Sufism and Gnosticism: A Comparison

Súfismus a gnóze: Srovnání

Marek Vinklát

2011

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“We were in heaven,

we were the companions of angels,

when will we return there again?”1

1. Introduction

The presented article tries to compare the system of believe of the traditions known

under the single term Gnosticism and the system of believe of the mystical schools and

movements of Islamic tradition, known in our academic environment as the Sufism.

1.2. Definition of Gnosticism

In the most important work about Gnosticism in the last century, 2 Kurt Rudolph

describes these very different traditions with the help of their common characteristics.

Through these Weberian “ideal types” is Kurt Rudolph creating with the help of Congress on

the Origins of Gnosticism in Messina (1966) some general sketch of Gnosticism and

introduces here a term “artificial myth”, which describes Gnostic worldview.3 The term

Gnosticism got its name from the Greek word γνωσις „knowledge“ or „understanding“ and in

the Gnostic tradition it means especially “redeeming knowledge”,4 like it is written in The

Gospel of Phillip: “He who has knowledge of the truth is a free man.”5

According to the Messina Congress could be common point of Gnostic traditions

characterized as “the idea of the presence in man of a divine ‘spark’ …, which has proceeded

from the divine world and has fallen into this world of destiny, birth and death and which

must be reawakened through its own divine counterpart in order to be finally restored.”6

Dualistic view on the world and also on man is another common element, but it differs,

because of some monistic tendencies of some Gnostic schools. The good heavenly God often

connected with truth and light is in contrast to the material world and darkness. The divine

spark or godly part of human (soul) must be rescued from this realm by a savior or a redeemer

sent from God,7 which gives the redeeming knowledge to the humanity through revelation or

awakening. The salvation is therefore a direct act of Good God which is calling to the

1 From a poem by Jalal ad-Din Rumi: Schimmel, Annemarie, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, The University of

North Carolina Press 1975, p. 189. 2 Rudolph, Kurt, Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Limited 1984. 3 Rudolph, p. 54. 4 Rudolph, p. 55. 5 (NHC II 3, 77,15-16), Robinson, James McConkey (ed.), The Nag Hammadi library in English, Leiden: Brill

1988, p. 146. 6 Rudolph, p. 57. 7 Rudolph, p. 58-59.

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mankind with his message like it is putted in The Gospel of Truth: “Therefore if one has

knowledge, he is from above. If he is called, he hears, he answers, and he returns to him who

is calling him, and ascends to him.”8

1.3. Definition of Sufism

In western environment, the Islamic traditions of though which look for unification with

God and stress the inner experience of God’s unity (tauhid),9 are called “Sufism” in general.

Although the term “Sufism” is very vague construct, it is still used across the world in both

academic and public field of interest. The first part of this western –ism concept originates

surprisingly from Kufa, where Jabir Ibn Hayyan described as a sufí (sg.) a man, who seeks

deeper and more intimate relation to God. Term sufiya (pl.) was used by Muhasibi and Jahiz

to describe a mystic school in Kufa, which was close to Shi‘a teachings.10 The meaning of the

word has been often connected with the word “wool” (suf), from which are made the clothing

for ascetics.11

As well as Gnosticism, these mystical Islamic traditions emphasize the meaning of the

intuitive knowledge (ma‘rifa) in contrast to the scientific knowledge (‘ilm)12 and also work

with the notion of separation of Humanity from the presence of God. Sufi has to recover the

state he had immediately after the creation of Man.13

2. Comparison

In following chapters I will compare basic elements of believe system of Sufism and

Gnosticism. The comparison is made with the help of the original texts of these spiritual

traditions and with the most valued related academic works.

2.1. Cosmogony and cosmology

In Qur’an, God alone is responsible for the creation of the world through a word: “To

Him is due the primal origin of the heavens and the earth: When He decreeth a matter, He

saith to it: ‘Be,’ and it is.” (Q 2:117). The mystic Isma‘ili sect of Islam personalize the

imperative “Be” (آن) into the God’s feminine aspect Kuni – into the spouse of Qadar.14

8 (NHC I 3, 22,1-9), Robinson, p. 40. 9 Schimmel, p. 17. 10 Kropáček, Luboš, Súfismus: Dějiny islámské mystiky, Praha: Vyšehrad 2008, p. 15. 11 Massignon, Louis, „Tasawwuf“, in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. X, Leden: Brill 2000, p. 313b. 12 First sufi who formulated this idea was Dhú’n-Nún. Shimmel, p. 43. 13 Schimmel, p. 143. 14 Halm, Heinz, The Empire of Mahdi: The rise of the Fatimids, Leden: Brill 1996, p. 17.

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Through the feminine Kuni the world becomes to exist as well as through Pistis Sophia in

Gnosticism: “Sophia, who is called Pistis, wanted to create something, alone without her

consort; and her product was a celestial thing.”15 In The Book of Baruch we can see also, that

God has a female partner in the creation of the universe: “…he is unknown and invisible. The

female is angry. She knows nothing ahead of time and she has two minds and two bodies.”16

The Sufi and also Gnostic view on the created world is sometimes very negative. “The

world is a dunghill and a gathering place of dogs; and meaner than a dog is that person who

does not stay away from it.”17 Sufi could not participate on a secular affairs and he must to

know, that world is a merely an illusion.18 Even Jesus (highly considered by Sufis) said in the

Gnostic Gospel of Thomas in Logion 56: “Whoever has come to understand the world has

found (only) a corpse, and whoever has found a corpse is superior to the world.”19 We can

clearly say that Gnostics and Sufis are not interested in the world or they despise it. Not only

the world is seen in the negative light, but also the work of heavens and the time. According

to the Gnostics, the mundane world is influenced and ruled by the lower heavens – seven

spheres with one planetary ruler (archon) in each.20 Also in Arabic poetry we can trace the

notion about the tyranny of days and of the time.21

2.2. Anthropogony and anthropology

Both Sufism and Gnosticism share the story about the creation of man as it was recorded

in the Hebrew Torah. Especially Islam (and thus Sufism) combines the two anthropogony

versions: “And God created the Man in his image, in the image of God (he) created him; (as)

male and female (he) created them.” (Gn 1:27) and “And God formed the Man – a dust from

the Earth. And breathed into his nose the spirit of life; and the Man was a living soul.” (Gn

2:7).22 This we can find in Qur’an: “Behold, thy Lord said to the angels: ‘I am about to

create man from clay. When I have fashioned him and breathed into him of My spirit, fall ye

down in obeisance unto him.” (Q 38:71-72) and “O mankind! We have created you from a

15 The Hypostasis of the Archons (NHC II 4, 94,5-13), Robinson, p. 157. 16 Hyppolitus of Rome, Refutation of All Heresies V,21, Barnstone, Willis (ed.), The Gnostic Bible, Boston:

Shambhala 2003, p. 125. 17 From Nafahat al-uns by Maulana Abdurrahman Jami (Schimmel, p. 109). 18 Shah, Idries, The Sufis, Octagon Press 1964, p. 297. 19 (NHC II 2, 42,29b–32a), Robinson, p. 124. 20 Rudolph, p. 67-68. 21 Nagel, Tilman, The History of Islamic Theology: From Muhammad to the Present, Princeton: Wiener 2000, p.

216. Further in Böwering, Gerhard, “The Concept of Time in Islam”, in: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 141/1, 1997, p. 55-66.

22 Both verses translated from Biblical Hebrew by the author.

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male and female…’” (Q 49:13). 23 Gnosticism is also using the old Hebrew myth, but

interprets it in a dualistic way. The forming of Adams body is conducted by the evil of blind

god (demiurg) and his evil companions (archons): “…come, let us create a man out of the

earth according to the image of our body…”24, but the Soul in the body is provided by the

agent of the Good God: “But on the fortieth day Sophia Zoe sent her breath into the Adam,

who was without soul. He began to move upon the Earth.”25 Thus was a former part of God

imprisoned into the material shell – a human body.

In addition, we have to distinguish between the Sufi and Gnostic anthropology. In

Sufism the bearer of Godly nature is a spirit (ruh) and not the soul (nafs).26 Also in Greek and

Coptic schools of Gnosticism is the good part of body the spirit (pneuma), while the soul

(psyche) has lower and more wild character. This differs in the oriental Gnosticism (e.g.

Mandaism), where the soul (mand. nišimta) contains the element of the Realm of Light and

the spirit (mand. ruha) has lower position in the soteriology and in the body.27 We can see,

that the lower soul is connected to the negative aspects of human nature e.g. in Mandaic

Gnosticism and also in Sufism.28 The material part of the man – a body – has to be despised in

ascetic life. According to the Rumi, the body is only “a morsel for the tomb”29 and for

Mandaeans the human body is only a corpse (pagra).

In this “vehicle” was a human soul sent into the wild and dangerous world from the Face

of God. In Qur’an Adam and Eve are banished from Paradise (jannah) because of the Satan’s

trap: “(Allah) said: ‘Get ye down. With enmity between yourselves. On earth will be your

dwelling-place and your means of livelihood,- for a time.’ He said: ‘Therein shall ye live, and

therein shall ye die; but from it shall ye be taken out (at last).’” (Q 7:24-25). In Gnosticism it

is not a God, who expels the first pair out of the garden, but the evil archons or the false god:

“… come, let us cast him out of Paradise upon the earth, the place from whence he was taken,

so that he will no longer be able to know anything more about us.”30 “Moreover they threw

Mankind into great distraction and into a life of toil, so that their Mankind might be occupied

by worldly affairs, and might not have the opportunity of being devoted to the Holy Spirit.”31

23 Schimmel, p. 188. Used English translation of Qur’an of Yusuf Ali. 24 (Anonymous Treatise, NHC II 5, 112,67), Robinson, p. 170. 25 (NHC II 5, 115,81), Robinson, p. 172. 26 Schimmel, p. 192-193. 27 Rudolph, p. 88-91. 28 Compare Schimmel, p. 112 and Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen, „A Rehabilitation of Spirit Ruha in Mandaean

Religion“, in: History of Religions 22/1, The University of Chicago Press 1982, p. 67. 29 Schimmel, p. 116. 30 (NHC II 5, 120,35-121,4), Robinson, p. 175. 31 (The Hypostasis of the Archons, NHC II 4, 91,7-11), Robinson, p. 156.

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Humankind has to free itself from this unpleasant state of separation and suffering. But it is

not alone in this task; it has powerful allies by its side – God and his messengers.

2.3. Soteriology

The state of separation very well illustrates an introduction to a work Masnavi by Jalal

ad-Din Rumi, where the reed-flute Ney symbolizes a human being: “Now listen to this reed-

flute’s deep lament about the heartache being apart has meant. (…) When kept from their

true origin, all yearn for union on the day they can return.”32 The Sufi mystic has to learn

about the nature of the One to meet Him.33 Also a Gnostic has to know, from where his soul

came, to reach his final goal: “Light and life are god and father, out of which humans came.

And if you learn that you are also made of light and life, you will return to light and life.”34

The knowledge in both traditions can be obtained through a God’s messenger and his

Revelation, although the names of messengers in Gnostic schools may vary.35

The Qur’an itself essentially works as a Savior, literally as God’s Logos, 36 which

descends into the world of man, to help him to ascend back into the God’s presence. This was

illustrated on the character of the Prophet Muhammad, to whom was the Qur’an first revealed

through the Archangel Gabriel, and who first made a mystical way to God (mi’raj). Qur’an

speaks about the mystical path of Muhammad only marginally: “Glory to (Allah) Who did

take His servant for a Journey by night from the Sacred Mosque to the farthest Mosque,

whose precincts We did bless,- in order that We might show him some of Our Signs: for He is

the One Who heareth and seeth (all things).” (Q 17:1). Sufi has to follow the example of the

Prophet and than he can be again in the presence of God.37 The fall of Adam was caused by

the forgetfulness of humankind, so the Sufi has to remember the God through a dhikr.38

The complete unification with God will be finally after the death of the mystic;39 this is

the same reason the death is found positive also in Gnostic traditions.40 The death has often a

bridal symbolism. A “wedding” (‘urs) is a metaphor for a celebration of the death-day of a

32 Jalal al-Din Rumi, The Masnavi, Volume 1, transl. Jawid A. Mojaddedi, Oxford University Press 2004, p. 4. 33 Schimmel, p. 17. 34 Barnstone, p. 508. 35 Rudolph, p. 131-132. 36 Compare the “Hymn on Logos” in The Gospel of John 1:1-51. 37 Chittick, C. William, Sufism: A Beginner’s Guide, Oxford: Oneworld 2008, p. 75. 38 Chittick, p. 64. 39 Chittick, p. 109. 40 E.g. the mourning is forbidden in Mandaean community. Drower, Ethel Stefana, The Mandeans of Iraq and

Iran, Their Cults, Customs, Magic Legends, and Folklore, Oxford 1937, p. 180-181.

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Sufi saint.41 The death is a second birth and entering into the sacred unity with God, which

was known even to the Gnostics, as well as the bridal symbolism.42 We know this from a

Gnostic tombstone “You entered the bridal chamber and deathless ascended to the bosom of

the Father.”43 and from the Logion 75 of Jesus: “Many are standing at the door, but it is the

solitary who will enter the bridal chamber.”44

3. Conclusion

We do not know for sure, why has Sufism so much common with Gnosticism. The

reason is maybe, that both of these systems are essentially the mystical ways, how to

experience the original religion (Judaism, Christianity or Islam,) in a deeper sense and how to

unite with God. We can also admit that the Gnostic Christianity could influence the early

stage of Islam45 and that many Gnostics (e.g. Manicheans, Mandaeans or Christians) could

convert to Islam and bring the ideas of their old religion into the Islamic theology. These

converts are called “the clients” (mawali).46

41 Schimmel, p. 240. 42 Rudolph, p. 246. 43 From a tombstone of female Gnostic Flavia Sophe (Rome, 3rd century), Rudolph, p. 212. 44 (NHC II 2, 46,11b–13a), Robinson, p. 126. More about the wedding of the soul is written in the The Exegesis

on the Soul (NHC II 6, 132,2-134,6), Robinson, p. 183-185. 45 A view held especially in works by Günter Lüling (only English translation from his books is A challenge to

Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 2003).

46 Culianu, Ioan Petru, „Gnosticism“, in: Eliade, Mircea (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 5, New York: Macmillan 1987, p. 575.

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Literature:

Barnstone, Willis (ed.), The Gnostic Bible, Boston: Shambhala 2003.

Bearman, P. J. (ed.), The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leden: Brill 2000.

Böwering, Gerhard, “The Concept of Time in Islam”, in: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 141/1, 1997, p. 55-66.

Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen, „A Rehabilitation of Spirit Ruha in Mandaean Religion“, in: History of Religions 22/1, The University of Chicago Press 1982, p. 60-84.

Chittick, C. William, Sufism: A Beginner’s Guide, Oxford: Oneworld 2008.

Drower, Ethel Stefana, The Mandeans of Iraq and Iran, Their Cults, Customs, Magic Legends, and Folklore, Oxford 1937.

Eliade, Mircea (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Religion, New York: Macmillan 1987.

Halm, Heinz, The Empire of Mahdi: The rise of the Fatimids, Leden: Brill 1996.

Jalal al-Din Rumi, The Masnavi, Volume 1, transl. Jawid A. Mojaddedi, Oxford University Press 2004.

Kropáček, Luboš, Súfismus: Dějiny islámské mystiky, Praha: Vyšehrad 2008.

Nagel, Tilman, The History of Islamic Theology: From Muhammad to the Present, Princeton: Wiener 2000.

Robinson, James McConkey (ed.), The Nag Hammadi library in English, Leiden: Brill 1988.

Rudolph, Kurt, Gnosis: The Nature and History of Gnosticism, Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark Limited 1984.

Schimmel, Annemarie, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, The University of North Carolina Press 1975.

Shah, Idries, The Sufis, New York: Anchor Books 1971.