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International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
i-Xplore International Research Journal Consortium www.irjcjournals.org
92
Study on Individual, Interpersonal and Organizational Factors
That Influence Occupational Stress among Higher Secondary
Teachers in Madurai District, Tamil Nadu
Dr. S. S. Jeyaraj, Business Studies Lecturer, Department of Commerce and Accounting, International Universal (Junior
College), Jakarta, Indonesia.
Dr. K. Ramamoorthy, Professor and Head (Rtd.,), Department of Commerce, Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai,
Tamil Nadu, India.
ABSTRACT
A study on Individual, Interpersonal and Organizational
Factors that influences occupational stress was carried
out among Higher Secondary Teachers in Madurai, Tamil
Nadu State, India. There were three organizational factors
that were measured; individual, interpersonal and
organisational. A total of 305 teachers participated in this
study, 185 were from the Aided Schools and 120 from the
government schools. The prevalence of stress was found
higher in the Higher Secondary Teachers in Aided Schools
with the percentage of 17.70%compared to the
government Higher Secondary Teachers of 15.80%. The
Varimax Rotated Principal component was conducted for
this present study to measure the stress factors among the
teachers. All three factors were significantly associated
with occupational stress of Higher Secondary Teachers,
particularly the following variables affect the performance
of the Aided Higher Secondary Teachers: Teachers cannot
express their ability and competency independently,
Teachers unable to realize the feelings of the colleagues,
The overall school climate and Occupation do not
enhance the teacher’s social status whereas the
performance of the Government Higher Secondary
Teachers was affected by these factors; Teachers cannot
express their ability and competency independently, Lack
of human relations among the teachers, School is
understaffed and There is no enough interaction between
the teachers’ career and other occupation. Management of
Aided Higher Secondary Schools and Government School
should introduce stress prevention programmes to assist in
occupational stress management.
Keywords:
Organizational factors, individual factors, interpersonal
factors, job stress, Social Factors
INTRODUCTION
To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places
special physical or psychological demands upon a person,
anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium.
And while the physiological response to such demand is
surprisingly uniform, the forms of stress are innumerable.
Stress may be even but unconscious like the noise of a city
or the daily chore of driving the car. Perhaps the one
incontestable statement that can be made about stress is
that it belongs to everyone, to businessmen and professors,
to mother and their children, to factory workers. Stress is a
part of fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from
human beings as is evident from various researches and
studies. Stress can be managed but not simply done away
with. Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are
challenged by new research, and conclusions once firmly
established may be turned completely around. Some stress
is necessary to the well being and a lack can be harmful.
Stress definitely causes some serious ailments. Severe
stress makes people accident-prone.
DEFINITION
The word „stress‟ was first introduced into the fields of
biology and medicine in 1926 by an Australian
endocrinologist, Hans Selye, working in Montreal in
Canada. He first introduced the concept of stress in 1939
and was popularly used in the seventeenth century and
derived from Latin word to mean „Hardship‟ „Strait‟,
„Adversity‟ or „Affliction‟. His concept of stress at that
time was a physiological one and throughout his life the
psychological component of the phenomenon of stress was
not so much ignored by him, as placed in a secondary, and
to some degree, less important place in the total picture of
human stress. Selye in his most recent definition states that
stress is the “non-specific response of the body to any
demand”.
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS
Occupational stress refers to an individual‟s reaction to a
disturbing factor in the environment. It is defined as an
adaptive response to an external situation that results in
physical, psychological, and/or behavioural deviations for
organisational participants.
Occupational stress can manifest itself in both positive and
negative ways. Occupational stress is said to be positive
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
i-Xplore International Research Journal Consortium www.irjcjournals.org
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when the situation offers an opportunity for one to gain
something. Eustress is the term used to describe positive
stress and is often viewed as a motivator since, in its
absence; the individual lacks that „edge‟ necessary for
peak performance. It is negative when stress is associated
with heart disease, alcoholism, drug abuse, marital
breakdowns, absenteeism, child abuse, and a host of other
social, physical, organisational and emotional
problems.“Occupational stress can be defined as the
harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when
the requirements of the occupation do not match the
capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker.
Occupational stress can lead to poor health and even
injury”.1
According to the article titled „Guidance on Work Related
Stress: Spice of life- or kiss of death” “stress is the
reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types
of demand placed on them”.2
There is a lack of generally accepted definition of what is
meant by occupational stress. Hans Selye the father of
stress management himself wrote that, stress suffers from
the mixed blessing of being too well known and too little
understood. However, the term has commonly been
defined in one of the three ways: (a) as an environmental
stimulus, (b) as an individual‟s psychological or
physiological response to such an environmental force, or
(c) as the interaction between the two.
REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES
Selye (1956)3 “any external event or internal drive which
threatens to upset the organic equilibrium” is stress. He
has defined stress as the non-specific response of the body
to any demand made upon it.
Lazarus (1960)4 maintains that “stress occurs when there
are demands on the person which tax or exceed his
adjustments resources”. According to Caplan, Cobb,
French, Van Harrison and Pinneau (1975)5, stress refers to
“any characteristic of the job environment which is a
threat to the individual. According to Kyriacou (1987),
defines “teacher stress as the experience by a teacher of
unpleasant emotions such as tension, frustration, anger and
depression resulting from aspects of his work as a
teacher.”
Occupational stress is generally seen to have two major
components. Stressors and stress responses are internal or
external stimulus events which cause some sort of
response. Internal stressors include thoughts and feelings,
external stressors include such things as noise, cold and
interactions with other people. Stress response is a
complex reaction to a stressor. It usually has physiological
cognitive and/or behavioural components.
All people experience stress in their lives and it is not
necessarily negative. It has always been a part of every
profession. When appropriate response is made, it
provides the impetus to motivate a person into action.
„Haris Cycle‟ the father of stress research calls the positive
stress Eustress. He calls the negative effect of stress as
distress. However researchers interested in the effect of
stress propose, that excessive stress experience is
associated with the development of number of health
disorders. While trying to understand the subject of
contemporary stress, it is necessary to consider the overall
factors, which to a greater or lesser degree affect our peace
of mind.
Occupational stress can result either from work and origin
related or individual personality related factors.
Occupational stress has been defined in terms, of misfit
between a person‟s skills and abilities, and the demand of
his/her job or misfit between person‟s needs not being
fulfilled by his/her job environment. Cooper and Marshall
(1976)6 are of the view that organisational stress basically
means environmental factors or stressors such as work
load, role conflict, role ambiguity and poor working
conditions associated with a particular job. Regardless of
how one‟s job may compare to another in terms of stress,
it is helpful to recognise that every job has potential.
Cooper and Marshall (1988)7 have identified sources of
occupational stress at work. It may be mentioned here that
although common to all jobs, the sources vary in degree to
which they are found to be casually linked to stress in each
job. The experience of stress can be divided into three
constituents; the emotional response, the physical
response; and the behavioural response.
SCHOOL TEACHERS STRESS
The education system provides scope for understanding
several major socio-economic changes affecting the
society that include global economic integration, national
economic reforms, changing demographic pattern,
increased schools, enrolment, reduced drop-out rate, social
norms favouring women and weaker sections, increasing
environmental consciousness, changing family finances,
demands of labour market and so on. In many countries
college teacher‟s job is often considered as one of the most
stressful occupation. However, higher secondary teachers‟
occupational stress is a much talked of phenomenon.
Based on a review of international research, it is
concluded that teacher occupational stress is a real
phenomenon and that high levels are reliably associated
with a range of casual factors, including those intrinsic to
teaching, individual vulnerability and systematic
influences. Limitations with the current research base of
teacher occupational stress are identified. The higher
secondary teacher is to go on periodic self-decreased
vacations in the form of absenteeism. School teachers are
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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94
no exception to this. The individuals entering into teaching
field are professionals. They enter into professions and
then they professionalise themselves and so they find
themselves at loggerheads. Symptoms of stress take a long
time to erupt. Once it erupts, it not only affects the
individual concerned but also the co-workers through
strained interpersonal relations and ultimately affects the
students‟ education which forms the very core for the
success of education department. Hence occupational
stress situations and their perceived impact on higher
secondary school teachers are taken up for the present
study. The researcher has made an attempt to study the
occupational stress among higher secondary school
teachers of Madurai district.
OBJECTIVES
1. To identify the factors of occupational stress among
the higher secondary teachers of government and
Aided schools and
2. To offer suitable suggestions to reduce occupational
stress among the higher secondary school teachers.
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The present study is confined to the analysis of
occupational stress factors among higher secondary school
teachers and does not include the partly aided, Adi-
dravidar welfare, Kallar reclamation and unaided higher
secondary school teachers.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Primary data were collected from the higher secondary
school teachers including head masters using structured
interview schedule method. Secondary data were collected
from the educational office records, files, websites, books,
journals and annual reports.
SAMPLING DESIGN
Higher Secondary Schools in segments of Madurai District
consists of ten major schools. Of the ten major schools,
two schools were taken for the present study like
Government and aided higher secondary schools. Both the
schools consist of fourteen major subjects with two
different cadres of head master and teachers of position for
the teachers. The total strength of the teachers consists of
1271 at the time of study period (2007). Of the two cadres
only two kinds of higher secondary school teachers were
considered like aided and government teachers.
COLLECTION OF DATA A sample of 305 teachers was taken to meets the sample
adequacy, for conducting factor analysis number of
sample teachers for the study were selected from the total
population. For the purpose of the study (305 Teachers)
30% per cent of the samples were selected. This study is
based on the analysis of primary data collected from 305
teachers consisting of 185 aided higher secondary school
teachers and 120 government higher secondary school
teachers. Sample teachers were selected by using simple
random sampling from three segments by using lottery
method because of easy accessibility and affordability.
This present study is limited to a particular teachers those
who are handling the classes in higher secondary levels in
both schools and none of the teachers those who are
handling classes in below higher secondary level and
unaided higher secondary school teachers.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The collected data were scrutinized, edited and tabulated.
The Varimax Rotated Principal component was conducted
for this present study to measure the occupational stress
factors among the teachers of Higher Secondary Schools.
SOURCES OF STRESS
For this study focuses on occupational stress, the sources
relating to the occupational stress have been discussed
below, Organisational Stressors, Group Stressors and
Individual Stressors. In common, there are a total of five
categories associated with occupational stress.[8] Factors
unique to the job, concerns with the ability of the
employee coping with the specific hours worked, expected
productive rate, the physical environment as well as the
expectancy of the work desired by management. Role in
the organization is associated with the hierarchical
ranking of that particular employee within the
organization. Upper management is entitled to oversee the
overall functioning of the organization. This cause‟s
potential distress as the employee must be able to perform
simultaneous tasks. Career development includes
security of their occupation; promotion levels, etc. are all
sources of stress, as this business market in terms of
technology of economic dominance is ever-changing.
Interpersonal work relationships pertain the workplace is a
communication and interactive based industry. These
relationships can be problematic or positive which
includes harassment, discrimination, biased opinions,
hearsay, and other derogatory remarks. Finally, the last
category of workplace stress is the organizational climate
or structure includes communication, management style,
and participation among groups of employees is variables
to be considered. These individual categories demonstrate
that stress can occur specifically when a conflict arises
from the job demands of the employee and the employee
itself. If not handled properly, the stress can
become distress (medicine).
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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PREVALENCE OF STRESS
Stress is a prevalent and costly problem in today's
workplace. About one-third of workers report high levels
of stress. One-quarter of employees views their jobs as the
number one stressor in their lives. [9] Three-quarters of
employees believe the worker has more on-the-job stress
than a generation ago. [10] Evidence also suggests that
stress is the major cause of turnover in organizations. With
continued stress at the workplace, workers will develop
psychological and physiological dysfunctions and
decreased motivation in excelling in their position. [11]
I ORGANISATIONAL STRESSORS
In organisations, frequent causes of stress are task
demands, role demands, interpersonal demands,
organisational structure, organisational leadership, and the
organisations life cycle.
(A) Task Demands
Task demands are factors related to a person‟s occupation.
These include the design of the individual‟s occupation,
working conditions and the physical work layout.
Assembly lines can put pressure when their speed is
perceived as excessive. The more interdependent a
person‟s task is and the tasks of others, the more potential
stress there is. The occupation where temperature, noise or
other working conditions are dangerous or undesirable can
increase anxiety. So, too can working in an overcrowded
room or in a visible location where interruptions are
constant.12
(B) Role Demands Role demand includes role conflict, role ambiguity, role
erosion, role overload, role in the organisation, role
incompatibility, and role isolation.13
(i) Role Conflict
Role conflict is defined as the degree of incongruity of
expectations concerning one‟s occupational
responsibilities. Often employees have different groups of
people in the organisation who have widely varying
expectations of them, and they cannot meet all these
expectations. This inconsistency of expectations
associated with a role is called role conflict. Two types of
role conflicts are „sent role conflict‟ may be defined as the
simultaneous occurrence of two, or more sets of pressures
such that compliance with one would make more difficult
compliance with the other. The other type of role conflict
is the „person role conflict‟ which derives from a clash
between sent pressures and internal forces‟.
(ii) Role Erosion
Role erosion refers to a role becoming less important that
is used to be or somebody else getting the credit for doing
what needs to be done in one‟s own role. It is experienced
when a role occupant feels that some functions, which one
would like to perform, are being performed by some other
persons. In organisations that are dynamic, new
appointments may result in one person losing his/her
importance in the organisation and such a loss of self or
ego may result in stress to the individuals.
(iii) Role Overload
Work overload can be defined in simple term as being in a
situation where one is pushed to do more than what time
or ability permits. The nature of work load may be
quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative work load is a
condition of having too many job demands. Quantitative
work under load is a condition when individuals are
required to do considerably less than they are able, given
the time available. Qualitative work overload is a
condition where in job duties appear to exceed an
individual‟s abilities. It is a condition in which each
separate task is far below the individual‟s ability such that
the tasks are completed with boring ease.
(iv) Role in incompatibility
There is a fit of needs and values of the person with
environmental supplies and opportunities to meet these
needs and values. There is also the fit between demands of
the environment and the abilities of the person to meet
those demands. Lack of adequate co-ordination between
the individual and the environment which results in stress.
Such incompatibility calls for adequate adjustments of the
individual to his job environment and vice versa, which
are often not the case and the individual consequently
experiences strain.
(C) Organisational Structure
It defines the level of differentiation, the degree of rules
and regulations where the decisions are made. Excessive
rules and lack of participation in decision-making that
affect an employee are examples of structural variables
that might be potential stressors.
(D) Organisational Leadership
Organisational leadership defines the managerial style of
the organisation‟s senior executives. Some Chief
Educational Officers create a culture characterised by
tension, fear and anxiety. They establish unrealistic
pressures to perform in the short run, impose excessively
tight controls and routinely fine employees who fail to
measure up.
(E) Organisation’s Life Cycle
Organisations, like human beings pass through a life cycle.
The life cycle of an organisation comprises eight stages- i)
Birth ii) growth (iii) Policy (iv) Procedure (v) Theory (vi)
religion, (vii) virtual and (viii) last rites. In this cycle, the
organisation, which is born, begins to grow. Policies are
developed to guide decisions and these are carried out
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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through procedures. These procedures are refined and
made more efficient with theories about efficiency. Each
stage in the life cycle poses its own challenges and
problems, while the early stages are existing and, the latter
ones create anxiety and tension.
II INTERPERSONAL DEMANDS
Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other
employees. A poor relationship with colleagues,
supervisors and subordinates at work has been identified
as an important source of stress. Interpersonal related
stressors include factors such as conflict, poor
communications, unpleasant relationship and lack of social
support from colleagues. Poor interpersonal relationship
can cause considerable stress, especially among employees
with high social needs.
Inter personal relationship involves basically three types of
relationship namely, superior- subordinate relations, peer
group relations, and customer relations.
(i) Superior- Subordinate Relations
In hierarchical organizations, relations between superiors
and subordinates are complex. There is of course the
natural desire to relate to one another as concerned human
beings showing consideration, support, even affection or
as team-mates harmonising effects towards a common
goal, and sharing the benefits or frustrations of the
outcomes of mutual effort. Nevertheless, both superior and
subordinates, are involved in a struggle for survival within
the organisational system. Career progression anxieties
dominate the „consideration-support-teamwork-job
satisfaction‟ system in most organizations. Office politics,
power struggle, fulfilled or disappointed ambitions shape
the superior – subordinate relations more profoundly than
does human welfare or supportive elements. The absence
of positive interpersonal bond between an employee and
his superior will create distress due to lack of
predictability and trust. Superiors who are unwilling or
unable to provide adequate support and approval tend to
create stress in their subordinates.
(ii) Peer Group Relations All individuals have a need for affiliation, and tend to
place value upon human companionship and opportunities
for obtaining personal reassurance from others. The need
for affiliation tends to motivate people to seek out personal
approval to conform to the wishes and expectations of the
workers and to demonstrate a strong and sincere interest in
the feeling of others. However, it is seldom that two
people at the same level in the hierarchy get along well.
This may be due to reasons like task ambiguity – as to
who should perform the particular task, or due to
differences in work orientation. There is also the
underlying dynamic of competition – for job resources of
all kinds, including financial, material, time with superior
and personnel. When poor relations exist among peers, it
leads to low trust, low supportiveness, and low interest in
listening to and trying to deal with problems that confront
the organisational members and result in stress for the
individual.
(iii) Relationship with Customers
Relationship with clients is another source of stress
especially in service organisations. In many occupations
the ability of the profession to respond to clients needs is
limited by bureaucratic regulations and in co-operative
clients. That the client is only partially under one‟s control
leads to a feeling of helplessness. This combined with
strong feelings of personal responsibility for failure and
infrequent feedback makes service provides easy targets of
job stress. The relationship with the customers also often
becomes strained because of customer frustrations.
GROUP STRESSORS
(i) Lack of Group Cohesiveness
Starting with the historically famous Hawthorne studies, it
has become very clear that cohesiveness is very important
to employees, particularly at the lower levels of
organisations. If an employee is denied the opportunity for
this cohesiveness because of the task design, the
supervisor does things to prohibit or limit it, or the other
members of the group shut the person out, this can be very
much stress producing.
(i) Lack of Social Support
Employees are greatly affected by the support of one or
more members of a cohesive group. By sharing their
problems and joys with others, they may be much better
off. If this type of social support is lacking for an
individual, it can be very stressful.14
(ii) Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict
Interpersonal conflict arises because of differences in
perceptions, temperaments, personalities, value system,
socio-cultural factors and role ambiguities. Intergroup
conflict occurs on account of task interdependence, task
ambiguity, goal incompatibility, competitive reward
systems, and the like. Whatever be the cause, conflict, if
not resolved, will lead to stress.
III INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS
(i) Individual Differences: Type A Behaviour
Pattern
Type A behaviour pattern is a personality type identified
by two Cardiologists Rosenman and Friedman (1974) who
observed that their coronary heart disease patients shared a
characteristic pattern of behaviour and emotional reaction
which they labelled as type A behaviour pattern. This
pattern is characterised by the presence of aggressiveness,
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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impatience, restlessness, hyper alertness, explosiveness of
speech, tenseness of facial muscle and feelings of being
under pressure of time and under challenge of
responsibility, competitiveness and a sense of time
urgency.
The contrast type B behaviour pattern originally defined as
the relative absence of the behaviours described above is
increasingly perceived as an alternative style of
responding to or coping with environmental challenges.
Type B personalities feel less pressure, keep a steadier
pace rather than working against the clock. They are more
likely to try and extend deadlines or accept a lower
standard of work from themselves in the short run.
However this does not mean that they are necessarily
apathetic, lazy or lacking ambition.
The clearest finding of research on type A personalities is
that they are much prone to heart diseases. The Western
Collaborative Group study (Rosenman et al., 1975)15
found that 77 per cent of those who suffered heart attacks
were closely identified as type A personalities in the
earlier test scores. Further, type A had twice the rate of
coronary disease, were five times as likely to die from
heart disease as compared to those classified as type Bs. In
short type A people are much more likely to put
themselves in highly stressful situations and to push
themselves the hardest in those situations.
(ii) Hot Reactors
Another way to distinguish individual‟s responses to
stressors suggested by Eliot and Breo (1984)16 focuses on
physiological processes rather than behaviour patterns.
Hot reacting is extreme cardiovascular reaction to
standardised stress tests and it indicates how people hardle
stress physiologically in everyday life. Some people
experience alarm and vigilance so strongly that when they
are under stress their bodies produce large amounts of
stress chemical, which in turn cause great changes in the
cardiovascular system including remarkable rises in blood
pressure.
Research has indicated that 20 per cent of healthy people
who feel stressed are hot reactors (Eliot and Breo, 1984).
The frightening aspect of this finding is that people are not
aware of this automatic physiological response to stress.
Type A behaviour pattern is observable and therefore
potentially changeable. Hot reacting may be a subtle killer.
Because type B people do have coronary heart disease and
heart attacks, it seems reasonable to suppose that some
type B individuals may be hot reactors, and type A people
may not be. The obvious high-risk condition is a
combination of a type A personality and a hot reacting
physiology.17
(iii) Hardiness
Hardiness is another psychological characteristic that
moderates the reaction of people to potentially stressful
conditions or events. Three dimensions constitute the
general concept of hardiness namely, commitment,
challenge and control. The commitment dimension reflects
a sense of meaningfulness about one‟s life both in terms of
having distinguishable personal life goals with feelings of
self involvement and having a sense of community control
represents the belief that one can influence or be
responsible for one‟s experiences and life events.
Therefore the possibility for manipulating or counteracting
adverse circumstances exists. The challenge dimension
consists of the idea that change, in the form of life events
is a positive phenomenon with the potential for personal
growth for the individuals. A hardy individual possesses a
strong sense of all three dimensions, which act together to
help buffer the debilitating effects of stress. [18][19][20]
In the study involving Illinois Bell executives during the
break-up of A T & T, it was found that those who rated
high on hardiness remained healthier than others did. All
the employees experienced essentially the same traumatic
events during the changeover. Those who rated high in
hardiness seemed to take the break-up in stride, and even
felt exhilarated by the opportunities. They reported half as
many physical or emotional difficulties as those who rated
low in hardiness did. Shepperd and Kashani (1991)21
found that commitment and control components of
hardiness moderated the reporting of somatic complaints,
and psychological symptoms. Numerous other studies
have also found support for the moderating effect of
hardiness.
(iv) Locus of Control
Locus of control is defined as internal when individuals
tend to attribute environmental events to them and as
external when individuals attribute, such events to things
outside their power. Internals believe reward to be
contingent on factors beyond their personal control.
Locus of control influences relations between stress and
health outcomes. Studies have shown that internal locus of
control as compared with external locus improves health
because it is associated with preventive behaviour, efforts
to improve functioning and greater resistance to
psychological dysfunctions.22
(v) Cognitive Complexity:
Cognitive complexity is concerned with the amount and
kinds of information people use in making discussions.
Cognitively complex individuals are multidimensional.
They see situations from different perspectives
simultaneously. They are able to keep several variables in
mind, cope with conflicting information, and discuss
complex relationships. They think in terms of systems and
contingencies, while remaining flexible and sensitive to
changing conditions. These characteristics are often used
to describe highly effective managers. Unfortunately these
very attributes may be dangerous to executive health.
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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There is a growing amount of evidence that an executive
with this style of decision making faces greater risk, than
others, of heart attacks and other circulatory diseases.
When compared with less multidimensional executives,
the more multidimensional showed higher levels of
physiological strain when challenged in work situations.
They also showed elevation in blood pressure, heart rate
and physiological arousal that were at times 83 per cent
higher than the increase for other executives (Streufert,
1983).23
(vi) Self- Esteem
Individuals who have positive images of themselves and
their abilities are less likely to experience work as
stressful. Moreover people with high self-esteem have
more confidence in themselves that they can deal
successfully with stress. Two research findings confirm
the moderating effect of self-esteem. The first study
suggests that the critical difference between those who
survived being prisoners of war and those who did not
survive was self-esteem. Those who had high levels of
self-esteem were better able to cope with the strain and
deprivation of being held captive. Secondly, physicians
doing research on coronary heart disease risk factors have
discovered that the higher a person‟s self-esteem, the less
likely he is to be heart attack prone (Kasl and Gobb,
1970).24
(vii) Self Efficacy
Self Efficacy is defined as a person‟s beliefs about
whether one can successfully perform a task. It involves
both effort and ability. Employees in organisations have
explicit beliefs and expectations about their performance.
Self-efficacy concept can also be applied to groups.
Collective efficacy may be defined as each individual‟s
assessment of their group‟s collective ability to perform
job related risks.
As a moderator, individuals who do not believe that they
will be able to carry out their job responsibilities (low
levels of self-efficacy) would view organisational stressors
as being more threatening and show more negative
reactions than those who are more confident (high levels
of self-efficacy). It is also possible that collective efficacy
would provide the same moderating effect as individual
efficacy, although this would be more likely for employees
whose jobs require considerable interaction with the work
group. Studies by Beehr and Newman (1978)25 Sarason
(1975)26 Bandura (1986)27 and Jex and Gudanowski
(1992)28 have provided support for the moderating effect
of self-efficacy.
(viii) Extraversion
Extraverts show a heightened sensitivity to variations in
social support. Under conditions of high social support,
they report less distress than do introverts do. Thus
extraversion or introversion as a moderator of stress acts in
combination with social support (Parkes, 1986).29 Need for
affiliation, which is a measure conceptually linked to
extraversion, interacts with social support to predict mood
disturbance in response to stress.
(ix) Neuroticism
Neuroticism also called negative affectivity is a stable and
pervasive personality dimension and is a state
characterised by emotional instability, anxiety and low self
respect in individuals. High negative affective individuals
report more stress and physical complaints, even in the
absence of objective stressors or health problems (Costa
and Mc Crae, 1980, 30 Watson and Clark 1984; 31 Delongis
et al., 1982).32 state that individuals with high neuroticism
scores respond less adaptability to demanding
circumstances and are more vulnerable to emotional
distress than those with low scores. They also are capable
of experiencing a great deal of stress and discomfort even
in relatively benign contexts. Their high levels of distress
will likely persist in the face of dramatically altered
working conditions (Watson al., 1987).33
(x) Age
Age and experience are negatively related to stress. There
are at least two explanations for this relation. One is
selective withdrawal and other is adaptation. Withdrawal,
the idea that voluntary turnover is more probable among
people who experience more stress, that certain
characteristics dispose some people to experience more
stress and that people are differentially likely to quit
according to those characteristics. As a result, people who
remain with the organisation longer are those with more
stress resistant traits. Adaptation assumes that people
eventually develop coping mechanics to deal with stress.
Past experience in the form of familiarity with the
situation, past exposure to the stressor conditions, and/or
practice or training in response to deal with the situation
can operate to affect the level of subjectively experienced
stress from a given situation or to modify reactions to
those stressors.
(xi) Gender
Men and women experience stress differently with respect
to threat appraisal and symptoms. Women experience
stressors unique to their gender such as sex discrimination,
harassment and considerable work problems that results in
pay inequity. Further, women tend to report higher rates of
psychological distress while men are more prone to
physical illnesses as evident in the higher incidences or
coronary heart diseases in males.
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OCCUPATIONAL STRESS FACTORS FOR THE VARIMAX ROTATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF
ADIDED HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [FACTOR ANALYSIS]
Table 1
Individual Factors of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 Work is neither interested and nor prestigious. 0.885 20.886 19.339
2 No training was given to handle the new occupation. 0.760 15.915 14.736
3 Present occupation does not give enough time to spare with
family members.
0.662 4.757 4.405
4 Occupation, demands more training and expertise. 0.828 3.994 3.698
5 The available information relating to my present occupation
and its outcomes are vague and insufficient.
0.558 3.921 3.630
6 Institutional responsibilities interference with extra
organization career.
0.785 3.370 3.121
7 I have given more importance in this institution than others. 0.841 3.284 3.041
8 No free time to get refreshment. 0.857 3.086 2.857
9 Frequent Transfers give me great trouble. 0.815 2.987 2.765
Source: Primary data
Table 1shows that various individual factors item
loadings, eigen values and percentage of total variance
explained by each factor. The selected individual factor
consists of nine items and explained 19.339 percent of the
total variance dominant all other factors. „Work is neither
interest and nor prestigious‟ was at the highest level or at
the first position among them explains the maximum
variance in the most important individual factors, which
causes occupational stress under aided higher secondary
school teachers. The factor of „Teachers doing my work
with full responsibility‟ was at the second position with
per cent of the total variance is 14.736, „Present
occupation does not give enough time to spent with family
members‟ was at the third position with the per cent
variance is 4.405, „Occupation, demands more training
and expertise‟ was at the fourth position with the per cent
variance is 3.698 and „Frequent Transfers give me great
trouble‟ was at the ninth and least position among the total
factors with the per cent variance is 2.765.
Table 2
Interpersonal Factors Of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 Unable to realize the feelings of the colleagues. 0.885 20.886 19.339
2 When one initiates for discussion or help there is not
response from other staff.
0.748 6.047 5.559
3 Colleagues feel that he/she has been given more
responsibility.
0.663 4.733 4.382
4 The mistakes of other teachers are shifted to the
shoulders and teachers who are free from defects.
0.768 3.086 2.857
Source: Primary data
Table 2 shows that various interpersonal factors item
loadings, eigen values and percentage of total variance
explained by each factor. Under the social factors that
contribute stress level, the isolation of my job is
prominent. It consists of five factors, of which factor 1
describes maximum variance 19.34 per cent and is the
important factor that causes the occupational stress among
the total teachers of government schools. Factor 1 is
„There is no enough interaction between my career and
other occupation‟ and followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553
per cent and 2.026 per cent respectively.
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Table 3
Organisational Factors Of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 The overall school climate. 0.643 20.886 19.339
2 Heavy and continuous noise in the premises. 0.876 15.915 14.736
3 My higher authorities do not give due significance to my
positions and work.
0.615 6.047 5.599
4 Co-operation is frequently sought in solving the
administrative or departmental problems higher.
0.788 4.733 4.382
5 The school is under staffed. 0.729 2.111 1.955
Source: Primary data
Table 3 shows that various organisationa factors item
loadings, eigen values and percentage of total variance
explained by each factor. Under the social factors that
contribute stress level, the isolation of my job is
prominent. It consists of five factors, of which factor 1
describes maximum variance 19.34 per cent and is the
important factor that causes the occupational stress among
the total teachers of government schools. Factor 1 is
„There is no enough interaction between my career and
other occupation‟ and followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553
per cent and 2.026 per cent respectively.
Table 4
Social Factors of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 Occupation has enhances my social status. 0.488 20.886 19.339
2 The interaction in my career with other occupation is
appreciable or not.
0.519 15.915 14.736
3 The career demands more consultation with others and
other occupation.
0.404 5.516 5.107
4 Sometimes it becomes complicated problem for me to
make adjustment among political / group pressures and
formal rules and instructions.
0.768 2.772 2.567
Source: Primary data
Table 4 shows that various social factors item loadings,
eigen values and percentage of total variance explained by
each factor. Under the social factors that contribute stress
level, the isolation of my job is prominent. It consists of
five factors, of which factor 1 describes maximum
variance 19.34 per cent and is the important factor that
causes the occupational stress among the total teachers of
government schools. Factor 1 is „There is no enough
interaction between my career and other occupation‟ and
followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553 per cent and 2.026 per
cent respectively.
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS FACORS FOR THE VARIMAX ROTATED PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF
GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS [FACTOR ANALYSIS]
Table 5
Individual Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 Teachers cannot express their ability and competency
independently.
0.819 21.418 19.832
2 The work load of the teacher is too heavy. 0.667 8.633 7.993
3 Opportunity of promotion in my occupation. 0.659 6.008 5.563
4 Teachers like to do some other work in the salary. 0.635 5.226 4.839
5 Many problems in working in rural areas. 0.716 3.285 3.042
6 Present Occupation gives me all facilities but not status. 0.740 2.875 2.662
7 Time limit to cover the syllabus and conduct tests are not
enough, create a sense of urgency.
0.694 2.912 2.697
Source: Primary data
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Table 5 shows that various individual factors item
loadings, eigen values and percentage of total variance
explained by each factor. The selected individual factor
consists of seven items and explained 19.832 percent total
variance dominates other all factors. „Teachers cannot
express their ability and competency independently.‟ was
at the highest level or at the first position among them
explains the maximum variance in the most important
individual factors, which causes occupational stress under
Government higher secondary school teachers. „The work
load of the teacher is too heavy‟. was at the second
position with per cent of the total variance is 7.993,
„Opportunity of promotion in my occupation‟, with the per
cent variance is 5.563, and „Teachers like to do some other
work in the salary‟, with the per cent variance is 4.839
dominate third and forth position respectively and „Time
limit to cover the syllabus and conduct tests are not
enough, create a sense of urgency‟, was at the seventh and
least position among the total factors with the per cent
variance is 2.697.
Table 6
Interpersonal Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of Variance
1 Lack of human relations among the teachers. 0.698 8.633 7.993
2 All the staff feels that they are over burdened in the
occupation.
0.667 8.633 7.993
3 My suggestions regarding the training programmes of
the teachers are given due significance.
0.787 4.979 4.610
4 There exists sufficient mutual co operation and team
spirit among the teachers of this department.
0.699 2.676 2.477
Source: Primary data
Table 6 shows that various social factors item loadings,
eigen values and percentage of total variance explained by
each factor. Under the social factors that contribute stress
level, the isolation of my job is prominent. It consists of
five factors, of which factor 1 describes maximum
variance 19.34 per cent and is the important factor that
causes the occupational stress among the total teachers of
government schools. Factor 1 is „There is no enough
interaction between my career and other occupation‟ and
followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553 per cent and 2.026 per
cent respectively.
Table 7
Organisational Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of
Variance
1 School is understaffed. . 0.757 21.418 19.832
2 Fairly old building creates mild panic all the time. 0.804 5.872 5.437
3 Hard water in the school causes throat problems. 0.600 3.285 3.042
Source: Primary data
Table 7 shows that various social factors item loadings,
eigen values and percentage of total variance explained by
each factor. Under the social factors that contribute stress
level, the isolation of my job is prominent. It consists of
five factors, of which factor 1 describes maximum
variance 19.34 per cent and is the important factor that
causes the occupational stress among the total teachers of
government schools. Factor 1 is „There is no enough
interaction between myy career and other occupation‟ and
followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553 per cent and 2.026 per
cent respectively.
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102
Table 8
Social Factors of Government Higher Secondary School Teachers
Sl.No Statements Loadings Eigen Value % of
Variance
1 There is no enough interaction between my career and
other occupation.
0.659 21.418 19.832
2 Sometimes it becomes complicated problem for me to
make adjustment among political/ group pressures and
formal rules and instructions.
0.687 8.633 7.993
3 This occupation has enhanced my social status. 0.714 6.008 5.553
4 Interaction in my career with other occupation is
appreciable or not.
0.484 4.979 4.610
5 The career demands more consultation with others and
other occupation.
0.478 2.189 2.026
Source: Primary data
Table 8 shows that various social factors item loadings,
eigen values and percentage of total variance explained by
each factor. Under the social factors that contribute stress
level, the isolation of my job is prominent. It consists of
five factors, of which factor 1 describes maximum
variance 19.34 per cent and is the important factor that
causes the occupational stress among the total teachers of
government schools. Factor 1 is „There is no enough
interaction between my career and other occupation‟ and
followed by 7.993 per cent, 5.553 per cent and 2.026 per
cent respectively.
FINDINGS OF THE PRESENT STUDY
I AIDED HIGHER SECONDARY TEACHERS 1. The factor of “work is neither interested and nor
prestigious” was at the highest level or at the first position
among the nine factors towards individual and personal
characteristics of Aided Higher Secondary School
Teachers with 0.885 loading value and % of variance is
19.339 and followed by “frequent transfer gives me great
trouble” is the last position.
2. The factor of “teachers unable to realize the feelings of
the colleagues” was at the highest position with 0.885 is
the loading value and 19.339 is % of variance and “The
mistakes of other teachers are shifted to the shoulders and
teachers who are free from defects” was the last position
among the four factors toward interpersonal characteristics
of Aided Higher Secondary School Teachers.
3. The factor of “the overall school climate” was at the
first position and “The school is under staffed” was
occupied least position with 0.643 is the loading factor and
% of variance is 19.339, among the five factors towards
organizational among the teachers of Aided Higher
Secondary School.
II GOVERNMENT HIGHER SECONDARY
TEACHERS
1. Of the total individual factors of Government Higher
Secondary School Teachers, “Teachers cannot express
their ability and competency independently” was at the
highest level or at the first position with loading value
0.819 and % of variance is 19.832 and the last position
occupied by “Time limit to cover the syllabus and conduct
tests are not enough, create a sense of urgency” with
loading value 0.694 and % of variance is 2.697
respectively.
2. The factor of “Lack of human relations among the
teachers” was at the highest position with loading value
0.698 and% of variance is 7.993 and “There exist
sufficient mutual co operation and team spirit among the
teachers of this department” was the last position among
the four factors toward interpersonal characteristics of
Government Higher Secondary School Teachers with
loading value 0.699 and % of variance is 2.477.
3. The factor of “School is understaffed” was at the first
position with loading factor is 0.757 and % of variance is
19.832 and “Hard water in the school causes throat
problems.” was occupied least position among the three
factors towards organizational among the teachers of
Government Higher Secondary School.
4. Of the five social related factors, “There is no enough
interaction between my career and other occupation.”
which was at top level with loading factor is 0.659 and %
of variance is 19.832 and “The career demands more
consultation with others and other occupation.” was last
position among the teachers Government Higher
Secondary School.
EFFECTS
Physical symptoms that may occur because of
occupational stress includes fatigue, headache, upset
stomach, muscular aches and pains, chronic mild
illness, sleep disturbances, and eating disorders.
Psychological and behavioral problems that may develop
include anxiety, irritability, alcohol and drug use, feeling
powerless and low morale.[34] The spectrum of effects
caused by occupational stress includes absenteeism, poor
decision making, lack of creativity, accidents,
organizational breakdown or even sabotage.[35] If exposure
International Journal of Management and Social Sciences Research (IJMSSR) ISSN: 2319-4421 Volume 2, No. 5, May 2013
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to stressors in the workplace is prolonged, then chronic
health problems can occur including stroke. An
examination was of physical and psychological effects of
workplace stress was conducted with a sample of 552
female blue collar employees of a microelectronics
facility. It was found that job-related conflicts were
associated with depressive symptoms, severe headaches,
fatigue, rashes, and other multiple symptoms. [36] Studies
among the Japanese population specifically showed a
more than 2-fold increase in the risk of total stroke among
men with job strain (combination of high job demand and
low job control).[37] Along with the risk of stroke
comes high blood pressure and immune
system dysfunction. Prolonged occupational stress can
lead to occupational burnout.
CONCLUSION
A combination of organizational change and stress
management is often the most useful approach for
preventing stress at work environment. Both Government
and Aided Management and teachers can employ
strategies at institutional and individual levels. Generally,
institutional level strategies include job procedure
modification and employee assistance programs (EPA).
Individual level strategies include taking vacation, getting
a realistic job preview to understand the normal workload
and schedules of the job will also help people to identify
whether or not the job fit them. How to Change the
Organization to prevent occupational tress [38]
Ensure that the workload is in line with teachers'
capabilities and resources.
Design occupations to provide meaning, stimulation,
and opportunities for teachers to use their skills.
Clearly define teachers' roles and responsibilities.
To reduce occupational stress, government and
Aided school management may monitor the
workload given out to the teachers. Also while they
are being trained they should let employees
understand and be notified of stress awareness.[39]
Give teachers opportunities to participate in school
decisions and actions affecting their profession.
Improve communications and reduce uncertainty
about career development and future employment
prospects.
Provide opportunities for social interaction among
teachers.
Establish work schedules that are compatible with
demands and responsibilities outside the job.
Combat workplace discrimination (based on race,
gender, national origin, religion or language).
Seek for solutions outside such as getting a
consultant to suggest a fresh approach to persistent
problems.[40]
Introducing a participative leadership style to involve as
many colleagues as possible to resolve stress-producing
problems.
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