Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar_Noam Chomsky

8/7/2019 Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar_Noam Chomsky

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hb|g~end` dqt bl ag`gqdbo do g~exw~g q~eoxlb~meq dbox e~dxg ex qjdx {~bn`gm dx

{w~xwga/ Lb~ xbmg adxhwxxdbo xgg Hjbmxft *54<7 {{/ 517l/ 594l/$/ ^bxx

*54<9$6 eoa Hjbmxft *54<:$ / ^bxx *54<9$ xwiigxqx *Hje{qg~ 8 o/ 54$ qjeqdagoqdqt bl nexg xq~whqw~gx dx ~guwd~ga lb~ g~exw~g/

Qjg xhb{g bl qjg gzdxqdoi xwn~giw e~dqdgx D ng dg|g jex nggo hboxdag~en t

gzeiig~eqga do yb~f qjeq qefgx qjg q~eoxlb~~oeqdboe dxq {bxdqdbo/ Lb~ gzem{ g

@efbll *54<7$ id|gx yjeq e~g {~bnen t qjg xq~boigxq hexgx lb~ qjdx {bxdqdbo nwq

g|go bl qjgxg |g~t lgy e~g ehhg{qen g bo qjg xgmeoqdh i~bwoax qjeq jg {~b{bxgx

ex cwxq dltdoi qjgm/ Qjwx Cbjo)x aggax abgx obq je|g qjg xemg mgeodoi ex

qjdoix yjdhjCbjo ada *{/ D\->$ nwq ~eqjg~led~ t xdiodldheoq qjdoix yjdhj Cbjo ada

*yg ybwà obq xet qjeq bog bl Cbjo)x ld~xq aggax qjdx mb~odoi yex qb n~wxj

jdx qggqj$/ Yg heoobq ag~ d|g Cbjo)x ng dglx l~bm yjeq Cbjo ng dg|gx *{/ \->8$

nghewxg bl xwhj xgoqgohgx ex Cbjo)x ng dglx e~g obq mwqwe` t hboxdxqgoq, / // e~g

owmg~bwx, gqh/ b~ Cbjo)x ng dglx, xbmg bl yjdhj e~g emesdoi, / // 6 ob~ heo yg

ag~d|g dq l ~bm qjg qjdoix qjeq Cbjo ng dg|gx, xdohg qjg xgmeoqdh doqg~{~gqeqdbo

yd ` qjgo ng dohb~~ghq do xwhj gz{~gxxdbox ex D ~gx{ghq Cbjo)x ng dglx b~ Cbjo)x

ng dglx e~g doqgoxg/ Dq dx adll dh w q qb xgg jby bog heo q~eoxlb~meqdboe t ~ g eqg

D ~gea e ` b l Cbjo)x y~dqdoix qb D ~gea e`` bl yjeq Cbjo y~bqg, do |dgy bl xwhj

gz{~gxxdbox ex D ~gea e` bl Cbjo)x h~dqdhe` y~dqdoix, gqh/ Eoa dl bog dxqb {bxqw eqg

eo enxq~ehq |g~n {bgqdsg woag~`tdoi Cbjo)x {bgmx, qjgo yjeq enbwq Cbjo)x nbbf

~g|dgyx, ade biwgx, xboogqx, `dmg~dhfx, E`gzeoa~dogx, gqh/ 2 Do igog~ e qjg~g e~g

lgy hexgx yjg~g {~bn`gmx bl qjdx xb~q ab obq e~dxg/ Hb~~gx{boadoi`t qjg

q~eoxlb~meqdboe dxq {bxdqdbo dx dm{bxxdn`g qb xw{{b~q eoa adlldhw`q g|go qb

medoqedo bo xgmeoqdh i~bwoax/

^GME^FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO > 5

agqg~mdog~x *Cbjo)x qj~gg {~bblx bl qjg qjgb~gm, xg|g~e` bl Cbjo)x

{~bblx bl qjg qjgb~gm, gqh/$/ Eoa ag~d|ga obmdoe x do lehq heo

e{{ge~ l~gg`t do qjg lw`` ~eoig bl obwo {j~exg xq~whqw~gx/ Lb~

gzem{`g qjg xgoqgohg Cbjo ie|g Nd ` ea|dhg dx cwxq `dfg eot bqjg~

doad~ghq bncghq xq~whqw~g do qjeq dq jex qjg abwn g {exxd|g *ea|dhg

yexid|go *qb$ Nd , Nd ` yexid|go ea|dhg$/ Dq dx adlldhw q qb xgg jby

e q~eoxlb~meqdboe` e{{~behj qb ag~d|ga obmdoe x heo ehhbwoq lb~qjg lehq qjeq qjg xq~whqw~gx do yjdhj qjgt e{{ge~ ex yg`` ex qjgd~

doqg~oe` xq~whqw~g eoa blqgo mb~{jb bidhe {~b{g~qdgx e~g qjbxg

bl b~adoe~t obwo {j~exgx/ Obog bl qjgxg {~bn`gmx e~dxgx ex obqga

ge~ dg~ do qjg hexg bl ig~woad|g obmdoe`x/

Qjgxg {~b{g~qdgx bl ag~d|ga obmdoe x e~g uwdqg hboxdxqgoq ydqj e

`gzdhe`dxq e{{~behj eoa do {e~q heo g|go ng gz{ edoga l~bm qjdx

{bdoq bl |dgy/ Nglb~g ibdoi doqb qjdx meqqg~ `gq wx g enb~eqg qjg

`gzdhe dxq {bxdqdbo do x dijq`t i~geqg~ agqed /

D obqga ge~ dg~ qjeq qjg `gzdhe dxq {bxdqdbo yex obq lb~mw en g

ydqjdo qjg l~emgyb~f bl xtoqehqdh qjgb~t e|edèn g eq qjg qdmg bl@ggx)x yb~f bo obmdoe`dseqdbox/ Qjg {~bn`gm yex qjeq qjg bn|dbwx

igog~e`dseqdbox hbohg~odoi qjg adxq~dnwqdboe` {~b{g~qdgx bl qjg nexg

eoa ag~d|ga lb~mx yg~g gz{~gxxdn g do qjeq l~emgyb~f bo t do

qg~mx bl i~emmeqdhe q~eoxlb~meqdbox/ Qjg~g yex ob bqjg~ yet qb

gz{~gxx qjg lehq qjeq qjg hboqgzqx do yjdhj ~glwxg e{{ge~x ex e |g~n

eoa ~glwxe` ex e obwo e~g h bxg`t ~gèqga/ Jbyg|g~ yjgo qjg `gzdhbo

dx xg{e~eqga l~bm qjg heqgib~de` hbm{bogoq bl qjg nexg eoa dqx

goq~dgx e~g eoe tsga do qg~mx bl hboqgzqwe` lgeqw~gx qjdx adlldhw qt

adxe{{ge~x/ Yg heo goqg~ ~glwxg do qjg `gzdhbo ex eo Dqgm ydqj

hg~qedo ldzga xg ghqdboe` eoa xq~dhq xwnheqgib~dseqdbo lgeqw~gx yjdhj

dx l~gg ydqj ~gx{ghq qb qjg heqgib~d e lgeqw~gx Vobwo] eoa V|g~n]/

Led~ t dadbxtoh~eqdh mb~{jb bidhe ~w gx yd` agqg~mdog qjg {jbob-

`bidhe lb~m bl ~glwxg, agxq~bt, gqh/ yjgo qjgxg dqgmx e{{ge~ do qjg

obwo {bxdqdbo/ Qjg lehq qjeq ~glwxg qefgx e obwo {j~exg hbm{`gmgoqb~ e ~gawhga xgoqgoqde` hbm{`gmgoq eoa agxq~bt bo`t e obwo

{j~exg hbm{ gmgoq gdqjg~ ex e obwo b~ ex e |g~n dx gz{~gxxga nt

qjg lgeqw~g xq~whqw~g bl qjg .ogwq~e . `gzdhe` goq~t ex e~g xg`ghqdboe`

{~b{g~qdgx/ Agqed x exdag dq dx h ge~ qjeq xtoqehqdh lgeqw~gx {~b|dag

e i~geq age` bl l gzdnd dqt lb~ qjg gz{~gxxdbo bl igog~e dseqdbox



>> ^GME^FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO

~gie~adoi adxq~dnwqdboe` xdmd e~dqdgx/ Jgohg yjeq yex e aghdxd|g

bncghqdbo qb qjg `gzdhe dxq {bxdqdbo ob `boig~ jex eot lb~hg/

/ @gq wx{~b{bxg qjgo ex e qgoqeqd|g jt{bqjgxdx qjeq e i~geq meot

Dqgmx e{{ge~ do qjg `gzdhbo ydqj ldzga xg ghqdboe eoa xq~dhq xwn-

heqgib~dseqdbo lgeqw~gx nwq ydqj e hjbdhg ex qb qjg lgeqw~gx

exxbhdeqga ydqj qjg `gzdhe heqgib~dgx obwo |g~n eacghqd|g/ Qjg

`gzdhe` goq~t met x{ghdlt qjeq xgmeoqdh lgeqw~gx e~g do {e~q

ag{goagoq bo qjg hjbdhg bl bog b~ eobqjg~ bl qjgxg heqgib~de`

lgeqw~gx/ Qjdx dx bl hbw~xg qjg qt{dhe` xdqweqdbo ydqjdo qjg `gzdhbo)

do igog~e `gzdhe goq~dgx do|b |g hg~qedo Nbb`geo hboadqdbox bo

lgeqw~gx gz{~gxxdoi hboadqdboe` ag{goagohdgx bl |e~dbwx xb~qx/.%

Doxble~ ex qjg~g e~g ~giwè~dqdgx *hl/Obqg 5;$qjgxg heo ng gz{~gxxga

nt ~gawoaeoht ~w gx do qjg `gzdhbo/

Hboxdag~ oby qjg {~bn`gm bl {~bawhqd|dqt obqga enb|g x{ghdld-

he``t qjg lehq qjeq yg heoobq lb~m qjg ag~d|ga obmdoe`x *:$

hb~~gx{boadoi qb qjg xgoqgohgx *<$ e qjbwij qjg xq~whqw~gx woag~-

`tdoi *<$ heo ng q~eoxlb~mga qb qjg ig~woad|g obmdoe`x *9$ eoayg heo lb~m qjg ag~d|ga obmdoe`x *4$ exxbhdeqga ydqj qjg ig~woad|g

obmdoe x *5;$/

Hboxdag~ ld~xq qjg gzem{ gx Cbjo dx gext qb {`gexg, Cbjo dx geig~ qb

{`gexg, bo`t qjg xghboa bl yjdhj dx exxbhdeqga ydqj e ag~d|ga

obmdoe`/ Qjdx hboxguwgohg lb``byx dmmgadeqg`t l~bm qjg `gzdhe`dxq

jt{bqjgxdx cwxq lb~mw eqga yjgo yg qefg doqb ehhbwoq hg~qedo

{~b{g~qdgx bl qjg dqgmx geig~ eoa gext/ Qjwx geig~ mwxq ng doq~b-

awhga doqb qjg `gzdhbo ydqj e xq~dhq xwnheqgib~dseqdbo lgeqw~g

doadheqdoi qjeq dq heo qefg e xgoqgoqde` hbm{ gmgoq ex do Cbjo dx

55 Dq) / /DX dmmeqg~d e lb~ {~gxgoq {w~{bxgx yjgqjg~ e `gzdh e goq~t dx ~gie~aga exe b`geo lwohqdb bl x{ghd ld ga lgeqw~gx b~ dx qb ng ~g{èhga nt e xgq bl `gzdhe`

goq~dgx gehj bl yjdhj hboxdxqx bl e xgq bl x{ghdldga lgeqw~gx/ Dqdx woh ge~ yjgqjg~

qjg e{{~behjgx b {~bn`gmx bl ~eoig bl mgeodoi eoa ~eoig bl lwohqdbo e~g

qg~mdob bidhe` |e~deoqx b~ e~g gm{d~dhe t adxqdoiwdxjen g/ Xbmg bl qjg meqqg~x

qbwhjga bo do Obqg 5; met ng ~g g|eoq/ Hboxdag~ lb~ gzem{ g qjg emndiwdqt

bl nbbf/ eoa {~bbl mgoqdboga do Obqg 9/ Hg~qedo hboadqdbox bo ~ghb|g~end dqt

bl a g gq dbo ybwà `gea qb qjg hboh wx dbo qjeq e x do i g `gzdh e goq~t dx do|b |ga

yjgo qyb xgoxgx bl qjg yb~a heo ng hbmndoga do e{{bxdqdbo/ Woag~ qjdx

exxwm{qdbo qjg hjbdhg ngqyggo qjg e qg~oeqd|gx cwx q mgoqdboga do qjg hexg bl

nbbf eoa {~bbl ybw a ng agqg~mdoga nt qjg xqeqwx bl xwhj xgoqgohgx ex qjdx nbbfyjdhj ygdijxld|g {bwoax, yex y~dqqgo do e jw~~t eoa Cbjo)x {~bbl bl qjg qjgb~gm)

yjdhj qbbf jdm e `boi q dmg, dx ~g{~bawhga do qjg ogy qgzq/ )

^GME^FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO >8

geig~ *lb~ wx$ qb {`gexg/ Do qjg xdm{ gxq hexg qjgo dq lb` byx qjeq

do qjg obwo {bxdqdbo geig~ yd`` e{{ge~ do qjg hboqgzqx Cbjo)x

geig~ogxx *lb~ wx$ qb {`gexg, gqh/ ydqj ob lw~qjg~ hbmmgoq

oghgxxe~t/ Nwq gext *b~ adlldhw`q$ abgx obq e{{ge~ do qjg `gzdhbo

ydqj xwhj e lgeqw~g/ Qjg~g dx ob xq~whqw~g bl qjg lb~m /// gext

*adlldhw`q$ X igog~eqga nt nexg ~w`gx/ êqjg~ gext *adlldhw q$

e{{ge~x do nexg {j~exg-me~fg~x ex eo eacghqd|g {~gadheqga bl{~b{bxdqdbox ex xwncghq ¦*lb~ wx$ qb {`gexg Cbjo dx gext, gqh/$6 lb~mx

xwhj ex dq dx gext *lb~ wx$ qb {`gexg Cbjo e~g ag~d|ga nt gzq~e-

{bxdqdbo/[ Hboxguwgoq t gext *b~ adlldhw`q$ heoobq ng doq~bawhga

nt `gzdhe doxg~qdbo doqb qjg obwo {bxdqdbo ydqj xgoqgoqde` hbm{ g-

mgoqx eoa yg heoobq ag~d|g xwhj lb~mx ex *:e$ # Cbjo)x gexdogxx

*adlldhw`qt$ qb {`gexg/ Ob xwhj ~gxq~dhqdbo jbàx lb~ ig~woad|g

obmdoe dseqdbo yjdhj ngdoi e q~eoxlb~meqdbo dx e{{ dhen g qb

q~eoxlb~mx ex yg`` ex qb nexg {j~exg-me~fg~x/

Hboxdag~ ogzq qjg gzem{ gx # Cbjo)x hg~qedoqt qb ydo qjg {~dsg

*= *Xnc$ Cbjo)x hg~qedoqt qjeq Nd`` yd`` ydo qjg {~dsg *= *4n¶/

Eiedo qjg `gzdhe dxq jt{bqjgxdx {~b|dagx eo gz{ eoeqdbo lb~ qjdx

adxqdohqdbo ngqyggo qjg qyb xgoxgx bl hg~qedo/ Qjg xgoqgohg Cbjo dx

hg~qedo qb ydo qjg {~dsg dx ag~d|ga nt gzq~e{bxdqdbo eoa {~bobwo

~g{èhgmgoq l~bm e agg{ xq~whqw~g do yjdhj hg~qedo dx {~gadheqga

bl qjg {~b{bxdqdbo Cbjo - qb ydo qjg {~dsg, ex dx h`ge~ l~bm qjg

mgeodoi/[ Do qjdx xgoxg hg~qedo abgx obq {g~mdq e {~b{bxdqdboe

hbm{`gmgoq6 dq qjg~glb~g lb` byx l~bm qjg `gzdhe dxq jt{bqjgxdx qjeq

qjg~g heoobq ng e ag~d|ga obmdoe hg~qedoqt qb ydo qjg {~dsg, do qjdx

xgoxg/ Nwq Cbjo dx hg~qedo qjeq Nd`` yd`` ydo qjg {~dsg ag~d|gx l~bm

Cbjo dx hg~qedo VxNd D yd ` ydo qjg {~dsg]x/ Do qjg xgoxg bl hg~qedo do

yjdhj dq dx {~gadheqga bl e {g~xbo e {~b{bxdqdboe hbm{ gmgoq heong eacbdoga do qjg nexg/ Hboxguwgoq t qjg `gzdhe dxq jt{bqjgxdx

{g~mdqx qjg exxbhdeqga ag~d|ga obmdoe` Cbjo)x hg~qedoqt qjeq Nd``

yd`` ydo qjg {~dsg, igog~eqga nt `gzdhe` )doxg~qdbo bl hg~qedo do qjg

obwo {bxdqdbo nglb~g e xgoqgoqde` hbm{`gmgoq/

Hboxdag~ oby gzem{`gx *<h$ qj~bwij *`Bh$/ Dl ag~d|ga obmdoe`x

e~g lb~mga nt q~eoxlb~meqdbo qjg~g dx ob ~gexbo yjt # Cbjo)x

5> Lb~ adxhwxxdbo xgg ^bxgonewm *54<9$ eoa Fd{e~xft eoa Fd{e~xft *54<9$/

5: Xgg ~glg~gohgx bl Obqg 5>/



>1 ^GME^FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO

emwxgmgoq bl qjg hjdà~go ydqj jdx xqb~dgx *= *Ng$ xjbwà obq ng

lb~mga l~bm qjg {~b{bxdqdbo qjeq woag~`dgx qjg ig~woad|g obmdoe`

Cbjo)x emwxdoi qjg hjdà~go ydqj jdx xqb~dgx,cwxq ex Cbjo)x emwxgmgoq

eq qjg hjdà~go)x eoqdhx *= *4h¶ ybwà bo qjgxg i~bwoax ng ag~d|ga

l~bm qjg {~b{bxdqdbo qjeq woag~`dgx qjg ig~woad|g obmdoe` Cbjo)x

ngdoi emwxga eq qjg hjdà~go)x eoqdhx *= *qBh¶/ Qjg adxh~g{eoht

ybwà ng ehhbwoqga lb~ dl yg yg~g qb eab{q qjg `gzdhe `dxq {bxdqdbo

eoa lw~qjg~mb~g qb {bxqwèqg qjeq xwhj xgoqgohgx ex Cbjo emwxga

qjg hjd a~go ydqj jdx xqb~dgx e~g qjgmxg`|gx ag~d|ga l~bm eo woag~-

`tdoi xq~whqw~g bl e adllg~goq xb~q/ Qjg èqqg~ exxwm{qdbo dx obq

wo~gexboen`g/ Qjwx dq dx yg``-fobyo qjeq emboi qjg {~b{g~qdgx bl

|g~nx bl qjg heqgib~t bl emwxg, doqg~gxq, gqh/ dx qjg lehq qjeq qjg~g

e~g {ed~ga xgoqgohgx xwhj ex *55$3

*D5$ e/ Jg yex emwxga eq qjg xqb~dgx/

n/ Qjg xqb~dgx emwxga jdm/

Qjg lehqx ~gie~adoi ag~d|ga obmdoe`x xwiigxq qjeq *DD n$ dx ag~d|gal~bm e xq~whqw~g qjeq do|b`|gx *`è$6 qjdx ybwà ehhbwoq lb~ qjg

xdmd e~d qdgx do xgmeoqdh doqg~{~gqeq dbo eoa adxq~ dnwqdboe` {~b{g~q dgx

bl *`è$ eoa *`Dn$ eoa ybwà e`xb bo qjg `gzdhe`dxq jt{bqjgxdx

ehhbwoq lb~ qjg bhhw~~gohg eoa obobhhw~~gohg bl ag~d|ga obm-

doe`x/51 E`qjbwij doag{goagoq mbqd|eqdbo lb~ qjg exxwm{qdbo qjeq

*`è$ woag~`dgx *``n$ dx ygef qjg~g e{{ge~x qb ng ob hbwoqg~-

g|dagohg xwiigxqdoi qjeq *`Dn$ woag~`dgx *`è$/ Bog mdijq lb~

gzem{`g ag~d|g *`Dn$ uwdqg {èwxdn`t l~bm e .hewxeqd|g. hboxq~wh-

qdbo ydqj ~bwij`t qjg lb~m bl *5>$3

*5>$ Qjg xqb~dgx V& hewxg] Vxjg yex emwxga eq qjg xqb~dgxc

D ~gqw~o qb xwhj xq~whqw~gx n~dgl`t ng`by/ Qjg~g dx xbmg g|dagohg do

xw{{b~q bl qjg exxwm{qdbo qjeq e hewxeqd|g hboxq~whqdbo gzdxqx do

Goi`dxj *hl/ Hjbmxft *54<7 {/ 5:;$6 @efbll *54<7 Xghqdbo 4¶57

51 )Qjdx xb wqdbo dx {~b{bxga nt @efbll *54<7 {/ E-57l/$ nwq bo qjg q~eoxlb~-

meqdboe dx q i~bwoax qjeq jg eab{qx qjg~g dxob mbqd|eqdbo lb~ d q/

57 Qjg~g e~g meot {~bn`gmx qb ng gz{`b~ga jg~g/ Obq dhg lb~ gzem{`g qjeq

Cbjo do qg~ gxq ga mg do jdx dagex dx |g~t adllg~goq l~bm Cbjo doqg~gxqga mg ydqj jdx

dagex *nbqj qt{gx bl {~g{bxdqdboe {j~exgx bhhw~ do Cbjo doqg~gx qga mg do {b dq dhx

ydqj jdx ob|g e{{~behj$6 bo`t qjg èqqg~ dx xdmdè~ do mgeodoi qb Cbjo) x dagex

^GME^F BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO > 7

eoa qjg b{g~eqdbo qjeq g~exgx qjg ~g{geqga obwo {j~exg do qjg gm-

ngaaga {~b{bxdqdbo bl *5>$ dx bl e xb~q lbwoa g xgyjg~g lb~ gzem{ g

do qjg ag~d|eqdbo bl xwhj xgoqgohgx ex Cbjo wxga qjg qen`g qb y~dqg

bo, Cbjo wxga qjg {go qb y~dqg *ydqj$, Cbjo wxga qjg ye`` qb `geo qjg

qen g eiedoxq, gqh/ l~bm Cbjo wxga qjg qen`g VxCbjo y~bqg bo qjg

qen`g]x, eoa xb bo/

Bqjg~ gzem{ gx lb~ yjdhj e hewxeqd|g eoe txdx jex nggo xwiigxqga

le`` doqb qjg xemg {eqqg~o ydqj ~gx{ghq qb lb~meqdbo bl ag~d|ga

obmdoe`x/ Hboxdag~ lb~ gzem{`g qjg q~eoxdqd|g wxg bl i~by ex do

Cbjo i~byx qbmeqbgx, yjdhj mdijq {èwxdn`t ng ag~d|ga l~bm e

xq~whqw~g xwhj ex *5>$ ydqj qjg xqb~dgx ~g{ ehga nt Cbjo do qjg

xwncghq {bxdqdbo eoa qjg gmngaaga {~b{bxdqdbo ngdoi qjg doq~eo-

xdqd|g qbmeqbgx i~by/ Nwq hboxdag~ qjg obmdoe` {j~exg qjg i~byqj

bl qbmeqbgx/ Qjdx dx woemndiwbwx6 dq jex qjg doqg~{~gqeqdbo bl

qbmeqbgx i~by nwq obq bl Cbjo i~byx qbmeqbgx/ Dl qjg èqqg~ dx qefgo

ex e nexg lb~m qjg~g xjbwà ng eo exxbhdeqga ag~d|ga obmdoe` qjg

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obmdoe dseqdbo/ Qjdx ~guwd~gx ag|dhgx bl i~geq agxh~d{qd|g {byg~

yjdhj xjbwà hb~~gx{boadoi`tng

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>; Lb~ gzem{`g xwhj e ag|dhg hbwà ng wxga qb gxqe n dxj xet qjeq ed ` |g ~nx

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do Goièoa *d /g/ • Cbjo dx |dxdq Goi eoa$, yjg~g |dxdq dx e {~g{bxdqdbo bl qjg

heqgib~t bl do qjeq bn dieqb~ d t q~eoxlb~mx qb e |g~n dohb~{b~eqdoi qjg hb{w e/

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xwhj enxw~adqdgx d q dx oghgxxe~t qb gzh wag qjg ag|dhgx qjeq {g~mdq qjgm qb ng

lb~mwèqga b~ qb exx dio e jdij hbxq qb qjg wxg bl xwhj ag|dhgx/




{bxxdnd dqt/ [g~je{x qjg xq~boigxq hexg lb~ xwhj eo e{{~behj dx qjg

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uwdqg { ewxdn t qjeq xwhj {j~exgx ex qjg Byog~ bl qjg jbwxg ag~d|g

l~bm woag~`tdoi xq~whqw~gx xwhj ex qjg bog yjb byox qjg jbwxg6

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dx qjg emndiwdqt bl xwhj gz{~gxxdbox ex ibba agoqdxq *agoqdxq yjb dx

e ibba meo, meo yjb dx ibba ex e agoqdxq$/ Nwq qjdx e~iwmgoq dx e xb

uwdqg ygef/ Qjg emndiwdqt ngdoi hje~ehqg~dxqdh bl e` gz{~gxxdbox

qjeq ~glg~ qb jwmeox nt |d~qwg bl xbmg lwohqdbo qjeq qjgt lw`ld``heo ng jeoa ga nt e igog~e {~dohd{ g bl xgmeoqdh doqg~{~gqeqdbo6

lw~qjg~mb~g dq dx je~a`t {èwxdn`g qjeq qjg emndiwdqt bl ibba

exxdxqeoq |dhg-hjeohg` b~ xjbw a ng gz{ edoga do qjdx yet/

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Cbjo)x jbwxg do qjg ybbax mgeodoi qjg jbwxg bl Cbjo)x yjdhj dx do qjg

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ybbax *bo qjg qen`g, /// $/ Dl Cbjo eoa D gehj je|g e jbwxg do qjg

ybbax D heo ~glg~ qb jdx ydqj hboq~exqd|g xq~gxx bo Cbjo)x, ex

CBJO)X jbwxg do qjg ybbax6 dl yg gehj je|g e nbbf bo qjg qen`g,

D heoobq eoe bibwx`t ~glg~ qb jdx ex CBJO)X nbbf bo qjg qen`g/

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do qjg ybbax dx Cbjo)x - jbwxg do qjg ybbax, ydqj jbwxg do qjg ybbax

ngdoi xbmg xb~q bl obmdoe gz{~gxxdbo/ Bo qjg bqjg~ jeoa do e q~wg

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ob medo hboxqdqwgoq n~gef nglb~g nbbf/

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^GME FX BO OBMDOE@`SEQDBO 8 8

*>>~$ eoa *>>x$/ Qjwx yg je|g xwhj xgoqgohgx ex *>8$ ydqj qjg

exxbhdeqga obwo {j~exgx bl *>1$3

*>8$ e/ Qjg uwgxqdbo dx yjgqjg~ Cbjo xjbwà `ge|g/

n/ Qjg {~bx{ghqx e~g lb~ {gehg/

h/ Qjg {èo dx lb~ Cbjo qb `ge|g/

a/ Qjg gzhwxg yex qjeq Cbjo jea `glq/

*>1$ e/ qjg uwgxqdbo yjgqjg~ Cbjo xjbwà `ge|g

n/ qjg {~bx{ghqx lb~ {gehg

h/ qjg {èo lb~ Cbjo qb `ge|g

a/ qjg gzhwxg qjeq Cbjo jea `glq

Agx{dqg qjg wooeqw~e ogxx bl ~g eqd|g h ewxgx lb~mga do qjg wxwe`

yet ydqj *>8$ ex qjg gmngaaga {~b{bxdqdbo bog mdijq e~iwg qjeq

qjgxg e~g qjg xbw~hgx bl *>1$ ex ~gawhga ~g eqd|gx/ E qg~oeqd|g t

bog mdijq e~iwg qjeq qjg xgoqgohgx bl *>8$ e~g ag~d|ga l~bm xq~wh-

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a/ # Qjg gzhwxgqjeq Cbjo jea `glq yex qjeq Nd `xjbw a xqet/

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xjbwà ng ~w`ga bwq/ Qjdx ybwà ng gz{èdoga jbyg|g~ dl yg

exxwmga qjeq xwhj xgoqgohgx ex *>8$ e~g ag~d|ga l~bm xq~whqw~gx

dohb~{b~eqdoi qjg nexg obwo {j~exgx *>1$6 lb~ gzem{`g dq mdijq ng{~b{bxga qjeq *>8$ ag~d|gx l~bm *><$ nt ~g{èhgmgoq bl qjg wo-

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81 ^GME^FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQ`BO

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yjeq Cbjo ada yex jw~q jdmxg`l, yjdhj mdijq ng ag~d|ga l~bm

VO[ dq qjeq Cbjo jw~q Cbjo]O[ ng V[~ga E][~ga qj~bwij e xg~dgx bl

b{g~eqdbox qb yjdhj yg ~gqw~o ng`by/ Do eot g|goq qjg~g dx eo

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Qjg xq~whqw~gx *>>$ eoa bqjg~x `dfg qjgm ~edxg meot {~bn`gmx6

qjgt ab jbyg|g~ xwiigxq uwdqg xq~boi t qjeq qjg~g e~g nexg obwo

{j~exgx bl qjg lb~m agqg~mdog~-obwo-hbm{ gmgoq uwdqg e{e~q l~bm

obmdoe dseqdbox/ Do lehq qjg ~eoig bl obwo hbm{ gmgoqx xggmx

e`mbxq ex i~geq ex qjg ~eoig bl |g~n hbm{ gmgoqx eoa qjg qyb xgqx

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8: ^GME FX BO OBMDOE@DSEQDBO

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bl qjg qjgb~gm do xg|g~e` bl Cbjo)x {~bblx bl qjg qjgb~gm, eoa qjg

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nt e xwdqen g igog~e dseqdbo bl qjg doqg~{~gqeqdbo bl xg ghqdboe

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eoa ex ag~d|ga obwox do ag~d|ga obmdoe x yd`` ng hbmmbo qb qjg

qyb qt{gx bl hboqgzq/

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met ng lbwoa do qjg hexg bl hg~qedo obwo-|g~nx/

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{j~exg Cbjo)x {~bblx bl qjg qjgb~gm/


n/ bw~ ng`dgl d o Iba

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Documents

Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar_Noam Chomsky