Studies of energy efficiency and market access of domestic

0

Studies of energy efficiency and market access of

domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City

Valdemiro Jamal Sultane &

Graça do Rosário Massimbe

Master of Science Thesis KTH School of Industrial Engineering and Management

Energy Technology EGI-2018 SE-100 44 STOCKHOLM

1

Master of Science Thesis EGI: TRITA-ITM-EX 2018:484

Studies of energy efficiency and market access of

domestic charcoal stoves in Maputo City

Valdemiro Jamal Sultane & Graça do Rosário Massimbe

Approved

2018-09-10

Examiner

Peter Hagström– KTH/ITM/EGI

Supervisor

Peter Hagström

Commissioner

University Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo

Contact person at UEM

Carlos Lucas,

Geraldo Nhumaio,

2

Abstract

In Mozambique, almost 80% of the population uses firewood for their energy needs,

however this use is not exclusive only to rural areas, observing the same in urban areas

who not only use the wood and also charcoal stoves.

Because of this situation, there is a huge devastation of the forest, which has caused

the depletion of flora, thus missing native species without its due spare.

In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of

high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. In 2011, three

millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption, managing a market of $70

million in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to 650 Meticais (200% more).

In this context came the need, to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and

their respective access by the population in Maputo in order to contribute to the

reduction of excessive consumption of biomass. For it was made evaluation of energetic

efficiency in ten stoves most used in the city of Maputo, We tested the quality of

charcoal and found to demand access to its coal.

The results showed that the charcoal tested is not the good quality because the values

are outside the acceptable levels According to the literature. Energy efficiency

evaluation noted that the most efficient stoves have been improved in spite of the water

boiling test of the traditional stoves have been boil faster.

There was also, that consumers prefer to buy products from day to day in

establishments near to their residence and do not spend more money than 100.00 MTn

(2 USD) every time moving to sales points.

Keywords: Energy Efficiency, domestic charcoal stoves, Thermal power, Biomass.

3

Sammanfattning

I Mocambique använder nästan 80% av befolkningen ved för sina energibehov, men

denna användning är inte exklusiv bara för landsbygdsområden, där man observerar

samma i stadsområden som inte bara använder veden utan även koksugnar.

På grund av den här situationen orsakas en enorm förödelse av skogen, vilket har

orsakat utarmning av flora och inhemska arters fortplantning påverkas negativt.

I de flesta hushåll i Maputo ersattes användningen av ved med träkol på grund av hög

energiintensitet och snabbare transport och lagring. Under 2011 har tre miljoner säckar

träkol konsumerats, vilket motsvarar en marknad på 70 miljoner dollar 2010 och 2012.

Priset steg från 250 till 650 Meticais (mer än 200%) under denna period.

I det här sammanhanget uppstod behovet att utvärdera energieffektiviteten hos ugnar

för träkol och tillgången av sådana ugnar i Maputo för att bidra till minskningen av

överdriven konsumtion av biomassa. För det gjordes utvärdering av energeffektiviteten i

tio ugnar som mest används i staden Maputo. Kvaliteten på träkol testades och

tillgången på träkol utvärderades.

Resultaten visade att träkolet inte är av god kvalitet eftersom värdena ligger utanför

acceptabla nivåer enligt litteraturen. Energieffektivitetsutvärderingen noterade att de

mest effektiva ugnarna har förbättrats. Testen av de traditionella ugnarna visade att

kokningstiden för vatten har kortats ner..

Det visade sig också att konsumenter föredrar att köpa produkter från dag till dag i

företag nära deras hemvist, och de spenderar inte mer än 100,00 MTn (2 USD) varje

gång de flyttar till försäljningsställen.

Nyckelord: Energieffektivitet, hushållskolugnar, Värmekraft, Biomassa.

4

Acknowledgments

Our sincere thanks go to:

The supervisor Dr.Peter Hagström, by the humility, love and dedication for having

received our thesis in a professional manner.

To Dr Nhumaio for facilitating the course and to Dr Carlos Lucas and Prof. Andrew

Martin for the coordination and organization of the course;

The Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Sweden, and all the teachers who

participated in our formation;

To our families who tirelessly and in many ways supported us during the formation.

5

Table of Contents

1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 12

1.1 Justification ...................................................................................................... 13

1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................ 14

1.2.1 General Objective .......................................................................................... 14

1.2.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................ 15

2.0 Methods and Materials ............................................................................................ 15

2.1 Fuels tested ......................................................................................................... 15

2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal ........................................................................... 15

2.1.2 Used Material ................................................................................................. 15

2.1.3 Sample preparation ....................................................................................... 16

2.1.4 Material preparation ....................................................................................... 16

2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments ................................................................. 16

2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics ........................................................................ 17

2.2.1 Proximate Analysis ........................................................................................ 17

2.2.2 Absolute humidity .......................................................................................... 17

2.2.3 Volatile matter ................................................................................................ 17

2.2.4 Ash content .................................................................................................... 18

2.2.5 Fixed carbon .................................................................................................. 19

2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal ......................................................................... 19

2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values ........................................... 19

2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves ............................................. 20

2.3.1 Materials ........................................................................................................ 20

2.3.2 Stoves testing ................................................................................................ 20

2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol ..................................................................... 20

2.4 Tested stove description ...................................................................................... 21

2.4.1 Wroket works ................................................................................................. 21

2.4.2 Envirofit .......................................................................................................... 22

2.4.3 Mbaula ........................................................................................................... 22

2.4.4 Zavala/Metal .................................................................................................. 23

2.4.5 Zavala/Barro .................................................................................................. 23

2.5.6 Sucata ........................................................................................................... 24

6

2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco ............................................................................................ 24

2.5.8 Botija de Gás ................................................................................................ 25

2.5.9 Beira Stove: ................................................................................................... 25

3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City .................................................................... 26

3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants .............................................. 26

3.3. Etnographic Contributions ................................................................................... 30

3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique ......................................................................... 31

3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique ............................................................... 33

3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial ............................................................................ 34

3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level 35

3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy ............................................... 36

3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique ............................................................ 36

3.9 Wood-coal ............................................................................................................ 37

3.9.1 Concept on fuel .............................................................................................. 38

3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production ...................................................................... 38

3.9.3 Wood-coal business ...................................................................................... 39

3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City .............................................................. 41

3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo ....................................................... 41

3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and charcoal 42

3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves ........................ 42

3.12.1 Inner air pollution ......................................................................................... 42

3.13 Energy effectiveness .......................................................................................... 44

4.0 Results and discussion ...................................................................................................... 44

4.1 Households .......................................................................................................... 44

4.1.1 Age of the target audience ............................................................................. 45

4.1.2 Famele leadership households ...................................................................... 46

4.1.3 Income ........................................................................................................... 46

4.1.4 Purchase Period ............................................................................................ 47

4.1.5 Factors that influence the making purchasing decision by Audience ............. 48

4.1.6 Propensity to purchase (Behavior) ................................................................. 48

4.2 Fuel evaluation quality ......................................................................................... 49

4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves ..................................... 49

7

4.2.2 Charcoal Properties ....................................................................................... 50

4.3 Water Boiling Tests Results ................................................................................. 51

4.3.1 Four techniques to boil water faster: .............................................................. 51

4.3.2 Time to boil .................................................................................................... 52

4.3.3 Time to boil ranking ....................................................................................... 52

4.3.4 Thermal Efficiency ......................................................................................... 52

4.3.5 Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency .......................................... 54

4.4 Fire Power ............................................................................................................ 55

4.5 Firepower and turn-down ratio of Stoves ............................................................. 56

5.0-Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 59

6. Recommendations ................................................................................................................. 60

References .................................................................................................................................. 61

Annexes ....................................................................................................................................... 64

8

Acronyms

ha - Hectares

MC- Moisture Content

VM- Volatile matter

FC- Fixed Carbon

TJ-Terra joule

PCI – Inferior Calorific Power

% - percentage

ºC – Degrees Celsius

h - Height

ɸ - Diameter

CO – Carbon monoxide

MP – Particulate Matter

9

List of figures

Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stoves

Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove

Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove

Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove

Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove

Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove

Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove

Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove

Figure 2. 9: Beira Stove

Figure 2. 10: Barro Stove

Figure 3. 1: Maputo City map

Figure 3. 2: Forest cover map of Mozambique

Figure 3. 3: Institutional wood stove

Figure 3. 4: Metal wood stove

Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale

Figure 3. 6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts

Figure 4. 1: Age of the target audience

Figure 4. 2: Percentage graph of female heads of households

Figure 4. 3: Monthly income of households

Figure 4. 4: shopping Period

Figure 4. 5: Critical points of purchase decision-making by Audience

Figure 4. 6: Main charcoal properties

Figure 4.7: Time to boil for could and hot start

Figure 4. 8: Time to boil ranking

Figure 4. 9: Thermal efficiency for could and hot start

Figure 4. 10: Thermal efficiency

Figure 4. 11: Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency

Figure 4. 12: Average burning rates of different stoves type g/min

Figure 4. 13: Fire power (Kw)

Figure 4. 14: Firepower and turn-down ratio of stoves

Figure 4. 15: Indicator performance

10

List of tables

Table 3.1: Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban

and peri-urban

Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts

Table 3.3: Mozambique policy ll of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique

Table 3.4: Relation of fuel used in the city Maputo

Table 3.5: Household Use for Lighting

Table 3.6: Household Use for Cooking

Table 3.7: Energy resources

Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique

Table 4.1: Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts

Table: 4.2 price Stoves

Table 4.3: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves

Table 4.4: Characteristic of wood for making good charcoal

Table 4.5: Carbon percentage in charcoal

Table 4.6: Chemical composition for a good charcoal

Table 4.7: Indicator performance

11

Abbreviations / Nomenclature

ADENE- Energy Agency

AF- Family household

AFCH - Household leadership by man

AFCM - Household leadership by woman

AFREA - Africa Renewable Energy and Access program

AGP- Comprehensive Peace Agreement

ARIs - Acute respiratory infection

BOP- Guiding Base of the Pyramid

CMCM- Municipal Council of Maputo City

EE- Energy Efficiency

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FEC’s- Efficient stoves charcoal

FUNAE- National Fund for energy

GHG- Green Houses gases

GIZ- German Society for International Cooperation

IAP- Indoor air Pollution

ICS- Improved charcoal Stoves

INE- Statistics National Institute

MINAG - Ministry of Agriculture

NGO-Non Governmental Organization

RGPH - Census of Population and Housing

SNV- Netherlands Development Organisation

UE – Useful Energy

WHO-World Health Organization

NTFPs- Non-timber forest products

12

1.0 Introduction

In the world, about two third of the population (approximately three billions of people)

from developing countries depend much on the biomass fuel (residue of wood, rattan,

poles and fibre of residues) for domestic use [1]. Undertaken studies throughout the

world demonstrate that there is a higher level of air pollution as a result of biomass fuel

use [2], arising afterward a concern on its effects upon living being, in particular women

and children health status.

Among the health problems from inner air pollution is stated to be acute respiratory

infection (IRAB). In Mozambique, 8% of the country population benefit from electricity

access, this means 80% of the population use fire wood and charcoal for cooking and

heating their residential assets. Apart from energetic use of wood, people use the

precious and nonprecious wood for their livelihood, for example, construction of houses

and crafts end. Every year, 220.000 hectars (ha) of forest disappear, corresponding to

600 ground pitch per day. This problem is much worse in the provinces of Maputo,

Zambézia and Nampula, as a consequence of higher population density than in other

provinces.

Not long ago, studies indicated that the higher dependence of Mozambican on the

forest resources and regarding to the lower growth rate of tropical forests can fall at

limier level or disappear at the near future if there are no substantive measures

undertaken in order sort the prevailing problem with regard to global environment

security. However, the Mozambican government aiming to ensure the mitigation of high

pressure upon the forests resources is promoting forestry plantations of rapid growth

exotic species since in the middle of 2005 [3].

In Southern Africa Region, more than 90% of households depend on woody material,

including fire wood and charcoal for their energy consumption need [4]. The main

reason for this, in energy framework, is that the households have no capacity to access

to other fuel sources as gas and fossil fuel mostly supplied in the urban areas. However,

it is questionable the sustainability of the higher dependence on the resource for the

livelihood of the majority, and reasonably the country should follow the procedure of the

13

most African countries engaged in new and other renewable resources of energy, for

example, solar and wind energies.

It should be recognised that in urban areas the access for energy sources is compared

to a ladder of many steps where the lower side you have fire wood, and on the upper

side you have kerosene, charcoal, gas and electricity. Then, the ease stepping on the

ladder depends on household’s income [5]. And because of this, the rate of charcoal

consumptions is lower in the urban areas than it does in rural and outskirt areas. On the

hand, the rural areas are wealth in fresh and dry trees and shrubs useful for fire wood,

and because of this, charcoal is much less used in rural areas than urban and suburban

do, since the charcoal is light and produces no smoke [6].

The woody fuel, sawed wood and material for traditional construction, represent the

mostly demanded forest products in the country. The source states that in 2007, over

80% of forest products were explored for fire wood and charcoal [7]. The estimated

balance between supply and demand of woody fuel and a standard/ scenario of

sustainable production of wood-coal and fire wood should contribute to the mitigation of

forest clearance in response to fire wood and charcoal natural forest exploration and

also supply the essential need of domestic energy of the most vulnerable households in

Mozambique urban centres.

1.1 Justification

In Mozambique, biomass is the main energy source used about 80% of the population.

Taking into account energy losses resulting from coal, wood conversion and charcoal

contributes about 11% of final consumption, reason why one should take into account

the improvement of stoves in order to reduce the level of losses during use [8].

The carried out study by MINAG for the urban and suburban areas of the Maputo city

presented in the annual report[7], shows that the consumption of charcoal in the last 20

years has been increasing significantly, reaching about 3 million sacks of charcoal,

equivalent to 70 million USD (US Dollars).

14

In Mozambique, the production of charcoal is an important activity for energy and

income generating for many households, and the production process is described as

there is no forests management techniques. This scenario threatens the sustainability of

the forests resources at medium and long run [9].

Environmentally, charcoal fuel is acceptable due to its renewable source. Meanwhile,

factors, namely poverty, population growth, demand for energy, market charcoal price,

and lack of human resources to carry out civic education on environment problems from

unsustainable use of natural resources, stands to be highly contributing to increasingly

ungovernable exploration of forests resources [10].

The lower output or efficiency of the applied stoves by the population contributes

effectively for excessive use of charcoal and fire wood, in this wise, the study of

energetic effectiveness (EE) and energetic effectiveness management are key aspects

to be taken account for setting viable strategies in order to minimise the scenario o the

ground.

So as the production of charcoal from energetic forest stands of rapid growth species

with minimum environment impact and also for protection and conservation of natural

forests, the use of improved stoves of energetic effectiveness should be of great

concern and viable for facing the worse scenario [11].

Strategies to alleviate the perceived firewood problem generally advocate increases in

the supply of firewood and reduction in its demand, because traditional stoves are

widely perceived as being inefficient.

The aim of this study is to assess the efficiency of the charcoal stoves improvement and

traditional most used in Maputo City for mitigate the environmental impacts.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General Objective

The objective of this study is to evaluate the energy efficiency of charcoal stoves and

their respective access by the population in Maputo.

15

1.2.2 Specific Objectives

Assess the calorific properties of charcoal,

To evaluate thermal performance parameter of charcoal stoves through testing

and recommending;

To study the behaviour of the population access to the charcoal stoves.

2.0 Methods and Materials

The methodology definition was based on relevant material consultations and manuals

on the area, following the steps below:

1. Identify the target audience consumption habits:

• consumed products;

• purchase frequency;

• purchase volume.

2. Identify some charcoal stoves on the market.

3. Identify variables that motivate purchase:

• Products (variety, quality, availability);

• Prices (prices,);

• Location (work or live near the site / property sale);

4. Service (speed, quality, uniformity);

5. Identify the technology of tests and test stoves based on the protocol of testing

stoves;

2.1 Fuels tested

2.1.1 Provenance of the charcoal

The used fuel was charcoal. The used coal is from the Magude district Gaza Province,

resulting from native species ( Acácia nilotica, Colophorspermum mopane e Combretum

imberbe)

2.1.2 Used Material

Material tools applied for conducting the trial:

• Spatulas

• Glassed flask

16

• Large sieve

• Muffle

• Digital analytic scale (correctness: ±0,001g)

• Three (3) plates of Petri

• Pestle

• Exsiccate

• Stove

• crucible (3)

• Plastic bucket

2.1.3 Sample preparation

The quality of a solid fuel and classified on the basis of 3 main parameters: moisture,

volatile matter, and ash results.

Introduced into a mortar the pieces of sample, triturated until a particle size of 0.250 mm

that recommended for execution of these tests.

2.1.3.1 Samples preparation

The sample of charcoal was grinded till 60 mesh, (aperture of 0,250mm) achieved at a

desired granulometry and then kept in labelled glass flask.

2.1.4 Material preparation

Three plates of Petri, and equal number of crucible, following correctly the procedure of

material wash, were place on a greenhouse at 105 oC for half an hour in order to get

vapour the moisture content. Then, the plates were taken on to exsiccate for cooling

effect.

2.1.5 Procedure during the experiments

The trial undertaken in laboratory comprised on the use of samples in different

apparatus and the operational conditions as well, in order to get the moisture contents

of volatile and ashes matter.

17

2.2 Charcoal Thermal Characteristics

2.2.1 Proximate Analysis

Proximate analysis of charcoal for determination of moisture content (MC), volatile

matter (VM), ash content (Ash), calorific value and fixed carbon (FC) was carried out.

Calorific value of the raw material was determined using both the standard procedure

proximate analysis and derived formulae [12].

2.2.2 Absolute humidity

Water content or moisture content is the quantity of water contained in a material, such

as soil (called soil moisture), rock, ceramics, fruit, or wood.

2.2.2.1 Absolute humidity determination

Weighed and labelled three (3) Petri dishes previously oven dried. Introduced 5g of

granulated sample initially for each plate and then kept in a desiccator. After that during

3 hours at a constant temperature (105oC) the plates were placed in the incubator

where retired and was cooled to read them, which culminated whit calculation of the

moisture content according to the equation below:

(eq. 2.1)

Where:

MC (% wt.) = Percentage of moisture in the sample by weight, of the dry sample,

W0 = Weight of wet sample before heating (grams), and

W1 = Weight of dry sample after heating (grams).

2.2.3 Volatile matter

Volatile matter is all substance which in established conditions has a tendency to

vaporize.

The pressure vapour is the parameter that determines how volatile the substance is.

%100)(%0

10

W

WWwtMC

18

The volatiles are the substances being present in the sample that evaporates at high

temperatures, in this case at 600 ° C to 900 ° C.

2.2.3.1 Volatile matter determination

Identified and weighed 3 crucibles previously dried and cooled with a portion of the

sample from the oven (approximately 1g). After weighing led to muffle at 600 ° C for 6

minutes, retired from the oven and weighed again after cooling.

Data collected before and after the muffle is made the calculation of volatile material

according to the following formula:

%100)(%0

21

W

WWwtVM (eq. 2.2)

Where:

W0 -weight of sample before heating (grams);

W1- weight of sample after heating at 105ºC (grams);

W2- weight of sample after heating at 900ºC (grams)

2.2.4 Ash content

The ash content of charcoal is an important parameter that determines the charcoal

quality. The ash is defined as the coal inutile part (un burnt).

2.2.4.1 Ash content determination

Previous experience of retired and made the sample to weigh.

It took the sample muffle at a temperature of 600 ° C for 6 hours.

After this time withdrew from the oven and proceeded to weighing again after a cooling

of approximately 45 minutes in the desiccator.

%100)(%0

32

W

WWwtAsh (eq. 2.3)

Where:

W0 - weight of sample before heating,

W2 - weight of sample after heating at 950 ºC,

W3 - weight of sample after heating at 600 ºC

19

2.2.5 Fixed carbon

Fixed carbon is a calculated value of the difference between 100 and the sum of the

moisture, ash, and volatile matter where all values are on the same moisture reference

base.

FC (% wt) = 100 - MC - VM – Ash …………………………………………………..(eq. 2.4)

Where:

MC-moisture Content (%)

VM-Volatile matter (%)

Ash-ash content (%)

Fixed Carbon = 100% - % (moisture) -% (ash) - % (volatile matter)

2.2.6 Ultimate analysis of charcoal

2.2.6.1 Elemental Composition

According to the form of elemental analysis, the elemental compositions of carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are determined with the equations below. [12] .

C = 0.97 FC + 0.7 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – MC (0.6 – 0.01 MC), % ..........................(eq. 2.5)

H = 0.036 FC + 0.086 (VM – 0.1 Ash) – 0.0035MC2 (1 – 0.02 MC), % ........... (eq. 2.6)

N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM, % ..............................................................................(eq. 2.7)

O2 = 100 – (C + H + N + Ash), % …………………….………...…………….…… (eq. 2.8)

2.2.7 Determination of biomass higher heating values

To determine the higher heating values (HHV) of the sample, the following expression

was used:

g

p

m

TCHHV

…………………………………………………….………………….. (eq. 2.9)

Where: ∆T =change in temperature,

Cp = heat capacity

mg = mass of sample

20

2.3 Performance analysis of domestic charcoal stoves

The tests performed comprise the determination of local water boiling point, the

moisture content evaluation the Water Boiling Tests (WBT)

2.3.1 Materials

• Digital thermometer, with a 51 KJ thermocouples, Accuracy: 0.1o C and the

Range: - 20 to 5000C;

• Scale: HF-300G, range: 0 to 310 g, accuracy: 0.01 g (used to weigh the charcoal

for moisture content;

• Scale (ADAM), accuracy: 5 g, Range: 0 to 15000 g (used to measure the pots,

water and stoves);

• Charcoal stoves;

• Incubator series 2000;

• Timer;

• Water;

• Charcoal;

• Pots;

• Metal tray;

• Heat resistant pads;

• Spatula;

• Photo grey glasses;

• Wood fixture for holding thermocouple probe in water

2.3.2 Stoves testing

2.3.3 The water boiling tests protocol

The water boiling test (WBT) is a laboratory test (controlled environment) that allows

evaluating the performance of the stove and its quality. This test allows also repeating

the process when it is necessary and creating the criteria to difference between stoves

types. According to shell foundation house hold energy project WBT version 3.0, the

test was carried out following the three phases below:

• In the first phase, cold-start (high-power): using a stove and pot cold

21

• In the second phase, hot-start (high-power): the test followed immediately after

the first test while stove was still hot replace the water with a new pot.

• In the third phase, simmering (low power): follows immediately from the hot

start, in this phase the boiled water is maintained at a simmer for 45 min.

The parameters that were analysed describe the behaviour of stoves in different stages

thereby translating its power and efficiency to these levels on the basis of the following

categories:

• Time to boil–the time that water contained in the container leads to a boil (up to 100)

• Burning rate

• Specific fuel consumption

• Firepower

• Turn down ratio (ratio of the stove’s high power output to its low power)

• Thermal efficiency

2.4 Tested stove description

Ten charcoal stoves were tested where 5 are traditional and other 5 are improved

charcoal stoves, namely (Rocket Works, Envirofit, Mbaula, Zavala/Metal, Zavala/Barro,

Sucata, chapa de zinco, botija de Gás, Beira, Barro).

2.4.1 Wroket works

Rocket Works is a type of circler stove made of metal, with airing condition in it. This

can use fire woody on its lower part and charcoal on its upper part. It has a bigger

combustion chamber allowing achievement of full combustion and for security end, it

provides an insulator grill which separates the metallic part of the stove that in activity

achieves much higher temperature.

Figure 2. 1: Wroket works Stove

h Outer height =24,0 cm

ɸ Outer diameter = 24,5 cm

h Inner height =17,5 cm

ɸ Inner diameter= 12,5 cm

With an average capacity of 821g of fuel

22

2.4.2 Envirofit

Envirofit is a metallic stove made mainly in India, of a circular shape with airing

conditions on its lower parte. It provides a metallic grill and metallic handles and

wooden plated a small chamber of combustion.

Figure 2. 2: Envirofit Stove

2.4.3 Mbaula

Mbaula is a Mozambican stove made, in Maputo province, of aluminium material at

outer part and a plate made of clay at the inner part (argil). The clay plate has got 7

holes of 1,5 cm of diameter.

Figure 2. 3: Mbaula Stove

hOuter height = 14 cm

ɸ Outer diameter= 22 cm

h Inner height =6,5 cm

ɸ Inner diameter= 17cm

A stove of an average capacity of 465 g

of fuel.

Thickness of 10 cm

h Outer height of 20,5 cm

ɸ Outer diameter of 27,5 cm

h Inner height of clay plate is 6,5 cm and a ɸ = 19,5 cm,

ɸ The airing holes in alluminium: =11 cm and =4 cm

ɸ hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm

A stove of an average capacity of 477 g of fuel

23

2.4.4 Zavala/Metal

This type of stove is produced in Zavala district, Inhambane province, that is why i tis

named. The circular shaped stove is made only of Clay, and being placed a metal plate

in it.

Figure 2. 4: Zavala/metal Stove

2.4.5 Zavala/Barro

This type of stove is the source of Inhambane province, specifically in zavala district so

took the name of Zavala district. Constituted only by clay, with a circular shape.

Figure 2. 5: zavala/barro Stove

Thickness of the stove is 13 cm

H stove = 36,5 cm

ɸ outer of the stove = 32,5 cm

ɸ Inner of the stove = 21,5 cm

h Plate of metal =9,0 cm

ɸ Inner of metal plate =20,5 cm

ɸ Outer of metal plate =23,5 cm

ɸ Hole of the clay plate = 1,5 cm

ɸ opening spaces=4,5 cm

ɸ iron supporting the port=8 mm


Thickness of 13 cm H Stove = 36,5 cm

ɸ Outer of stove = 32,5 cm ɸ Inner of stove = 21,5 cm

H Plate of clay =9,0 cm ɸ Inner of clay plate =20,5 cm

ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5 cm ɸ Hole of clay palte = 1,5 cm

ɸ airing holes=4, ɸ=4,5 cm ɸ Iron supporting the pot =8 mm

A stove of an average capacity of 565 g of fuel.

24

2.5.6 Sucata

This name is due to the stove factorying material from recycled scrap-iron. General,

these stoves are quandragular shaped and four footed support. And two handles at the

outer superior, and the stove as a whole is divided into two parts, upper for charcoal

fuel, and at the lower part is for ashes and airing purposes.

Figure 2. 6: Sucata Stove

2.5.7 Chapa de Zinco

This type of stoves are named “Chapa zinco” because of its strutural shape is naturally

of zinc matter. The circular stove has got four feet which also supports the pot, with two

division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.

Figure 2. 7: Chapa de Zinco Stove

H Stove = 48 cm

h chamber of fuel = 5 cm

A Upper part of stove = 400 cm2

h Part of the tin =25 cm

A hole for airing = 260 cm2

ɸ support =8 mm


Hstove = 32,0 cm

hfuel =6,0cm

hash =11,0cm

ɸInner =25,5cm

ɸ Hole of metal plate = 12,0 cm A stove of an

average capacity of 900 g of fuel

25

Thickness of the stove is 13 cm

H stove = 36,5 cm

h combustion chamber =9,0 cm

ɸ supports =8mm


2.5.8 Botija de Gás

This type of stoves are named "gas cylinder" due to the main chamber of the stove,

which is made from a cross section of the gas bottle. The circular stove has got four feet

which also supports the pot, with two division one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes.

Figure 2. 8: Botija de Gás Stove

2.5.9 Beira Stove:

Due to its provenance the stove is named “Fogão Beira”, i tis manufactured in Beira in

central zone of Mozambique. The stove differs from the stoves described previously.

It is divided into two parts, one for charcoal fuel and other for ashes, and no feets but

supported by a base. Moreover, the fuel area is struturely divide in two parts (major and

minor). The minor part is the grill separating the two main division of stove.

Figure 2. 9: Fogão Beira

H Stove = 37 cm

ɸ Inner of stove = 23,5cm

H chamber fuel =10,0cm

H fuel =4,0 cm

H main section =15 cm


26

2.5.10 Barro

With regard to the manufacturing material (clay – barro), the stove is named “barro”

stove. It is cylindrically shaped with different diameters from upper and lower sides, the

plate for fuel and base supports ashes. The separating grill is clay with 17 holes of 1 cm

of diameter which all together cover an empty area of 13.35 cm2.

Figure 2. 10: Barro stove

3.0 Geographical situation of Maputo City

Maputo City is the capital of Mozambique which is located in south part of the country,

and it is limited by Marracuene district at north; and Matola and Boane districts at

northwest and Matuitine district at south. And it is also located on the sea level,

providing its natural and scenic beauty of beaches and island, and strong hostelry

infrastructures along the coastal zone. Maputo City is a strategical place playing a

crucial role at national and internationally level, since among many aspects, the city

holds the mostly best infrastructures and provides many different products and services

than the other parts through the country.

3.1 General characteristics of Maputo City inhabitants

In accordance with population and habitation general census of 1997 [13], the city is

accommodating 1300.000 inhabitants distributed over five municipality districts and two

administrative posts, and gathering all villages are 53 altogether. Looking into the

districts, localities and villages, at organization and urbanization point of view, either in

H stove = 22 cm

ɸ thickness= 2,5cm

ɸ Inne of stove = 21,5cm

ɸ Inner of clay plate =20 cm

ɸ Outer of clay plate =23,5cm

ɸ hole of clay plate = 1,5cm

It has got 17 airing holes ɸ=4cm

ɸ Iron which supports the pot =8mm

Stove of an average capacity of 426g of fuel.

27

demographic characteristics or social status of citizens, you might find out substantial

differences

And under demographic and social point of view, the city is divided into three diversified

areas, namely urban area (the perimeter of Neighborhood with cement houses),

suburban (Neighborhood with grass houses) and outskirt area (new constructed villages

far away the main city).

.

Figure 3. 1 Maputo City map

With respect to the three areas in reference above, the population from Maputo is

distributed as follows: the suburban area comprises 36 villages and accommodates

77,5% of population; urban area with 13,8% of population and finally the outskirt, dispite

of its extension, accommodates 8,7% of population.

Table 3. 1 Distribution of the Maputo population according to the urban areas, suburban and peri-urban

Area Population

No %

Urban 133.759 13,8

Sub-urban 748.513 77,55

Peri-urban 84.565 8,7

Total 966.837 100

Source [14]. In general, at Maputo City level, the avergage number of households is high which may

comprise 5 or 4 persons for household. If you look into the distribution of population

over the districts und comparison, you can see that the KaMfumo district is mostly

28

inhabited by households with less than five members, whilst the districts of suburban

(polana caniço A e B) and outskirt areas there are many more households with eight (8)

member, and so as these districts are naturally the most populated ones.

Table 3.2: Distribution of households by Urban districts

Urban Districts

Average

Dimension

by AF

No of people by AF

AF < 5 (%) AF de 5 a 8 (%) AF > 8 (%)

kaMfumo 4,6 54,1 38,4 7,5

KaLhamanculo 5,5 42,1 41,9 16,0

Kamaxaquene 5,8 37,8 44,8 17,4

Kamavota 5,3 42,9 43,9 13,2

Kamubukwane 5,6 40,4 43,1 16,5

Total da Cidade 5,4 43,3 42,6 14,1

Source [14].

Despite of relevant transformations carried out over the economic rehabilitation in 1986

and 1992 time upon which the signature of peace agreement took place, the substantial

differences between “Cement zone” and outskirt area are still remaining unchangeable

so far. But, of course, there is some relatively social-economic growth in the suburban

and outskirt areas over the last five years. However, it is important to note that since

1992, there is a considerable economic growth which is targeted through energies

access, improvement of habitation infrastructures, improvement of environment

sanitation systems, and construction of new dwellings, contributing for households per

capita income any way.

In table 3.3 is represented the distribution of social-economic indicators through the

Maputo districts and is also setting apart the women because in Mozambique, with high

incidence in Maputo City, there are many households under women leadership, and

also they are on the rise in issues related to economy and decision making as well.

Table; 3. 3 Policy of gender, class and space in Maputo, Mozambique

29

Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts

Urban District Proportion of AFCM Poverty rate of AFCH Poverty rate of AFCM

kaMfumo 28,0 2,0 2,4

Kamaxaquene 33,6 39,0 35,1

KaLhamanculo 28,6 26,1 23,7

Kamavota 28,3 29,2 26,6

Kamubukwane 29,0 36,3 34,0

Source [14].

Table 3. 4: Relationship of fuel used in the city of Maputo

Source [14].

Table: 3. 5: Household Use for Lighting

%

Firewood Kerosene Other

1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003

Maputo Province 14.8 4.1 49.6 69.3 34.3 26.6

Maputo City. 0.2 0.1 53.7 38.8 45.9 61.0

Total 46.2 31.6 42.0 53.8 9.2 14.4

Source [14].

Table 3. 6: Household Use for Cooking

Source [14].

Production Tera Joule (TJ) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Fuelwood 268,001 270,895 273,821 276,778 279,767 282,827

Charcoal 11,187 11,484 11,715 11,946 12,185 12,429

Other 744 1,817 4,434 6,799 9,481 12,206

Total 279,932 284,196 289,970 295,523 301,433 307,462

Household Use for Cooking

% 1997 2003 1997 2003 1997 2003

Firewood Charcoal Other

Maputo 72.6 61.1 19.9 26.1 7.1 12.7

Maputo C. 17.4 9.9 53.6 63.4 29.1 26.3

Total 89.8 85.1 7.1 12.4 3.0 2.3

30

3.3. Etnographic Contributions

For better understanding the dynamic of lower rate of poverty among the households

under the women leadership in Maputo, it was established an atypical structure focusing

on structural specific containments and the interaction of women and men. And

simultaneous, there was recognition that activities being carried out by people are an

aged through the particular position with regard to unfair social relations and also by

common cultural discourses, including the gender group.

Most often men and women in good economic conditions hold higher academic levels

and are capable to get better employments and run succeeded formal business. On the

other hand, women and men Unemployed, with no employment in the public or private

sector, run informal and few run formal business which is their main source for income.

The diversified economical activities should of course require the establishment of

confident contacts. Which are mostly set with neighbouring households member.

3.4 Energy

According to Vasconcelos, energy is the capacity of performing work, be that a man,

machine or be a natural phenomenon operating. And regarding to the history, the

available energy for undertaking work was the physical force of men and animals.

However, over the time the technology evolution, there were created conditions for use

of available energy in nature under the need capabilities. The result from the inventions

and innovations led to men not only using man and animal power, but also other power

source [14].

Later on the petroleum and natural gas were being used in the machines and become

great sources of energy. In that same time started de development of exploitation of

petroleum and come out the fossil energy economy (charcoal, petroleum and natural

gas). The increase in the power of electric energy in the 20th century makes it possible

to see a great increase in human development.

31

Meanwhile it is crucial to refer to that it is always truth that energetic crises arises

vulnerability of generating system focused on few fuels, becoming in this wise the

alternative sources of energy the solutions can respond with satisfaction the

communities need [16].

From the petroleum world crises of 1973, there was more attention on biomass as an

alternative source, and then, in the world came out many national programs aimed at

getting major effectiveness in biomass combustion and gasification systems as cited on

[17].

Policies, legislation and financings are indispensable in order to make viable the use of

alternative sources, which are still now out expensive and little efficient. As far the

decrease of gases causing greenhouse effect as the diminishing of fossil fuels stocks,

contributing that the alternatives sources, mainly the renewable and not polluting ones,

should be set apart.

According to Kazay e Legey [16], in Mozambique, among diversified alternative

sources, the most important estimated potential is: wind energy (4.5 GW); solar

photovoltaic (14,3Twp); got from biomass (2 GW); and the hydroelectric centrals (18

GW).

3.5 Energy Situation in Mozambique

Mozambique provides a substantial potential in energetic resources, viable conditions

for the country not only to supply the domestic market, but also to export either to the

southern African region or to other international markets [18]. The biomass will further

be a crucial and keystone at supplying the energy requirement for rural and suburban

population if there is no vigorous program for change of current situation.

For the current situation, gas in way of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and the

illumination petroleum has little contribution on national energetic balance, so being

reliable on use of LPG supplied much a lot in some provinces capital cities as Maputo,

Matola, Beira and Nampula. Most often the consumption of this energy oscillate due to

supply chocking, and annual supply may not be greater than 14.000 tonnes [18].

32

In the country, the solar radiation is 5.7 kWh/m2 /day in average, and with 5,2 kWh/m2

/day minimum recorded in Lichinga – Niassa province and 6,0 kWh/m2 /day maximum

recorded in Pemba and Maniquenique. So far, there was installed over 135.000 Wp,

and it is hope that once the project in implementation on the ground the available solar

power will go up to 1 million of Wp demonstrating an evident growth.

The current knowledge for Aeolian issues is so far incipient, although preliminary

assessments undertaken mostly along the coastal zone indicate that it is promising.

Identified geothermal sources have a potential which is considerably appraised at range

of 25 MW, in the seismic flaw of the east of Africa region [18].

Table 3. 7: Energy resources

Resouces Estimated potencial

Small Hydro

18 GW potential

3 competetive projects

5.6 Gw priority projects

Solar

23 Twp- Potencial

Global horizontal Radiation-betwen 1.785 to 2.206 KWh/m2 /year

600 MW - Potencial for grid connections

Wind

4.5 GW - Potencial

1.1 GW - Potencial Grid Connection

230 GW - Priority Projects

Biomass

2 GW – Potential

128 Mw – Priority projects

1.006 MW – Residual Forest

831 Mw – sugar companies

280 MW – pulp

68 MW – Municipal Solid Waste

Geothermal 200 MW – Potencial

20 t MW – Prioroty Projects

waves ~2 TW; 10KW/m on south coast

Source: [46].

Mozambique in terms of per capita income is low levels and financial resources

shortage in the public sector, represent strong fence constraint against the acceleration

33

of improvement access to new energies by the population. The annual consumed

energy among households is nearly 30.6 millions of forest hectares its represents about

80% of total production.

3.5.1 Production and potential of renewable energy in the country.

The energy constitutes one of the main factors of economic development and the

availability of energetic resources (hydrologic, natural gas and mineral coal) gives to the

country better conditions to satisfy national demand but also the energy needs to all

austral regions.

Mozambique is poor country, but has enormous energy resources that have not hardly

been tapped in the same time.

It is one of smallest consumers of energy in southern Africa, with about 80% of the

country’s energy consumption being based on biomass, and less than 3% of the

population using electric energy.

3.6 Priority planned project in Mozambique

Mozambique’s current planned power projects include a number of ‘traditional’ large-

scale hydro, coal and gas power generation projects, which are summarized in Table

3.8.

Table 3.8: Planned power projects in Mozambique

Project name Type of project size Comments

Cahora Bassa North Bank

Hydropower expansion

850- 1200 additional MW

Detailed feassibility study under way

Mpanda Nkuwa Hydropower 2,500 MW Developed by Camargo correia, Brasil

Massingir Hydropower 40MW Managed by EDM

Lúrio Hydropower 120 MW

Majawa Hydropower 25 MW

Malema Hydropower 60 MW

Moatize Coal-fired for Plant 1,500 MW Developed by IES

Temane Combined-Cycle natural gas-fired power plant

300-400 MW On the Sasol gas pipeline, 2010

Source: [42]

Renewable energy has been a particular focus of recent energy policy in initiatives,

which have been designed to discover why renewable energy options have not

34

achieved a significant market presence. Some of the measures that have been

developed to address this problem include:

having mandated renewable energy targets;

the provision of subsidies for renewable energy;

the incorporation of externalities into energy prices and

Government-sponsored research aimed at improving renewable energy

technologies [19].

3.7 Mozambique’s forest Potencial

Mozambique is a country relatively rich in natural forests and habitat of wild fauna. So

as in Mozambique forests cover nearly a quarter of the country. It has 5 important parks

located across the country. These parks are set up with an aim of protecting and

conserving the existing diversified ecosystems; rich biodiversity; scenic landscapes;

wildlife threatened with extinction; as well as to maintain ecological processes; and

preserve cultural and natural resources. The parks are very important to the rural

inhabitants as NTFPs help sustain these communities in many ways and not only for

their source of food and livelihood.

And about 70% of the country (65.3 millions of heactars) is covered by forests and

outher woody plants. The forest area covers nearly 40.6 millions of hectars (51% of the

country), while other types of woody plants (shrubs, thicket and forests with traditional

agriculture) cover about 14.7 millions of hectars (19% of the country. Yielding forests

(timber yield) cover about 26.9 millions of hectars (67% of total forest area). Thirteen

millions of hectars are not for timber explotation in which the large part is located in the

national parks, forest reservoirs and other area of conservation [20].

In figure 3.2 is shown the distribuition of types of forests in Mozambique. In general,

Mozambique has no problems regarding to Woody fuls availability, but actual there is a

shortage in areas of easy access and higher population density (for example, many

rural areas), and also good forest resource in area of tough access. And as a result of

lack, charcoal and fire wood supplied for poor living in outskirt are explored in

increasingly long distances.

35

Figure 3.2: Forest cover map of Mozambique; source [20]

3.7.1 Deforestation to attend the energetic need at household local level

Dispite of some developing countries, that Mozambique is a partaker, have still

a wide range of native forests are threatened with extinction. The high

exploration pressure on wood in domestic market and requirement of

supplying woody energy are stated to be some of the main threatening factors

[21]. Although the existing legislation does not encourage the cut of specific

species for energy end, Afonso et al [9] state people cutting the species for fire

wood purpose. The tree falling for energy is characterized by low cutting and

without plans for sustainable management, further there is no forest reposition

programs.

As Souza (2000) and MEIRA (2002) [43], from government point of view, there

is not seen funding for conservation and use technology on sub products from

carbonization, unfortunately it might historically be evident that charcoal

production is a forest and other natural resources more devastating economic

activity. This is due to the poor techniques applied for wood exploration,

36

leading the ecosystem to a critical estate situation. atassanov et al. [5], it is

annually devastated about 141 985, 12 045, e 23 360 hectares in supply the

energetic need urban centre of Maputo/Matola, Beira e Nampula, respectively

in terms of hectares ready meant.

3.8 Biomass as an alternative source of energy

Upon the energy framework, the concept biomass describes all forms of plants

and its derived products can be turned into usage energy, as for example,

wood, urban wood residues, forests, rattan essential oils, floral, medicinal

products, herbs and spices, dyes, raisins. The energy generated from biomass

is also known as “green energy” or bioenergy.

According to Vasconcelos et al. [14], an energetic biomass is the outcome got

from plants physiological activity transforming solar energy through

photosynthetic process in chemical energy. Of course, this process is a

cyclical, and then the CO2 is available to produce new biomass [22].

Biomass is set part on world energetic scenario due to the development of

more advanced technologies for transformation of matter into energy,

regarding to the threatening upon end off of fossil fuels reservoirs and by

incorporation of definitive environmental thematic in discussions on

sustainable development. Yet, the author refers to the other key factor is the

signature taken in Kyoto Protocol, on which was set that all developing

countries might reduce significantly emissions of gases with greenhouse

effect, and remarking that the use of renewable energies shows a trend of

great concern on world energy framework [23].

3.8.1 Biomass Energy in Mozambique

The country has an annual production potential of firewood and charcoal about

22 million tons, where in this moment the consumption is about 14.8 million

tons a year whose rate of growth is 2% / year. [24]

In the framework of the introduction clean and efficient technologies in the

country for institutional and domestic use, the government sensitizes for use

improved cook stoves which the efficiency is around 60 to 70%. This efficiency

37

represents a considerable gain in relation those stoves used in time.

In relation to production of biomass the country has good agro Energetic

conditions that favour the production of biofuels (biodiesel and ethanol),

without compromising the availability of land for food production or endanger

biodiversity conservation.

Figure3.3:Institutional wood stove, source:[author unknown] Figure 3.4: Metal stove [Author unknown]

3.9 Wood-coal

The charcoal is gotten by uncomplete combustion of wood. In the primitive era, man

used pieces of wood in blaze to light caves or heat themselves in winter season.

Probably it was not late to realize the use of the burned wood (charcoal) of black color

and friable, since this could neither make blaze nor smoke, generating heat in more

controlled way than the one produced by direct use of fire wood , then, it was the

discovery of the use of charcoal fuel [25].

However, even in some countries where the access to other energy sources is true, the

charcoal is of great technological use, as for example on the use of some molten iron in

Brazil that need raw material (pi-iron) free of sulfur found in charcoal.

There ng the ecological disasters occurrence like the one took place in Madagascar

lived to terrible time of devastation use of forests. In Brazil, the yielding of charcoal

supplies on about one third (1/3) of world production, here is used almost full for iron-

foundry, should be safeguarded the full need of utilization of the forests by rational way,

avoidi but still produced in large, as a age ago, without looking into the major concern

for preservation of environment, and with deteriorated labor conditions [15].

38

3.9.1 Concept on fuel

Every matter that flame is known as fuel. This is a burning substance that in an atomic

battery can generate chain reaction, a reaction which itself evolves since the required

agents for the reaction take place are yielded from it [26]. In accordance with the nature

and properties of matter, either Woody or not.

3.9.2 Traditional charcoal production

According to Belward, 2011 [44], Mozambique produces between 1.2 and 2 millions of

Mg of charcoal annually. Mozambique faces the comsumption of charcoal basically from

hard wood which is produced throuhg a traditional stove. The method is performed by

eigth steps as follow:

(i) Identification of viable trees;

(ii) Assessing the correct palce for stove building;

(iii) Falling trees and carrying to the stove place;

(iv) Selection of considered important material for stovebuilding, (grass, sand or clay

and stones if available);

(v) Stove building

(vi) Stove operational;

(vii) Turning off the stove;

(viii) Loading charcoal in the sac [27].

Figure 3. 5: charcoal bagged point of sale, source [ 6 ]

39

In Maputo, most households, the use of fire wood was replaced by charcoal because of

high energetic intensity and also transportation and storing promptness. According to

Vilanculos (1998) [45], the charcoal is produced in stoves made from clay and grass,

and depending on the species, the yielding can vary between 20 and 50 sacs (hardly 70

sacks) weighing from 25 and 35 kg per sac.

This type of stove reacquires bit tough work and plain tools, so that the construction is

carried out by the household members or some relatively known people that receive

local beverage in payment - "Wutchema" (20 to 25 liters).

The majority of studies carried out in Mozambique took place in Maputo. This is

because the city has the greatest fuel woody consumption rate in the country which is

explained by shortage of biomass in it. Thus, the techniques for charcoal production in

discussion below are carried out in the south region of the country.

Moreover, the charcoal produced in this region is from private sector naturally. The

charcoal producers operate in two main areas of charcoal production (Changalene and

Marracuene districts) supplying Maputo city. According to Pereira (1989) [46] and in

accordance with researches undertaken by National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife

(DNFFB) in 1985 and 1988 [11], these areas supplied 90% of total charcoal transported

to Maputo City, where the major quantities of charcoal transported through Michafutene

corridors (National Road, N1) and Matola-Rio (National Road, N2).

3.9.3 Wood-coal business

The charcoal is distributed in different quantities. Usually, sacs of 50kg and water

bucket are used as standard on sale course. The common pile is measured by the 500g

tin of "milk Nido" and also varying piles from 250g to 20l of oil quantities of charcoal

[28].

With regard to the sale of charcoal sale price, particular resealing was $ 2.06 / sac. The

retailer could get a profit of $ 0.35 and $ 0.42, or be 67% of buying price. This means

that the cost of hiring workers is much lower than the cost of hiring workers.

40

In period 1988 and 1992, the woody fuel price raised considerably, in the same time the

charcoal was supplied for different places. Thus, the charcoal profit was 42%, and for

fire wood was only 5.8% [28].

According to Van Beukering (2007) [29], cited by the Report of AFREA (2011) [30], the

commerce and transport f charcoal from rural areas to urban centers as well as the

chain of values from producer to the consumer is similar in all sub-Saharan African

countries (Figure 3.5). It comprises an interaction between small and big scaled

transporters and sales / business men, in particular of big scaled ones that also

commonly transport charcoal.

In Mozambique, charcoal and fire wood are the main fuel for urban areas Mozambique.

While about 70 to 80% of urban households rely on woody fuels, and for rural

households depend heavily and only on woody fuels for domestic energy generating

[31]. But the use of charcoal in urban households is affected by its availability. Over the

rain season, the charcoal scarce in urban markets and, of course, the price rises. It is

also seen in other places of southern Africa, the charcoal shortage and its price rise is

too high in January, February and March, heavy rain months

In Maputo City, the increased demand for woody fuels was meant to be the main

internal force for deforestation and the possible cause for natural forests degradation.

Saket (1994) [32] made estimation that, in 1970 and 1988, the deforestation rate

rounded 20% in Maputo.

Despite the forest resources being full ended off in consequence of charcoal production,

the woody fuels are still the basic product for the majority households in Maputo. This

situation may last for a long time since the alternative sources of electricity are not

accessible and trustable for most parts of households, although the modernization of

substation of 60 MW at West of Maputo City (BTG, 1990) , as well as the marketing

campaign for charcoal stove purchase in such a way that the consuming habits could be

changed, so the demand for woody fuels should be mitigated.

41

3.9.4 Demand for charcoal in Maputo City

In 2011, Maputo, three millions of sacs of charcoal have been in consumption,

managing a market of $ 70 million, in 2010 and 2012, the price rise a lot from 250 to

650 Meticais (200% more).

The new pattern of prices and expenditure for households of low income builds up an

opportunity of really market for the private sector to introduce alternative upon charcoal,

among them there is briquettes, efficient charcoal stoves, gas and ethanol.

In 2014, there was carried out a study upon which was identified the consumer profile,

as a layer foundation for introduction of new products that can be accessible with great

effectiveness, competitive price and provision of good business atmosphere.

Figure 3.6: Form such as charcoal is presented in resale posts, source:[Author unkwown]

3.10 Charcoal stoves well succeeded in Maputo

According to FUNAE, SNV is developing micro-clusters of Charcoal Efficient Stoves

(CFS) in Maputo province, strengthening the local capacity to produce and distribute

stoves of 40% of effectiveness Mbula modality, as well as other standards for domestic

use and commerce. Mbula is a charcoal stove label and well succeeded in Kenya and

Tanzania, only through adaptations and marketing strategies towards a base of Pyramid

which will be transformed into a viable alternative for cooking in Mozambique. This is a

42

joint venture between GIZ, Livaningo and Kulima partnership. SNV aims to stimulate

their activities in the sector, promoting the access of 22 thousand FEC's and benefiting

more than 100 thousand people up to the end of 2015.

3.11 Gas and Ethanol as alternative sources with respect to wood fire and

charcoal

The follow-up of population growth at Maputo City level is the increase of demand in

charcoal, causing the rise in 200% more. Consequently, the 65kg of charcoal sac is sold

at more than USD 30, hence the gas and ethanol turned into viable energy for about 28

thousand households in Maputo City. The Clean Star, through the SNV introduced

ethanol from Ndzilo label in the local market as a consequence of their experience in

economic development to promote alternative cooking solutions in the market.

In Mozambique, the cooking upon ethanol was introduced with "Ndzilo" label (meaning

flame in local mother tongue) and the outcome encouraged to be a confident alternative

solution for low income households. There is a hope that up to the end of 2015, more

than 30 thousand women can use ethanol in their kitchens. This product is being

promoted before the sellers in 40 municipal markets in Maputo City Municipality

(CMCM), cooperating for charcoal consumption reduction.

For the gas, SNV, Maputo Municipality and GALP share with joy the idea of

transforming households in natural gas consumers, and on this conquest, ones to save

money and time in cooking. This Project will contribute to support the private sector

capacity in good quality gas supply, at good price and through effectiveness distribution

network and adapted to the BOP.

3.12 Social environment aspects due to the use of traditional stoves

3.12.1 Inner air pollution

It is roughly stated that cooking and heating with solid biomass, under traditional stoves

and fireplaces, is an important source of inner air pollution which causes respiratory

diseases as the main cause for mortality in African country. It increases the risk of

getting asthma, bronchitis, flu, pneumonia and other diseases. The exposing levels are

so high among women and children that stay in the house most of their time [33].

43

According to WHO, in developing countries, inner air pollution is the major risk for health

ranking after sub nutrition, HVI / AIDS, lack of water drink and appropriate sanitation. It

is estimated that 1.5 million people die because of pollution effects from saw dust every

year. It means that 4,000 death per day. In sub-Saharan Africa 396 000 peoples, in

particular women and children, would die of inner air pollution in 2002 [34].

With regard to this phenomenon, and since the cooking in closed places as an urban

characteristic, could ensure secure conditions which may not endanger the users and

other members like old people and children. And it is not advisable to use firewood in

urban centers, and in replacement one can use charcoal or clean fuels.

The impacts related to the burn of woody fuels are many which may reach high

proportions, damaging the inner air quality. Therefore, inner air quality comfortably

reflects the human health. The most evidential problems are in respiratory and

cardiovascular system which is always novice for social groups of risk (pregnant

women, feat us, new born, children and old peoples).

Studies carried out in Mexico City (Sandoval et al., 1993) [35] and India, Nepal and New

Guinea (Larson et al., 1994) [36], concluded that people who expose themselves for

long time before fire, either in the house or out, to cook, appeared to show more

increasing in respiratory diseases the chronic bronchitis and lowering the pulmonary

function. A report of World Health Organization points out that in developing country

children and women are the most victims of woody biomass utilization as residential

source due to inner air pollution [34].

Moreover, the smoke from biomass combustion is among the main causes of death in

developing countries, so this might be responsible for the death of 1.3 million peoples

annually. And it is also to remark that air pollution in the houses is responsible for 2.7%

of world diseases [34].

44

3.13 Energy effectiveness

Energy efficiency can be defined as an energy consumption optimization, holding the

energy constant without decreasing the yielding rate [37]. Some part of energy is lost in

consequence of friction, heat loss or other factors during the energy conversion for final

use. This energy is usually realized or lost to the atmosphere in the way of heat [38].

Carrying analysis on the energy flow of the charcoal energy production process should

be of great importance to estimate the energy used system, on the other hand

identifying energetic losses points and the components that can be replaced by other of

major effectiveness, further improving the visibility over energetic balance of the

resource, and a new scientific foundation for sustainable energy production [39].

There is advantageous and benefits from energy efficiency related to a greater energy

availability, meanwhile avoiding loss and also the protection of environment through

minimization of environmental impact, mitigating the burning of fossil fuels, emission of

GEE, deforestation, increase of oceans level, etc. [40].

4.0 Results and discussion

The results of this study are grouped in three categories:

1. Socio-economic status of user household;

2. Fuel evaluation quality: physical and chemical properties of the charcoal from

mondzo tree, whose scientific name is (Acacia nilotica, Colophorspermum mopane

and Combretum imberbe);

3. Performance Parameters and stove evaluate: Time to boil, Burning rate,

Specific fuel consumption, Firepower, Turn down ratio, Thermal efficiency.

4.1 Households

Household comprises the singular person or group of persons related to parenthetic

ties, living in the same house, sharing foods and major part of expenditures.

In Mozambique, commoner type of household is the enlarged one, meaning that apart

from father, mother and sons, there is an inclusion of other parents. The number of

household members is increasing so far, since it is about 4 million in 1997 to 5 millions

45

in 2000, for all country in general. Household leader refers to the person responsible for

the household members, one must be resident or present or not, but absence should be

over 6 months.

4.1.1 Age of the target audience

Figure 4.1: Age of the target audience

According to the results presented in figure 4.1, the age range that was out of that of 25-

35 years with 42% of the total surveyed. This is due to the fact that this range

understands the stage where most of the young people begin to take on an autonomous

life with financial independence and also understand the age that registers highest

number of marriages.

In Mozambique, data from the general census of inhabitants and dwelling in 1997 and

2007 [13] shows that, despite record of increasing numbers of women under the

leadership of households, the major part of households are under leadership of men

(Figure 4.2) So far, in Maputo there is a slight increase in the percentage of household

leadership women in Figure 4.2.

46

4.1.2 Famele leadership households

Figure4. 2: Percentage female leadership households, source

Table 4.1 Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts

Socio-economic indicators of Maputo Districts

Urban District proportion of AFCM Poverty rate AFCH Poverty rate AFCM

kaMfumo 28,0 2,0 2,4

Kamaxaquene 33,6 39,0 35,1

KaLhamanculo 28,6 26,1 23,7

Kamavota 28,3 29,2 26,6

Kamubukwane 29,0 36,3 34,0

Source:[14 ]

If you look into the city in Socio-economic terms, there are remarkable social

asymmetries between urban and suburban zones as the poverty indicators sustain

between households under men and women leadership in the two zones. Further, the

level of poverty is higher in women than in the men group. However, the rate of poverty

among urban people is 5% lower in comparison with the rest of districts which is about

26%.

4.1.3 Income

Monthly households' income varies in accordance with the economic activity run among

citizens. As of 31.43% of residents get an income under 2500Mt (USD 59.5) per month,

and only 6% of residents get an income over 17000Mt (USD 404.8), and for this last

group of people should be noted that the majority hold higher education level and have

formal employment. And most of residents are not running business on their own.

47

Figure 4. 3: Monthly income of households

4.1.4 Purchase Period

We found that consumers prefer to buy products from day-to-day facilities near his

residence. Most of the customers, ie nearly 70% of those surveyed spend more than

100.00 MTn increasingly moving to sales points.

Figure 4. 4: shopping Period

48

4.1.5 Factors that influence the making purchasing decision by Audience

The most unsatisfactory points compared to sales points which respondents attended,

about 15%, were lacking in options (variety of such products) and those who

complained of high prices were around 21%, and were the biggest complaint in relation

to sales points.

Figure 4. 5: Critical points of purchase decision-making by Audience

Another issue addressed fairly by the residents was the fact that the biofuel last a very

short time, especially when you cook up foods such as beans, rice and xima, which by

the way are the daily basis of most citizens

4.1.6 Propensity to purchase (Behavior)

It seems that purchases by consumers were mainly influenced by the price and

convenience of the stove use and less for the quality itself.

The fact of ever having used a same type stove seemed to us that also had some

influence when choosing the stove to buy.

The point most appreciated by respondents in relation to sales points was its location,

which is justified by the fact that most of our respondents who attended these posts

because of them are located close to their homes or workplaces.

49

Table: 4. 2 Price of Stoves

iten Stove’s name Price (MZM) Price (USD)

1 NZILO 1.450,00 MTn 29

2 POCA 250,00 MTn – 600,00 MTn 12

3 NBAULA 250,00 MTn 5

4 Envirofit 1500 30

5 Beira 450 9

6 Zavala Barro 400 8

7 Zavala Metal 400 8

8 Chapa de Zinco 200 4

9 Sucata 250 5

10 Botija de gas 350 7

11 Wroket works 1750 35

4.2 Fuel evaluation quality

4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves

Table 4.3: Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of charcoal Stoves

Physical Composition of Biomass Elementar Composition Property Result (%) Property Result(%)

Mosture Content 6.35 C 35.78623

Volatile Matter 33.13 H 3.157819

ASH 41.06 N2 1.4374

Fix Carbon 19.46 O2 59.61856

Table 4.3 shows that for the elemental composition the oxygen this to around 60% and

the carbon below 40% and the Hydrogen and nitrogen are below 5%.

Based on (LUENGO and Emmerich) The charcoal properties are not fixed, they depend

on the type of wood and the carbonization process that is different woods also originate

from different charcoals.

To get coal with a good quality, water and ash levels should not be superiors to 8% and

3%, respectively, because the greater these levels are more easily coal spoils.

According Luengo and emmerich, to produce a good charcoal timber should have the

following characteristics in table below:

Table 4. 4: Wooden characteristic for good manufacturing charcoal

carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Ash

50,5% 6,2% 42,4% 0,4%

50

The percentage of carbon varies with the carbonization temperature, the higher the

temperature of carbonization, the higher its proportion.

Table 4. 5 of Carbon percentage in charcoal

Temperature obtaining charcoal (°C) Carbon percentage in charcoal (%)

250°C 65% de carbono



The chemical composition of a fine carbon, carbonized at a temperature of about 500 °

C.

Table 4.6: Chemical composition of a good coal

carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Mosture content

Ash

84,5% 2,5% 4,3% 7,5% 1,2%

The main parameters used to analyze the properties of charcoal are: wood moisture

content, ash content, volatiles, caloric power, power absorber and fixed carbon.

4.2.2 Charcoal Properties

Comparing literature data with the experimental results note that there are considerable

lags that lead us to conclude Under Luengo and Emmerich that the coal tested is not

good because the values are outside the acceptable levels.

50.5

6.2

42.4

0.4

35.786

3.158

59.619

41.060

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Carbon hydrogen oxygen Ash

Pe

rce

nti

le (

%)

LUENGO e EMMERICH Experiency

Figure 4. 6: : Main charcoal properties

51

4.3 Water Boiling Tests Results

A water-boiling test is usually used to determine efficiency. The detailed data of the test

results of each stove can be found in appendix. The following analysis comprehends the

summary of the water boiling test results.

The important aspect to study stove performance is to analyze the entry and exit areas

of air and the channel between the combustion chamber and the ash which allows

contact between entering air and coal burning.

In this experience 10 stoves which 5 are traditional and others 5 are improved charcoal

stoves. The results of these experiences as well as those of traditional stoves in this

case have been found to have been used as a gas stove boil water more quickly than

any of the 5 improved charcoal stoves. The Rocket Works is the second stove that boils

water fast with 1.4 minutes difference between the first (gas cylinder), and the last one

stoves was Beira with approximately 25 minutes time for boiling the water.

4.3.1 Four techniques to boil water faster:

1. Create a large enough fire in the combustion chamber.

2. Force the gases to flow against the bottom and sides of the pot in narrow channels.

3. Make sure the gases are as hot as possible.

4. Increase the speed of the hot gases flowing over the surface of the pot.

The stoves tested, underwent the same scenarios (hot and Could start), where there

was the time each takes to boil 2.5 liters of water.

The graph of the figure shows the two hot start matches and the cold of the tests. Beira,

Envirofit and Mbaula have quite pronounced deviations above 15 minutes differences in

two starts in other cookers differences ranges from 3 to about 8 minutes.

52

4.3.2 Time to boil

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Sucata ChapaZinco

Botijade Gás

Beira Barro RocketWorks

Envirofit Mbaula ZavalaMetal

ZavalaBarro

Tim

e t

o B

oil

Could start

HOT start

Figure 4.7: Time to boil for could and hot start

4.3.3 Time to boil ranking

01

2345

6789

10

0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

Sucata Chapade zinco

Botijade Gas



ZavalaBarro

Min

ute

s

Time to boil

Ranking to Boil

Figure 4. 8: Time to boil ranking

4.3.4 Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work done by heating and evaporation whater

to the energy consumed by burning wood.

53

Based on the above definition, we can say that higher thermal efficiency indicates a

greater ability to transfer heat produced to the pot. The data obtained from testing of

the samples revealed that, the average thermal efficiency of stoves 10 surveyed range

from 19.15% to 30.45%. The average data for the second starts in high power, have

considerable intervals, with 41% variations for hot start and 7% for a cold start.

However, the results of the average cold start test show that Envirofit stove has a higher

efficiency with 21.1% and the border with the low 14%.,for the hot start the Roquet

Works has the highest with 62.4% and Zinc plate (21.3%) lower.

In general, the thermal efficiencies of Warm starts are expected to be higher compared

with cold starts, but these considerations do not always occur.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

could Start

hot Start

Figure 4. 9: Thermal efficiency for could and hot start

0.005.00

10.0015.0020.0025.0030.0035.0040.0045.0050.00

Eficiência Térmica (%)

Figure 4. 10: Thermal efficiency

54

The fig. 4.10 shows the average of thermal efficiency over all phases (cold start, hot

start and simmer phases). As can be seen from the graph all improved stoves perfumed

at high efficiency than all 5 traditional stoves, with the envirofit is only necessary to 2

traditional stoves namely scrap and zinc plate witch least efficient (19.15%). The high

efficiency is Envirofit works with 46.6%.

4.3.5 Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency

Figure 4. 11: Specific fuel consumption and thermal efficiency

Analyzing the figure above, comparing the parameters (thermal efficiency and specific

fuel consumption) was observed that traditional stoves, excepting the clay stove,

consume over 50 (g / l), while the improved stoves only the rocket and Zavala Barro

consumes over this value.

55

SucataChapaZinco

Botijade Gás

Beira BarroRocketWorks

Envirofit

Mbaula

ZavalaMetal

ZavalaBarro

Could start 8 10 13 5.7 7.6 15.5 21.1 19 15 17

Hot Start 8.3 11.3 11.5 7 6.7 9.7 4 5.7 6.2 6.4

simmer 3.7 4.7 4.7 4 2.7 2.3 1 2.8 2.7 3

0

5

10

15

20

25

g/m

in

Figure 4. 12: Averege burning rates of different stoves type g/min

Burning rate is the measure of average grams of wood burned per minute during the

tests. This measure indicates how quickly the stove consumes fuel.

Figure 4.12 shows the average burning rates of different stoves tested in the field. The

data shows that the burning rates of the low power (simmer) tests were lesser than the

higher power tests either cold start or hot start. Largest variations were observed in the

ICS where during the hot start, the envirofit stove shows the lowest value comparative

whit the other stoves whit the same start. They were in the cold start where the stove

had the highest value in all stove tested.

4.4 Fire Power

According to generated data the figure 4.13 Show as that Gas stove has higher Fire

power (6.05 KW) as compared to others cooking stoves, Traditional and improved

charcoal stoves were tested. The envirofit stove, although improved, has a lower

potential.

In tests, the first three stoves with greater power are two that are traditional: Bottle of

gas and Zinc plate. This is the area of the air passage, which enables contact between

incoming air and charcoal combustion.

56

Fire power

Figure 4. 13: Fire power (Kwatt)

4.5 Firepower and turn-down ratio of Stoves

The figure 4.14 shows the average of 10 stoves high firepower for boiling and the low

firepower for simmering for each tested stove.

The ratio between the high and low firepower is called the turn-down ratio (TDR). It is a

measure of how well the stove can be "turned down" from high to low power.

Turndown ratio is an important parameter to gauge the performance of stoves. It tells

the ability of the stove to adjust to various fire powers. Turn-down ratio indicates how

much the user adjusted the heat between high power and low power phases. A higher

value indicates a higher ratio of high power to low power, and could signal a greater

range of power control in the stove. The observed turn-down ratio of the different types

of stoves does not show any significant dissimilarity.

The data generated shows that the scrap has the lowest turn-down ratio of 0.38 while

zinc sheet with 9.12 is comparatively on the higher side among the different stove types

tested. The majority of the stoves hover around the bottom of the table are 2.63 to 3.10

for ICS and the traditional are more disperses except border and clay are similar to.

57

Fire power and turn-down ratio of stoves

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

7.00

8.00

9.00

10.00

0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

Sucata ChapaZinco

Botijade Gás



ZavalaBarro

Fire

po

wer

(KW

)

Stoves type

Fire Power(kwatt)

Fire Power (kwatt)(SIMMER)

TURN-DOWN-RATIO

Figure 4. 14: Firepower and turn-down ratio of stoves

Table 4.7 Indicator performance

Su

ca

ta

Ch

ap

a

Zin

co

Bo

tija

de G

ás

Beir

a

Barr

o

Ro

cket

Wo

rks

En

viro

fit

Mb

au

la

Zava

la

Me

tal

Zava

la

Ba

rro

Time to Boil 2.5L (min) 20.50 15.00 12.50 25.00 16.00 13.90 21.55 23.85 23.85 19.35

Thermal Efficiency (%) 21.00 19.15 21.65 24.00 26.75 30.45 46.6 28.15 28.15 29.95

Specific Fuel Consumption (g/L) 61.20 63.30 60.80 61.00 48.85 62.90 38.20 48.65 48.65 62.40

Specific Energy Consumption (kJ/L) 1.85 1.90 1.80 1.85 1.50 1.89 1.15 1.46 1.46 1.89

Fire Power(kwatt) 4.00 5.40 6.05 3.15 3.65 5.58 2.13 2.50 2.50 3.95

Taxa de Queima (g/min) 8.15 10.65 12.25 6.35 7.15 11.25 4.50 5.02 5.02 7.95

58

Figure 4. 15: Indicator performance

In Figure 4.15, it was observed that a bottle of gas had less time to begin boiling the 2.5

liters of water (12.50 minutes), and on the hand, it was observed that from Beira it was

marked as last with a range of time 25.0 minutes . Regarding to the thermal

effectiveness, Envirofit was set apart with 46.6% as the best one, and the last was the

"Plate" of zinc stove in terms of thermal conservation.

It is important to note that, in the case of the stove, the stove is in the first position,

even though it took longer. to boil water over the gas stove stove.

On the other hand, the fact that the gas cylinder stove to be boiled first, due to greater

flow of primary and secondary aeration (in the areas of inlet and along its height) in this

double aerationIt acts as a gasifier. The stove Envirofit noted that higher thermal

efficiency because this oven is a full use of heat and aeration is made in the base of the

stove (bottom).

59

5.0-Conclusions

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the energy efficiency of stoves whose fuel is

charcoal and their respective access by the population in Maputo. Calorific properties of

charcoal, water boiling tests and the behavior of the population access to the charcoal

stove were performed with success to the satisfaction of the general and specific

objectives.

The main parameters used to analyze the properties of charcoal in the study were:

moisture content, ash content, volatiles, caloric power, power absorber and fixed

carbon.

Luengo and Emmerich (2007). In this paper, we present the results of the literature on

the use of the term ' ) [41], the properties of charcoal are not fixed, they depend on the

type of wood and the carbonization process.

The difference of woods originates also different quality of charcoals.

The sampled charcoal had moisture content (6.35%), very high ash content (41.06%),

and a heating value of 17.6 MJ / kg against the recommended values 6.7%, 26.2%,

21.5MJ / kg respectively.

In regards to efficiency, all 5 improved charcoal stoves offered improvement over all 5

traditional stove. There is a trade-off though, in time to boil as all stove took much

longer to bring water to boil the traditional stove. Overall in terms of both specific fuel

consumption and thermal efficiency the Envirofit and Zavala Metal and Mbaula

performed best. However, as described above in many instances, their performance

was statistically significantly different from the Scrap or the Zinc Plate.

During the water boiling tests, charcoal stoves demonstrated less time to boil 2.5 liters

of water is Gas cylinder, with 12.50 minutes, compared with Beira stove, 25 minutes.

It is important to note that the efficiency depends on several factors like:

Skill / training of the cook tending the stove

60

Fuel (diameter, moisture content, density, wood species, etc)

Stove design

Fit the pot to the stove

Type of food and type of cooking performed

In terms of product acquisitions, usually the populationuy products that around him,

often without taking account the durability of the product, however observing the

acquisition of price as a key factor in achieving. In this case the popular zinc plate and

scrap metal stove are the most popular for its price and availability in the market.

6. Recommendations

For similar studies is important to take into account all the factors characterizing for a

good stove. The analyzes are made of: pollution, hardness and safety of stoves, using

pre-established protocols for this purpose and which are further developed studies to

reneweble energy sector, in particular for improved stoves charcoal and wood stove, to

aprimoralos increasing its efficiency.

61

References

1 . WRI, 1998 Environmental change and human health

2. Smith, 1987; The world health report 1997 - conquering suffering, enriching

humanity

3. MINAG, 2006; National Reforestation Strategy.

4. Food and agriculture organization of the united nation (FAO). Restableciendo el

equilibrio: las mujeres y los recursos forestales.

5. Atassanov b. et al. 2012, Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis,Maputo.

6. Brouwer, Falcão, 2004. Wood fuel consumption in Maputo, Mozambique. Jornal

of Biomass and Bioenergy. Volume 27, Issue 3: 233-245.

7. MINAG, 2008 Relatório anual 2007. Maputo. 2008.

8. Hibanjene, S. H., and Kalumiana, O. S., 2003. Manual for Charcoal Production in

Earth Kilns in Zambia. Ministry of Energy and Water Development, Lusaka,

Zambia.

9. Afonso, C. M. I. (2012). Using the Anthropology as Coal Authority's Instrument

Plant in Mozambique.

10. Mourana, B., & Serra, C. M. (2010). 20 Steps for Forest Sustainability in

Mozambique..

11. DNTF. (2009). Strategy for Reforestation. Ministry of Agriculture.

12. Sanger S.H., Mohod A.G., Khandetode Y.P., Shrirame, H.Y. and Deshmukh, A.S

(2011) Study of Carbonization for Cashew Nut Shell, Volume 2, INDIA

13. INE, 1998 II General Census of Population and Housing 97

14. Vasconcelos, g. c. de et a 2007 Lignocellulosic biomass energy: a sustainable

perspective. II summary Brazilian Congress of Agroecology.

15. Grimoni, j.a.b. 2004; Galvão (Organizers) "Introduction to Energy Systems

Concepts for Clean Development". EDUSP

16. Kazay, h. f.; Legey, l. f. l. 2002. Alternative energy sources: what Brazil has

done?

17. Oliveira, j. m. c.; Lobo, p. c. 2002, Energy potential assessment of waste

amazonic biomass. In: Energy meeting in rural areas

18. Strategic Plan of the Energy Sector (2009 -2013) of the Energy Ministry.

19. Ministry of Energy. (2008) Annual Report. Maputo, Mozambique

62

20. Marzoli a. 200, National Forest Inventory. MINAG. Maputo.

21. Nhantumbo; Izidine, s. 2012, Preparing for REDD in dryland forests:

investigating the options and potential synergy for REDD payments in the

miombo eco-region: Mozambique country study.

22. McKendry p, 2002 Energy Production from Biomass.

23. Muller, m. d. 2005,Wood production to generate electricity in a clonal eucalyptus

plantation in Itamarandiba.

24. Ministry of Energy. (2013). Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable Use of

Biomass Energy Maputo, Mozambique

25. Juvillar, j. b. 1980, Wood Processing Technology of wood in Coal, In use of wood

for Energy Purposes, publishing foundation Technological heart of mine.

26. Tuzine, Mario S. 2005 - Use of characterization of charcoal and other energy

sources in Beira.

27. Fernandes, A. e Monjane, C. (1997) Biomass assessment. University Eduardo

Mondlane.

28. Cajadas, J. N. (1992) Survey of the current situation in the wood market,

charcoal and charcoal stoves in the city of Maputo. Energy Conservation Center.

Faculty of Engineering, University Eduardo Mondlane.

29. Brouwer, R., L. Brander and P.J.H. van Beukering (2007). “A convenient truth”:

air travel passengers’ willingness to pay to offset their CO2 emissions. Climatic

Change.

30. AFREA – Africa Renewable Access Program (2011) Wood-Based biomass

energy development for Sub-Saharan Africa – Issues and approaches. The

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank Group,

(Washington) USA.

31. WILLIAMS, A1993. An overview of the use of woodfuels in Mozambique and

some recommendations for a biomass energy strategy.

32. SAKET, M. 1994. Report on The Updating of the Exploratory National Forest

Inventory. FAO/UNDP, MOZ/92/13. DNFFB, Moçambique.

33. World Health Organization (WHO). 2004. “Indoor Air Pollution: Household

Energy and the Millennium Development Goals”. Geneva

63

34. World Health Organization (WHO). 2006. “Fuel for Life: Household Energy and

Health”. Geneva

35. Sandoval et al.,1993, Pulmonary arterial hypertension and cor pulmonale

associated with chronic domestic woodsmoke inhalation.

36. Larson et al., 1994 traditional biomass energy:improving its use and moving to

modern energy use.

37. ADENE- 2010, Efficiency Energy Guide, Agency for Energy. Lisbon

38. Energy Statistics: Definitions, Units of Measure and Conversion Factors

Department of International Economic and Social Affairs, 1987, New York.

39. Santos & Santos, 2008 The current energy challenges. implementation and use

of renewable energy.

40. Busse,M 2010 Does innovation fail to produce enough energy efficiency?

41. Luengo, Emmerich, 2007. Charcoal manufacturing.(Tropical Foundation for

Research and Technology). Agro industrial Technology Series, Volume 14

42. Hankins, Mark. 2009. A renewable energy plan for Mozambique.

43. Souza, Pa And Meira N. (2002) - Structural changes in conventionally forest

area explored in the Paraiba do Sul basin, Minas Gerais,

44. Belward (2011); Rapid changes in biomass burning aerosols by atmospheric

oxidation

45. Vilanculos (1998); Proceedings of the "Conference on Charcoal and

Communities in Africa

46. Pereira (1989) Eucalyptus globules. Effects of climate mineral fertilization and

irrigation in biomass for energy and industry.

64

Annexes

Annex 1 - Charcoal properties of nine common species in Mozambique

The charcoal Properties

Species

Moisture

Content

(%)

Ash

Content

(%)

Content

Of

Volatile

(%)

Fixed

Carbon

(%)

Higher

Calorific

Power

(MJ/Kg)

Afzelia quanzensis 3.65 9.26 19.80 70.94 26.40

Millettia Stuhimannii 3.63 2.23 18.50 79.94 29.00

Pterocarpus angolensis 3.20 1.58 20.30 78.12 30.80

Daldergia melanoxylon 4.80 3.60 19.50 76.90 29.00

Swartzia madagascariensis 3.70 1.05 20.90 78.05 30.20

Amlygonocarpus andogensis 4.24 1.28 19.50 79.22 30.40

Khaya nyasica 4.57 3.40 25.50 71.10 28.90

Combretum imberbe 3.73 16.19 25.50 58.31 21.90

Guibourtia conjugata 4.49 3.10 18.40 78.50 29.00

Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012

65

Annex 2 - Occurrence of diseases among housewives and the kitchen

environment (open or closed)

Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012

% of respondentes Maputo/Matola Beira Nampula 3-Cities

average

Cook in open air 24% 10% 1% 12%

% of the above who signal a respiratory

desesase in the household

17% 33% 50% 22%

Cook on the balcony 7% 21% 33% 20%



18% 42% 20% 27%

Cook in separated closed kitchen 21% 11% 21% 18%



21% 16% 35% 26%

Cook in a kicthen inside house 41% 59% 45% 48%



18% 22% 23% 21%

Cook in another configuration 7% - - 2%



26% - - 9%

TOTAL 100% 100% 100% 100%



19% 26% 25% 23%

66

Annex 3 – Main types of stoves used in Maputo / Matola, Beira and Nampula

Source: ATANASSOV et al, (2012) “Mozambique Urban Biomass Energy Anayisis 2012”

67

Annex 4: Interview Guide

Questions Answers

1. What is the usualy post sale of improved stoves that you attend?

Opened ___________________________

2. why do you attend this post sale? (Mark only one alternative)

A. ( ) It is near Home B. ( ) is next job C. ( ) Product Quality D. ( ) Price E. ( ) Others ______________________

3. What kind of products usually do you buy? (Select up to 3 options)

A. ( ) Cookers B. ( ) Biofuel C. ( ) stove accessories D. ( ) Others _______________________

4. How often do you go to the point of sale? (Mark only one alternative)

A. ( ) 2 times per day B. ( ) 1 time per day C. ( ) 2 to 3 times per week D. ( ) More than three times a week E. ( ) Occasionally

5. How much do you spend usually on point of sale? (Mark only one alternative)

A. ( ) Up 50.00 MTn B. ( ) from 50.00 to 100.00 MTn C. ( ) Above 100.00 MTn

6. Who usually goes to the post? (Mark only one alternative)

A. ( ) Yourself B. ( ) Employed C. ( ) Family

7. Which is the periods that purchases are made? (Tick as many options as needed)

A. ( ) Morning B. ( ) Afternoon C. ( ) Evening

8. What are the most unsatisfactory points from the point of sale that usually attend? (Select up to 3 options)

A. ( ) Product Quality B. ( ) variety of products C. ( ) Price D. ( ) Operating days E. ( ) Service F. ( ) Outros________________________

9. which are the most favorable points? (Select up to 3 options)

A. ( ) location B. ( ) Product Quality C. ( ) Variety of products D. ( ) Price E. ( ) Service F. ( ) Outros________________________

10. Age group:

A. ( ) to 25 years B. ( ) From 25 to 35 years C. ( ) from 36 to 45 D. ( ) Above 45 years

11. Marital status:

A. ( ) to 25 years B. ( ) From 25 to 35 years C. ( ) from 36 to 45 D. ( ) Above 45 years

12. Income:

A. ( ) Up to 2500 MTn B. ( ) From 2500-4500 MTn C. ( ) In 4600-10000 MTn D. ( ) From 10,100 to 17,000 MTn E. ( ) Over 17,000 MTn

13. Profession: Opened____________________________

14. Mr/Miss: A. ( ) works in the region B. ( ) Resides in region C. ( ) Both

Note: Report the respondent only answers the questions: 10, 11, 12 and 14. 1USD=45 MT

68

Annex 5 – Sheet for general information; Version 4.2

69

Annex 6 – Data entry sheet

Documents

Studies of energy efficiency and market access of domestic