic plates.

A Viking landing craft detected two geological events that produced seismic waves, called marsquakes, which may indicate that volcanoes on Mars are active.

Water on Mars

The pressure and temperature of Mars’s atmosphere are too low for water to exist as a liquid on Mars’s surface.

Several NASA spacecrafts have found evidence that liquid water did exist on Mars’s surface in the past. Surface features on Mars are characteristic of erosion by water.

Although most of the water on Mars is trapped in polar icecaps, it may also exist as permanent frost or as a liquid just below the surface.

Asteroid Belt

Asteroid – fragments of rock that orbit the sun. Some are large enough to be considered dwarf planets, Ceres.

Location of most asteroids in our solar system.

Belt is theorized to be a planet that did not form or has come apart. It is located in the location where a planet should be.

Formation of the Outer Planets

The next four protoplanets became Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

These outer planets formed far from the sun and therefore were cold. They did not lose their lighter elements, such as helium and hydrogen, or their ices, such as water ice, methane ice, and ammonia ice.

The intense heat and pressure in the planet's interiors melted the ice to form layers of liquids and gases.

These planets are referred to as gas giants because they are composed mostly of gases, have low density, and are huge planets.

Each planet probably has a core made of rock and metals.

All four gas giants have ring systems that are made of dust and icy debris that orbit the planets.

Jupiter Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system and has a mass more than 300 times

that of Earth. The orbital period of Jupiter is almost 12 years. Jupiter rotates on its axis faster than

any other planet—once every 9 h and 50 min. Jupiter has at least 60 moons. It also has several thin rings that are made up of millions of particles.

Jupiter’s Atmosphere

Hydrogen and helium make up 92% of Jupiter, so Jupiter’s composition is much like the sun.

Jupiter never became a star, like the sun, because it did not have enough mass to allow nuclear fusion to begin.

The orange, gray, blue, and white bands on Jupiter’s surface suggest the presence of organic molecules mixed with ammonia, methane, and water vapor.

Weather and Storms on Jupiter Jupiter’s Great Red Spot is an ongoing, massive, hurricane-like storm that is about

twice the diameter of Earth.

Several other storms can be seen, although they are usually white. The Galileo spacecraft measured wind speeds up to 540 km/h on Jupiter.

Jupiter’s Interior Jupiter’s large mass causes the temperature and pressure in Jupiter’s interior to be

much greater than they are inside Earth.

With temperatures as high as 30,000ºC, Jupiter’s interior is a sea of liquid, metallic hydrogen. Scientists think that Jupiter has a solid, rocky, iron core at its center.

Saturn The orbital period of Saturn is 29.5 years. Saturn

rotates on its axis every 10 h and 30 min. Saturn is very cold and has an average cloud-top

temperature of –176°C. Saturn has at least 60 moons. Like Jupiter, Saturn is made almost entirely of

hydrogen and helium, and has a rocky, iron core at its center.

Saturn’s Bands and Rings

Saturn is known for its rings, which are 2 times the planet’s diameter.

Saturn’s rings are made of billions of dust and ice particles, probably from comets or other bodies.

Like Jupiter, Saturn has bands of colored clouds that run parallel to its equator.

Saturn’s rapid rotation, paired with its low density, causes Saturn to bulge at its equator and to flatten at its poles.

Uranus The orbital period of Uranus is almost 84 years. Uranus has 24 moons and at least 11 thin rings. Discovered by Sir William Herschel in 1781, Uranus is a

difficult planet to study because it is nearly 3 billion kilometers from the sun.

Uranus’s Rotation

Most planets rotate with their axes perpendicular to their orbital planes as they revolve around the sun. However, Uranus’s axis is almost parallel to the plane of its orbit.

Uranus’s Atmosphere The Hubble Space Telescope has taken images to show

changes in Uranus’s atmosphere. Unlike the other gas giants, Uranus has an atmosphere that

contains mainly hydrogen and helium. The blue-green color of Uranus indicates that the

atmosphere also contains significant amounts of methane. Scientists think has a core of rock and melted elements with

a temperature of about 7,000ºC.

Neptune The orbital period of Neptune is nearly 164 years. Neptune

rotates about every 16 hours.

Neptune is similar to Uranus in size and mass.

Neptune has at least eight moons and possibly four rings.

The Discovery of Neptune Neptune’s existence was predicted before Neptune was

actually discovered. Scientists suspected that the gravity of unknown planet was responsible for the variations in Uranus’s orbit.

Neptune’s Atmosphere Neptune’s atmosphere is made up mostly of hydrogen, helium,

and methane.

Neptune has the solar system’s strongest winds, which exceed 1,000 km/h.

The Great Dark Spot on Neptune was a giant storm the size of Earth that appeared and disappeared on Neptune’s surface.

Pluto Pluto is the ninth planet and the farthest planet

from the sun. It is also the smallest planet in the solar system.

Pluto orbits the sun in an unusually elongated and tilted ellipse.

Scientists think Pluto is made up of frozen methane, rock, and ice.

The average temperature on Pluto is –235°C.

Pluto’s only moon, Charon, is half the size of Pluto.

Pluto is currently being studied by NASA’s New Horizon’s space craft.

Objects beyond PlutoKuiper belt a region of the solar system that is just beyond the orbit of

Neptune and that contains small bodies made mostly of ice

In recent years, scientists have discovered hundreds of objects in our solar system beyond Neptune’s orbit.

Some objects are more than half of Pluto’s size.

Scientists think that if other objects larger than Pluto are found on the Kuiper belt, then Pluto should no longer be classified as a planet.

Sedna, one of the most distant objects in the solar system, was found beyond the Kuiper belt, is three-fourths the size of Pluto.

Exoplanets are planets that circle stars other than Earth’s sun.

Exoplanets cannot be directly observed with telescopes or planets.

Most exoplanets can be detected only because their gravity tugs on stars that they orbit.

All of the exoplanets that have been identified are larger than Saturn because current technology can only detect large planets.

Astronomers are just now discovering Jupiter-sized PLANETS that orbit around some of those

distant stars.

NOW, BACK TO EARTH!

SES 1.a. Describe the early evolution of the Earth and solar system, including the formation of Earth's solid layers (core, mantle, crust), the distribution of major elements, the origin of internal heat sources, and the mechanism by which heat transfer drives plate tectonics.

Ch 27-1 part (pgs. 685-690) Ch 10-2 part (pgs. 247-254)

SES1.b. Explain how the composition of the Earth's crust, mantle and core is determined and compare it to that of other solar system objects. Ch 2-1 (pgs. 27-30) Ch 27-1 (pgs. 685-690) included in SES1.a. Ch 27-3 (pgs. 695-700) Ch 27-4 (pgs. 701-708)

Formation of Solid EarthEarly Solid Earthhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00fzslq

Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago

When Earth first formed, it was very hot. During its early history, Earth cooled to form three distinct layers.

In a process called differentiation, denser materials sank to the center, and less dense materials were forced to the outer layers.

The center is a dense core composed mostly of iron and nickel.

Around the core is a the very thick layer of iron- and magnesium-rich molten rock called the mantle.

The outermost layer of Earth is a thin crust of less dense, silica-rich rock.

2-1 Earth: A Unique Planet

Scientists study the Earth’s interior through analysis of seismic waves.

Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through Earth and that are caused by earthquakes and by explosions near Earth’s surface.

By studying seismic waves as they travel through Earth, scientists have determined that Earth is made up of three major compositional zones and five major structural zones.

Compositional Zones of Earth’s Interior

Crust - the thin and solid outermost layer of Earth that lies above the mantle

Oceanic crust, which lies under the oceans, is only 5 to 10 km thick. The continental crust varies in thickness from 15 km to 80 km.

Moho – Mohorovicic discontinuity – lower boundary of the crust.

Mantle - the layer of rock that lies between Earth’s crust and core

The mantle is nearly 2,900 km thick and makes up almost two-thirds.

Core - the central part of Earth that lies below the mantle

The center of Earth is a sphere composed mainly of nickel and iron whose radius is about 3,500 km.

Earth’s Interior

Physical = Structural Chemical = Compositional

Earth’s Lithosphere

Lithosphere the solid, outer layer of Earth that consists of the crust and the rigid upper part of the mantle

Asthenosphere the solid, plastic layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere; made of mantle rock that flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on top of it

The lithosphere forms the thin outer shell of Earth and is broken into several blocks or tectonic plates.

The tectonic plates ride onthe asthenosphere in much the same way that blocks of wood float on water.

Tectonic plates can include continental crust, oceanic crust, or both.

Tectonic Plates

Scientists have identified about 15 major tectonic plates.

Scientists identify plate boundaries primarily by studying data from earthquakes.

The locations of volcanoes can also help identify the locations of plate boundaries.

Tectonic Plates

Causes of Plate Motion Many scientists think that the movement of tectonic plates is

partly due to convection.

Convection is the movement of heated material due to differences in density that are caused by differences in temperatures. (hotter rises, colder sinks)

Mantle Convection

Energy generated by Earth’s core and radioactivity within the mantle heat the mantle. This heated material rises through the cooler, denser material around it.

As the hot material rises, the cooler, denser material flows away from the hot material and sinks into the mantle to replace the rising material.

As the mantle material moves, it drags the overlying tectonic plates along with it creating volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains.

Mantle Convection

SES1.d. Describe how the Earth acquired its initial oceans and atmosphere.

Ch 27-1 part (pgs. 688-690)

Formation of Earth’s AtmosphereEarth’s Early Atmosphere

The atmosphere formed because of differentiation.

Earth’s gravity is too weak to hold high concentrations of small elements such as hydrogen and helium. These gases were blown away by solar winds.

Outgassing

Outgassing formed a new atmosphere as volcanic eruptions released large amounts of gases, mainly water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, sulfur dioxide, and ammonia.

The ozone formed from remaining oxygen molecules after solar radiation caused ammonia and some water vapor to break down.

Earth’s Present Atmosphere

The ozone collected in a high atmospheric layer around Earth and shielded Earth’s surface from the harmful ultraviolet radiation of the sun.

Organisms, such as cyanobacteria and early green plants, could survive in Earth’s early atmosphere by using carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.

These organisms produced oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis and helped slowly increase the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.

22-1 (part) Composition of the Atmosphere

atmosphere a mixture of gases that surrounds a planet, such as Earth

The most abundant elements in air are the gases nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.

The two most abundant compounds in air are the gases carbon dioxide, CO2, and water vapor, H2O.

In addition to containing gaseous elements and compounds, the atmosphere commonly carries various kinds of tiny solid particles, such as dust and pollen.

Nitrogen in the Atmosphere

Nitrogen makes up about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere and is maintained through the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen is removed from the air mainly by the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Decay releases nitrogen back into the atmosphere.

Oxygen in the Atmosphere Organisms, such as cyanobacteria and early green plants, could survive in

Earth’s early atmosphere by using carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.

These organisms produced oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis and helped slowly increase the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.

Formation of Earth’s Ocean http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00fzss4

The first ocean was probably made of fresh water originating from comet impacts on Earth..

Over millions of years, rainwater fell to Earth and dissolved some of the rocks on land, carrying those dissolved solids into the oceans.

As the water cycled back into the atmosphere through evaporation, some of these chemicals combined to form salts. Through this process, the oceans have become increasingly salty.

Dissolved Gases in Ocean Water While carbon dioxide, CO2, is not a major component of the atmosphere, a large

amount of this gas is dissolved in ocean water.

Other atmospheric gases are also present in the ocean in small amounts.

Gases can enter the ocean from streams, volcanoes, organisms, and the atmosphere.

Temperature and Dissolved Gases

Gases dissolve more readily in cold water than in warm water.

If the water temperature rises, less gas will remain dissolved, and the excess gas will be released into the atmosphere.

Therefore, the ocean and the atmosphere are continuously exchanging gases as water temperatures change.

The Oceans as a Carbon Sink

Oceans contain more than 60 times as much carbon as the atmosphere does.

Dissolved CO2 may be trapped in the oceans for hundreds to thousands of years.

Because of this ability to dissolve and contain a large amount of CO2, the oceans are commonly referred to as a carbon sink.

OTHER IMPORTANT EARTH STUFF!

The Earth is tilted at a 23.5° angle.

Therefore all of the Earth’s surface does not receive equal radiation from the sun = SEASONS

Solstice and EquinoxWhen the pole is tilted toward the sun

= most solar radiation = summer solstice

When the pole is tilted away from the sun = least solar radiation = winter solstice

In between = equal solarRadiation = Spring and Fall Equinox

Earth has one MOON, Luna, that orbits around it each month, showing different phases

and creating eclipses.

Giant Impact Hypothesis

Moon Phases The moon revolves around Earth in 27.3 days,

however, the period from one new moon to the next one is 29.5 days. In the 27.3 days in which the moon orbits Earth, the

two bodies move slightly farther along their orbit around the sun. So, the moon must go a little farther to be directly between Earth and the sun. About 2.2 days are needed for the moon to travel this extra distance.

Half of the moon is ALWAUS illuminated by the Sun.

phase - change in the illuminated area of one celestial body as seen from another celestial body; phases of the moon are caused by the changing positions of Earth, the sun, and the moon

Phases of the Moon

Phases of the Moon As the moon revolves around Earth,

different portions of the lighted portion of the Moon are visible. Waxing – the visible portion is getting

larger Waning – the visible portion is getting

smaller

Full Moon – all of the illuminated portion of the moon is visible.

New Moon – only the dark portion of the moon is visible.

Quarter moon – half of the illuminated portion is visible.

Ocean Tides

The gravitation pull of the moon and the sun move the water that covers the Earth’s surface creating Tides. The periodic rise and fall of oceans and other large bodies of water.

Tidal range – the difference in levels of ocean water at high tide and low tide.

Spring Tides Sun Earth and Moon are in line

(new moon and full moon) Sun and Moon’s gravitational

pull work together to increase the pull of the water and increases the tidal range

Produces higher high tides and lower low tides

Neap Tides Sun Earth and Moon are at 90˚

angle (first-quarter and third-quarter moon)

Sun and Moon’s gravitation pull work against each other to reduce the pull of the water

Produces lower high tides and higher low tides.

Eclipses

Eclipse - an event in which the shadow of one celestial body falls on another

Solar Eclipse - the shadow of the moon falls on Earth during the new moon phase.

The sun’s light is completely blocked by the moon for the small spot on Earth’s surface where the umbra (shadow) falls.

Lunar Eclipse - the passing of the moon through Earth’s shadow at full moon. During this time, the moon appears red.

Solar Eclipse

Complete Eclipse Partial Solar Eclipse

Solar and Lunar Eclipses

Lunar Eclipse

SES 1 Summary

Scientists learn about the formation and early history of Earth and the rest of the solar system by studying the materials that make up Earth and how they are arranged. Information about Earth's history also comes from studying other bodies in the solar system and their relation to Earth.

SES1.a. Summary

Current theories explain how the Earth and the other planets formed from the condensation of elements in a nebular cloud. The structure of Earth and distribution of elements and internal energy support these explanations.

SES1.b. Summary

Most of Earth’s matter is beneath the surface, so various methods have been used to determine its composition, both by direct and indirect observations. Scientists also use observations of other objects in the solar systems to determine their compositions and compare them to Earth.

SES1.d. Summary

The original atmosphere of Earth consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium. The atmosphere changed over time as gases rose from beneath the surface and even more as early organisms developed. Water formed from the combination of hydrogen and oxygen.