Summary: book Discovering the Humanities, Sayre, lectures · 2017-10-31 · Sayre - Discovering the Humanities Hoofdstuk 1. The Prehistoric Past and the Earliest Civilazations Prehistoric

Summary: book "Discovering the Humanities," Sayre, lectures

Gesch. en theorie van kunsten & media A (Rijksuniversiteit Groningen)

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Sayre - Discovering the Humanities Hoofdstuk 1. The Prehistoric Past and the Earliest Civilazations Prehistoric peoples: peoples who lived before the time of writing and so of recorded history. They drew on the walls of caves. Cave by Chauvet is different because it has drawings comparable to those a contemporary artist might have done. There were other comparable artworks produced but did not survive.

- the Paleolithic, Old Stone Age * game and wild plants * the cultures were small, scattered, nomadic * there was some interaction between the various groups- the ice covering began to recede around 10000 BCE * agriculture began to replace hunting and gathering * there came a nomadic lifestyle - Neolithic, New Stone Age * in the great river valleys of Middle East and Asia * distinct centers of people involved in a common pursuit began to form more sophisticated civilizations: a social, economic and political entity distinguished by the ability to express itself through images and written language * a larger population � increased production of food and other goods � trade � need administrative elite to organize (and war)

The beginnings of culture head question: What features characterize the beginnings of human cultures? culture: the set of values, beliefs and behaviors that governs or determines a common way of living formed by a group of people and passed on from one generation to the next. Agency and Ritual: Cave art - why are these paintings made? * they possessed some sort of agency (they have power or authority over the world) o mostly hunting, but not in Chauvet. * some sort of ritual space (gateways to the death or dream world) - Lascaux * Animals are naturalistic painted, the person is abstract - Chauvet * the use of color suggest some sacred or symbolic function * perspectival drawing, use of shades and modeling = realistic, naturalism * the predate other cave paintings by at least 10000 years! � art does not evolve in a linear progression from awkward beginnings to more sophisticated representations.


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Paleolithic Culture and Its Artifacts the earliest evidence of a culture coming into being are the stone artifacts of Homo sapiens around 100000- 120000 years ago. * hunter gatherers * use of fire, carving of stone tools * buried their dead in ritual ceremonies * living in caves but also build houses of mammoth bones. - Art * small carved sculptural objects * large number of female figures (Willendorf Venus) o ritual purpose � fertility and childbearing o her navel is not carved � the carved has preconized the woman in the raw stone o more women figures � women played a central role in Paleolithic culture. The Rise of Agriculture the ice covering the Northern Hemisphere receded farther northward. Temperatures warmed. * the snow developed into grassy plains and abundant forests * bow and arrow, dugout boats, domesticated dogs, cattles and goats * they cultivated the more edible grasses * they started to irrigate at the rivers in the Middle East and Asia Neolithic Pottery Across Cultures the transition from cultures based on hunting and fishing to cultures based on agriculture led to the increased use of pottery vessels. - 'Susa': highly stylized animals (Ibex) probably as a symbol of plenty. 5000-4000 BCE - Europe: potters wheel 300 BCE, the first mechanical and technological breakthrough in history Neolithic Ceramic Figures After making pots it was logical to also fire sculptural figures. - Nok peoples who lived in modern Nigeria. * 800 – 600 BCE * scholars have argued that the technical and artistic sophistication of works by the Nok and other roughly contemporaneous groups suggest that it is likely there are older artistic traditions in West Africa that have not as yet been discovered. The Neolithic Megaliths of Northern Europe megaliths or big stones in Britain and France. Constructed without the use of mortar and represent the most basic form of architectural construction. They were designed for to be permanent structures. - Scholars disagree about their significance * the stones may have marked out a ritual procession route * they symbolized the body and the process of growth and maturation - Cromlech: 'Stonehenge' (2750 – 1500 BCE) * maybe a burial ground


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* it was one half of a monumental pairing: one in timber to represent the transience of life, the other in stone marking the eternity of the ancestral dead.

The role of myth in prehistoric cultural life head question: what is the role of myth in prehistoric culture? A myth is a story that a culture assumes is true. It also embodies the culture's views and beliefs abouts its world, often serving to explain otherwise mysterious natural phenomena. Myth in the Native American Cultures of the Southwest. The Pueblo trace their ancestry back to the Anasazi 900 – 1300 CE. * no written record, just ruins and arifacts. * accomplished in pottery making, decorating abstract, largely geometric shapes and patterns. → the remarkable thing about he Pueblo peoples, who despite the fact that they speak several different languages share a remarkably common culture, is that many aspects of their culture have survived and are practised today much as they were in ancient times. * the village is the centre of culture and the world * kiva: a ceremonial enclosure that is usually partly underground and serves as the centre of village life. * their dances tell stories that relate to the experiences of the Pueblo peoples * The beginning of life through “Sun People”, after they seek to find the sacred “middle place” → they are transformed from indeterminate, salamander-like creatures into their ultimate human form, and their world is transformed from chaos to order. Pueblo emergence tales reflect the general beliefs of most Neolithic peoples. These includes the following: * belief that the forces of nature are inhabited by living spirits, which we call animism. * belief that nature's behaviour can be compared to human behaviour, thus explaining what otherwise would remain inexplicable. * belief that humans can communicate with the spirits of nature, and that, in return for a sacrificial offering or a prayer, the gods might intercede on their behalf. ? Japan?? The main sanctuary at Ise consist of wooden beams and a thatched roof. Ise is exceptional in its use of these plain and simple materials. It embodies the basic tenet of Shinto, and also the continuity and renewal of a tradition where wood, rather than stone has always been the principal building material.

Mesopotamia: Power and Social Order in the Early Middle East. Head question: what characteristics distinguish the ancient civilazations of Mesopotamia, and how do they differ from that of the Hebrews? Ziggurat: A pyramidal temple structure consisting of successive platforms wit outside staircases and shrine at the top. Woolley discovered one of the richest treasure troves in the history of archaeology in the ruins of


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the ancient city of Ur. Sumerian Ur, the Sum The temple structure at Ur is the most fully preserved and restored one. * to evoke the mountains surrounding the river valley * or symbolized a bridge between heaven and earth * visitors brought an offering the 'dedicatory statues' Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia the nature of Mesopotamian religion remained relatively constant across the centuries. With the exception of the Hebrews, the religion was polytheistic, consisting of multiple gods and goddesses connected to the forces of nature. Human society was merely part of the larger society of the universe governed by these gods and a reflection of it. The Mesopotamian ruler acts as the intermediary between the gods and humankind. His ultimate responsibility is the behaviour of the gods. Royal Tombs of Ur religion was central to the people of Ur. Multiple burials and the evidence of elaborate burial rituals, suggest that members of a king or queen's court accompanied the ruler to the grave. 'Royal Standard of Ur' the represent war and peace, military victory. * social perspective or hieratic scale: the most important figure are represented as larger than the others. * one of the earliest examples of historical narrative

Akkad The Akkadians in the area of modern Baghdad. Sargon 'King of the Fout Quarters of the World' because he had conquered vitually all other cities in Mesopotamia. He equated himself with the god, a status bestowed upon Akkadian rulers from Sargon's time forward. Stories of abandonment, orphanhood and being a foundling raised by foster parents will become a standard feature in the narratives of mythic heroes. Although the Akkadian language was very different from Sumerian the two cultures coexisted peacefully. The Akkadians adopted Sumerian culture and customs and their style of cuneiform writing. The Akkadian language became the common language of Mesopotamia. 'Head of an Akkadian Man' Bronze, highly realistic, it depicts a man who appears powerful and majestic. It is the earliest monumental work made by the lost-wax casting technique. Babylon 1800 BCE Hammurabi imposed order on Babylon, where laxness and disorder, if not chaos, reigned. `Law Code of Hammurabi’ A giant stele. The first of tis kind. It is a record of decisions and decrees made by Hammurabi over the course of some 40 years of his reign. Its purpose was to celebrate his sense of justice and the wisdom of his rule: - principle of talion: an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. It punished the violence or injustice


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perpetuated by one free person upon another, but violence by an upper-class person on a lower class person was penalized much less severely. Slaves enjoyed no legal protection at all. - the code tells us much about the daily live of Mesopotamian people. - it is a gift of a king to his people - the stele established what amounts to a uniform code throughout Mesopotamia and it established the rule of law for a millennium. - written law would remove justice from the discretion of the ruler and replace it by a legal establishment of learned judges charged with enacting the king’s statutes. Mesopotamian Literature and the Epic of Gilgamesh an epic is a long, narrative poem in elevated language that follows characters of a high position through a series of adventures, often including a visit to the world of the dead. The scope of an epic is large. The supernatural world of gods and goddesses usually plays a role in the story, as do battles in which the hero demonstrates his strength and courage. The poem’s language is suitably dignified, often consisting of many long, formal speeches. List of various heroes or catalogs of their achievements are frequent. They are often compilations of preexisting myths and tales and the outline of the story is usually known to its audience. The poet’s contributions is the artistry brought to the subject, demonstrated through the use of epithet’s, metaphors and similes. The epic illuminates the development of a nation or race. It is a national poem, describing a people’s common heritage and celebrating its cultural identity. the Epic of Gilgamesh’ - Sargon 2 depicted himself at the gates of Khorsabad in the traditional honed crown of Akkad, and the beard of Sumer: all Mesopotamian history. - it preserves the historical lineage of all Mesopotamian Kings. The tale embodies their own heroic grandeur, and thus the grandeur of their peoples. - it is the earliest known version of the flood story that occurs also in the Hebrew Bible, with Utnapishtim in the role of the biblical Noah. - it is the first known literary work to confront the idea of death. Which is the very embodiment of the unknown. - it shows the heroes very human, limitations, their own powerlessness in the face of the ultimate unknown- death.

The Hebrews the Hebrews were a people forced out of their homeland in the Mesopotamian basin in about 2000 BCE. Everything we know about this time we know from the Hebrew Bible. The stories represent the Hebrews’ attempt to maintain their sense of their own history and destiny. But it would be a mistake to succumb to the temptation to read the Hebrew Bible as an accurate account of the historical record. It contains a fair share of mythologizing. The Hebrews differed from other Near Eastern cultures in that their religion was monotheistic. ‘Chosen People’ means that the Jews were chosen to set an example of a higher moral standard – not choses in the sense of favored.


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Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew Bible - tells the story of the creation of the world out of a ‘formless void’ - it posits humankind as easily tempted by evil - it shows the reward for having ‘walked with God’, the basis of the covenant. Moses and the Ten Commandments The biblical story of Moses and the Ten Commandments embodies the centrality of the written word to Jewish culture. Their monotheistic religion was thus also an ethical and moral system derived from an omnipotent God. In the Sinai desert the Hebrews forged the principal tenets of a new religion that would eventually be based on the worship of a single god. This God has multiple names, why?: - it demonstrates the multiple authorship of the Bible - the Hebrews originally worshipped many gods - the names reflect different aspects of his divinity or the different roles that he might assume The body of laws outlined in the Torah is quite different from the code of Hammurabi. It is not an ethical code. Perhaps because the Hebrews were once themselves aliens and slaves, their law treats the lowest members of society as human beings. At least under the law, class distinctions, with the exception of slaves, did not exist in Hebrew society, and punishment was levied equally. Above all else, rich and poor alike were united for the common good in a common enterprise, to follow the instructions for living as God provided.

Solomon, the Prophets, and the Diaspora the scriptural covenant between God and the Hebrews was the model for the relationship between the Hebrew king and his people. Each provided protection in return for obedience and fidelity. The same relationship existed between the family patriarch and his household. His wife and children were his possessions, whom he protected in return for their unerring faith in him. Hebrew culture was dominated by prophets, they instructed the people in the ways of living according to the laws of the Torah, and they more or less freely confronted anyone guilty of wrongful actions, even the Hebrew Kings. Hebrew culture would have a profound impact on Western civilization. The Jews provided the essential ethical and moral foundation for religion in the West, including Christianity and Islam, both of which incorporate Jewish teaching into their own thought and practice. In the Torah, we find the basis of the law as we understand and practice it today. So moving and universal are the stories recorded in the Torah that over the centuries they have inspired countless works of art, music and literature. Most important, the Hebrews introduced to the world the concept of ethical monotheism: the idea that there is only one God, and that God demands that humans behave in a certain way, and rewards and punishes accordingly. Few concepts have had a more far-reaching effect on history and culture.


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the Persian Empire 522 – 486 BCE The Persians ruled a vast empire that stretched from Egypt to the Ukraine. Darius let a palace built by artisans and workers from all over the Persian Empire to reflect the diversity his peoples. Rulers are depicted at Persepolis in relief sculpture with Assyrian beards and headdresses. In typical Mesopotamian fashion, they are larger that other people in the works. These decorations further reflect the Persians sense that all the peoples of the region owed them allegiance.

1. 4 The Stability of Ancient Egypt: Flood and Sun head question: What accounts for the stability of Egyptian culture? civilization in Mesopotamia developed across the last three millennia BCE almost simultaneously with civilization in Egypt. The two civilizations have much in common - they are formed around river systems - they were agrarian societies that depended on irrigation - their economies were hostage to the river systems - they built massive architectural structures dedicated to their gods - they both developed forms of writing - the rulers authority was cemented by his association with divine authority - their religion was polytheistic what most distinguishes Egyptian from Mesopotamian culture is the relative stability of the former. Mesopotamia was rarely united as a single entity and when it was, it was through force. In contrast, political transition in Egypt was dynastic. The Nile and Its Culture Like the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the Nile could be said to have made Egypt possible. The cycle of flood and sun made Egypt one of the most productive cultures in the ancient world and one of the most stable. In this land of plenty, great farms flourished and wildlife abounded in the marshes. In fact, the Egyptians linked the marsh to the creation of the world and represented it that way in the famous hunting scene that decorates the ‘tomb of Nebamun’ Scholars divide Egyptian history into three main periods of achievement. The Old Kingdom - Almost all of the conventions of Egyptian art were established during the first period. The Middle Kingdom – the ‘classical’ literary language was first produced. The New Kingdom– a period of prosperity that saw a renewed interest in art and architecture. Egypt continuous cultural tradition is history’s clearest example of how peace and prosperity go hand in hand with cultural stability. Egypt was a theocracy, a state ruled by a god or by the (sun) god’s representative. Egypt’s government was indistinguishable from its religion. Balance in all things was the constant aim of the individual, the state and Egyptians believed, the gods. Whereas in Mesopotamia the flood was largely a destructive force, in Egypt it had a more complex meaning. It could be destructive, but without it their culture could not endure. So, in Egyptian art and culture a more complex way of thinking about nature and life developed. Every


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aspect of Egyptian life is countered by an opposite and equal force. Egyptian Religion: Cyclical Harmony The religion reflected an ordered universe where everything was to be part of a grand and harmonious design. A person who did not disrupt this harmony did not fear death because its spirit would live on forever. At the heart of this religion were creation stories that explained how the gods and the world came into being. Chief among the Egyptian gods was Re, god of the sun. Not only did the orderly functioning of social and political events depend upon the king’s successful communication with the gods, but so did events of nature. Like the king, all the other Egyptian gods descend from Re, as if part of a family. The kingship was also cyclical. The cyclical movement through opposing forces were embodied in stories. It is one of the earliest instances of a system of religious and philosophic thought that survives even in contemporary thought. Pictorial Formulas in Egyptian Art In Egyptian art, not only the figures but the scenes themselves unite two contradictory points of view into a single image. 'Palette of Narmer' – technically an everyday object used for grinding pigments and making body or eye paint. * the artist represents the various parts of the human figure in what the Egyptians thought was their most characteristic view. So, the face, arms, legs and feet are in profile, with the left foot advanced in front of the right. As a result, the viewer sees each person in a composite view. *made for burial and afterlife. The Old Kingdom The Egyptians buried their dead on the west side of the Nile, where the suns sets, a symbolic reference to death and rebirth, since the sun always rises again. The pyramid was the first monumental royal tomb. A massive physical manifestation of the reality of the king’s death. It was also the symbolic embodiment of his eternal life. It would endure for generations. It was also necessary to preserve the body after death so that the ba and the ka might still recognize it for eternity. All the necessities of the afterlife were placed in the pyramid's burial chamber with the king's body. Funerary sculpture served the same purpose as the pyramids themselves – to preserve and guarantee the king's existence after death, thereby providing a kind of rebirth. The New Kingdom and Its Moment of Change Amenhotep 4 abolished the pantheon of Egyptian gods and established a monotheistic religion in which the sun disk Aten was worshipped exclusively. Other gods were still acknowledged, but they were considered to be inferior to Aten to be worth worshipping. This type of monotheism is known as henotheism. Amenhotep's new religion may have influenced the Hebrews, whose stay in Egypt was contemporaneous with Amenhotep's rule.


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Why would he have substituted monotheism for Egypt's traditional polytheistic religion? * It had to do with the power of the pharaoh. With the pharaoh representing the one god who mattered, all religious justification for the power held by a priesthood dedicated to the traditional gods was gone. A New Art: The Amarna Style previously, Egyptian art had been remarkably stable because its principles were considered a gift of the gods – thus perfect and eternal. But now, the perfection of the gods was in question, and the principles of art were open to re-examination as well. A new art replaced the traditional canon of proportion with realism, and a sense of immediacy, even intimacy. 'Akhenaten and his Family' * the king is shown with illness and wife and children.

3 Empire

Urban Life and Imperial Majesty in Rome (China & India)

THIS CHAPTER: rise of Roman civilization from its Greek and Etruscan origins in the sixth century bce to about 313 ce, when empire was Christianized

(China and India developed independently of the west)

Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria - Ruin of town tells more about Roman civilization than any other city in empire

- Founded 100 ce as colony of retired roman soldiers

- Entirely new city, model of roman sense of order

- Based on rigid grid of roman military camp incl. all amenities of Roman life(p. 81, 3.2)

- Product of conscious Roman decision to “Romanize” the world Middle of third century: empire begun to seek control of entire Mediterranean basin

- Building of cities like Thamugadi

- Taking up roman customs and law

- Rome = center of culture - Spread of roman empire: p. 82, 3.3

Rome admired Greece for Cultural achievements - from philosophy to sculpture - It’s own art developed from Greek- Hellenic models

- BUT admired own achievements as well -> art differs

o Current events and real people (leaders) instead of mythological events and heroes

- All the world should stand in awe of state’s accomplishments ROME

- Origins of roman culture: twofold – Greeks & Etruscans - Greek

o Colonized southern regions of Italy

- Etruscans

o Homeland Etruria (modern Tuscany)


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o 9th -8th centuries bce became known for mineral recourses o Known for skill as sculptors (bronze+terra cotta)

- Rome developed geographically between those two cultures

o On the bank of river Tiber (trade route and access to sea) o Rome= crossing place Etruscan and Greek culture

- Competing foundation myths

o Greek myth: Aeneid (Virgil) § Founding by Trojan warrior Aeneas, who at the end of Trojan war sailed oof to found a new

homeland for its people

o Etruscan myth: Romulus and Remus § Twininfants who were left to die on the banks of Tiber but rescued by a she-wolf and raised

by shepherd à decided to build city at saving spot - Romulus becomes ruler

o Later myths had merged

Republican Rome

- Romulus established distinction between patricians & plebeians o Patricians: landowning aristocrats ( priests, magistrates, lawyers and judges)

o Plebeians: poorer class (craftspeople, merchants and laborers) - 510 bce Romans decide to rule themselves without a monarch

o Situation became similar to 5th century bce Athens

- Every free male was citizen but they didn’t enjoy equal privileges o Senate (creates law) was exclusively patrician

o Plebeians formed own legislative (plebisites) but had no chance against Patricians

o 287 bce finally became accepted

- 509 bce, expulsion of Etruscan kings marks beginning of Roman Rebublic o Political organization in which citizens are source of legitimacy&sovereignty o Lucius Junius Brutus founder and first consul

§ Head of a man (Fig. 3.4) probably presents only “type” of Roman founding father (pater-> patrician) not Brutus himself

o Paternalistic relationship=patronage : every plebian chose patrician as his patron

§ Patricians (pater) duty to represent plebian in any matter of law + provide assortment of assistance

§ Plebian=family owned pater total obedience = pietas “dutifulness” § Patronage reflected family’s central role in Roman culture

• Emperor = pater patriae (father of the fatherland)

• Roman rule

- When Rome conquered a region, it established permanent colonies of veteran soldiers o Conquered people gained Roman citizenship if they proved loyal to Rome o In this way Republic gained loyalty of its colonies

- Accomplishments of roman expansion created new kind of citizen: equites o Wealthy businessmen, no landowners therefore not patricians

- soon in open conflict with Patricians - Patrician senate feared loss of power -> Senat refused treaties of Pompey


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- Pompey the Great joindes forces with Gaius Julius Caesar and another militarian leader � First Triumvirate

A divided Empire

- First Triumvirate soon dominated political life ( but fragile relationship) - Caesar: control over Gaul (49 bce)

o Commentaries: Veni,Vidi,Vici ( statement captures militaristic nature of Rome) - Pompey joined forces with Senate – Caesar defeated him - Caesar assumed dictatorial control over Rome and treated Senate with disdain

o March 15, 44 bce stabbed by group of senators

Cicero and the Politics of Rhetoric - rhetorican Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 bce)

o specialized on art of political persuasion o first recognized power of Latin language to communicate

� more powerful than Greek o style: clarity and eloquence (essay on duty, p.85) o argument extends back to Plato+Aristotle, but structure purely Roman

Portrait Busts, Pietas and Politics - a major Roman art form: portrait bust

o portraits of patricians rather than equites o even more realistic than Greek ancestors

� form of realism called: verism (“truth”) � resulted from wax masks

- comparison Greek and Roman busts o both propagandistic in intend o differed in age of model

� Greek: portrayed young man � youthful possibility+ambition � Roman: portrayed old man �wisom + experience of age

o Roman image celebrates pietas, Roman virtue of respect towards gods,fatherland, parents

Imperial Rome & Augustus 27 bce Octavian came to senate to give up all power+provinces (rehearsed event)

- result: Senate gave him power control all Roman territory + semidivine title Augustus - he portrayed himself as near-deity Augustus of primaporta (Fig. 3.6)

o idealized, adopts pose and ideal proportions of Polyclitus’s Doryphoros o gaze recalles of Alexander the Great (Greek hero) o Augustus self, chose to always be depicted as young and ideal leader

- Encouraged political careers of all capable individuals o they owned everything to Augustus � their loyalty strengthened his power

Family Life - demise of family life on Roman society ( considered as crisis by Augustus) - Augustus criminalized adultery and passed many other laws to promote family life

o The lager an aristocrat’s family the greater his political advantage - Ara Pacis Augustus (Altar of Augustus, Fig. 3.7) � a celebration of family

o Own large family(priests, senators etc.) presented as a model for all Roman citizens


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o Realism of scene typically Roman � Spatial depth, far away=low relief, closer = high relief � Technique encouraged viewers to feel part of the same space

o Also demonstrates growing prominence of women � Wife Livia is depicted holding family together , trusted advisor for sons

and husband � Figure of idealized womanhood in Rome � Married women retained legal identity

Literary Rome: Virgil, Horace and Ovid - two major poets Virgil and Horace glorified Augustus and his causes ( not by choice) - Ovid was less supportive -> banished from Rome

Virgil and the Aeneid

- 31 bce Virgil began work on epic poem designed to rival Homer’s Iliad o �provide Roman/Augustus with grand founding myth

- previously wrote two poems: Eclogues and Georgics o importance of hard work, order and virtues of agrarian life o Greorgics served as precursor to Aeneid

� Written in Dactylic hectameter ( iambic pentameter), verse form Homer used

- Story of Aeneid: read p. 88 paragraph 2 - Poem is account of Romans founding but ALSO moving essay on human destiny

o Achieving and sustaining values and principles of Roman culture o Presentation of war ( moral tragedy) for Augustus necessary o Poem also profound plea for peace

The Horatian Odes

- Horace (65-8 bce) was a close friend of Virgil impressed by Augustus o Many odes ( lyrics poems of elaborate&irregular meter) imitated Greek

precedents - Odes subjects: patriotic pronouncements, privit incidents, joy of countryside - No Roman poet more gracefully harmonized Greek reverence for beauty with Roman

concern of duty+obligation Ovid’s Art of Love and Metamorphoses

- Ovid talented for love songs � Ars Amatoria o Open disregard of Augustus family-centered lifestyle o Augustus exiled him to remotest part of Empire (Tomis)

- Metamorphoses o Collection of stories describing change of shape from divine to human o Dactylic hexameters o Important for later litgerature, complete in survey of classical myths (bsp:

Narcissus) o Tells stories in moving& memorable way

Augustus and the City of Marble


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- Augustus biggest problem : poor infrastructure of Rome o Dreadful housing conditions, little water and food, no space

- He called for series of public works which would serve people of Rome+himself - Grand civic improvements= kind of imperial propaganda

o Underscoring his power and role as pater o Elicit public’s loyalty

- A. build aqueducts to bring more water, housing barely improved - Ambitious building program: elegant public spaces(“I found a city of brick and I left a city of

Marble”) � but only a veneer of Marble over brick - 2nd century ce: Rome would be one of most beautiful cities of the world

Public Works: The Aqueduct and the Arch - A. ambitions reflected in work of architect Vitruvius

o Wrote the ten-volume On Architecture � Would become extremely influential in Renaissance - artists interest in

classical design o Also wrote over how to satisfy needs for water

� Enormous aqueduct: Aqua Claudia � Romans perfected the Greek arch and vault to carry waterpipes

• Round arch , barrel vault, groin vault : construction see p. 91 Fig. 3.10

The Colosseum - built by Vespasian (69-79 ce) former commander in Palestine - named after Colossus, Statue of Nero as sun god that stood infront of it - approx. 50,000 audiences could enter through 76 vaulted arcades - made possible through invention of concrete (Gussbeton, gegeoten beton) - construction (Fig. 3.11)

o wooden floor: arena lay over rooms and tunnels where animals, gladiators housed o each level different architectural order

� 1. Tusan heaviest, sturdiest elements � 2. Ionic to � 3. Corinthian (favorite) lightest, most decorative elements

The Imperial Roman Forum – Forum Romanum Fig. 3.12

- enormous building project undertaken by the Five Good Emperors o Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Pius, Aurelius 96 – 180 ce

- Chief public square of Rome o Comparable to Greek agora

- Symbol of imperial power ( Prosperity and Peace) - Julius Caesar, first builder of own Forum which Augustus later paved over and built a

new Forum of his own - � beginning of competition among emperors to outdo their forerunners by creating

own more spectacular forums - result: extremely densely built city center - last and largest forum: Trajan, with basilica Ulpia - stability was due when Aurelius insane son Commodus (180) took control


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Triumphal Arches and Columns - Arch of Titus ( Fig. 3.14 and Fig. 3.15)

o Memorial arch on Sacred way where Titus died fighting the Jews o Decorated with narrative reliefs (realistic, creates sense of real space and

movement) - Triumphal arches because triumphant armies marched through them - Intended to symbolize Rome’s political power an military might (not technically

triumphal) - Ceremonial Column

o Similar symbolic meaning + power of male virility o Built to celebrate military victories (narrative) o Column of Trajan: see Fig. 3.16, 3.17

� Laid out, 625 meters long � 2500 figures are bringing the fruits of civilization to the world (what

Romans believed to be their destiny) The Pantheon Fig. 3.18, 3.19, 3.20

- one of most ambitious buildings by the Good Emperors - temple to “all the gods” - originally long foreground - largest built dome in Europe before 20th century

o oculus= opening at the top � admits light –> Jupiter’s watchful eye

- mirrors the cosmos ( vault of the heavens) - Romans concentrated on size: Pantheon is concerned primarily with realizing a

single, whole, uninterrupted interior space ( same as whole Empire) - Pompeii

79 ce: eruption of volcano Vesuvius – burying Pompeii in volcanic ash and rock - eyewitness of Roman commander Plinty the Elder’s son , reading p.97, 3.3 - much of what is known about everyday Roman life is result of Vesuvius eruption

o many homes and artefacts were well preserved Domestic Architecture: The Domus

- Pompeii was something like a resort and gives good sense of Roman domus o = townhouse of wealthier class of citizen o House of Silver Wedding design see: Fig. 3.22 +3.21 o Domus � measure of Roman’s social standing o Clients came to show respect (called salutatio) o Center of Domus was garden: peristyle courtyard

� Provides plants and trees � Also visual pleasure � Symbol for fertility,fecundity and household self

Wall Painting: Mosaics decorated floors and rooms in domus Idealistic representation of garden Fig 3.23


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SAMENVATTING SAYRE THE FLOWERING OF RELIGION 4 The Dome of the Rock; temple gebouwd op een heilige heuvel in Jerusalem. De heuvel waarop volgens de moslims: Ismael werd geofferd door Abraham. Volgens het oude testament was dit Isaak. Christendom had in 600 jaar tijd Zuid-europa overgenomen. Islam kwam in 600 als grote concurrent vooral in het Midden-Oosten. Buddhism verspreide zichvooral in India en Azie. Joden: Joodse religie was erg ‘Messianic’. (hier hebben we het over de tijd voor christus) (geloofden dat er een messiah kwam die het joodse volk kwam redden, er was veel oproer over omdat veel mensen beweerden een messiah te zijn. En dit was niet bevordelijk voor ‘the growing secratianism’. – verdeeldheid binnen het jodendom en samensmelten met romeinen Secte= small group that separates itself from the larger religious movement, ze schermden zich zelf af en beweerden dat hun secte beter was dan de rest van de wereld. Zij waren goed, de rest was slecht. De joden waren erg streng volgens eigen regels, en als iemand beweerde dat hij joods was maar niet precies dezelfde regels had dan was het voor de secte al geen echte jood. 3 verschillende joodse sectes: - Pharisees -Sadducees -Essenes – deze was de meest afgezonderde en de meest conservatieve van de drie. Er zaten geen vrouwn in de secte zodat ze celibatair konden leven. Ze leefden in de stad Qumran. Hier zijn ook de oudste Hebreeuwse teksten gevonden uit de tijd van Jezus. De oudste versie van het Oude Testament. Deze bestond uit: Torah-> 5 boeken van mozes, Nevi’im – profeten Ketubim – wrtitings King Herod (leefde ong. 37 vC tot 4 Nchristus.) was een Romeinse koning die beweerde dat hij Joods was, en probeerde zich te verzoenen met de joden. Hij tolereerde het jodendom en had een enorm bouwprogramma: Rebuilding Jerusalem, also with The Second Temple. Na de dood van King Herod volgden zijn zoons op en werden ze steeds intoleranter tegenover Joden wat leidde tot 68 CE Destroying Qumran (de joodse stad) They renamed Judea ( land of Jews) in Palestine. 135 CE Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem als romeinse stad, verboden voor joden, er volgde veel massamoorden op joden. Christenen: Christenen komen voort uit 1 van de sectes van het jodendom. Jezus van Nazareth geboren 4 years Bchr. Hij werd op latere leeftijd een rabbi ( geleerde expert van joodse wetten) Hij werd de Messiah. SON OF GOD Het feit dat de secte geloofde in the divinity (goddelijkheid) of Jezus was een probleem en Jezus werd gekruizigd - > stenen tombe - > herees - > en met de herrijzing was the foundation of het Christendom.


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Evangelists – bearer of good ene Paul heeft eerste echte Christelijke geschriften geschreven, deze gingen over beschrijvingen van Jezus Christ. Dit werd het Nieuwe Testament en deze verspreidde zich erg snel rond 70/90 AC. opmerkelijk: geen maagdelijke geboorte en Jezus was een jood. Christenen gebruikten symbolen als kunst, niet literair. Ook is er niet veel bewaard gebleven. ‘estethic dimension less import than its message’

The good Shepherd. symboliek van het lam: herise as the lamb of god. - goed gemodeleerd bedekt lichaam, ruimtelijk door houding van het hoofd en zicht van de ogen, en beweeglijk door dat te zien is dat het sheep struggles. Gebruikte symbolen: The FISH Alpha & Omega (begin tot eind) Iconography – literair en figuratief symboliseren voor een verhaal. Christendom groeide het meest in 200/400 CE en ging gepaard met afname van romeinse macht. Diocletianus was emperor : 284 – 305 . Introduceerde de Tetrarchy : Dit was een 4delige Monarchie. Hij vergoddelijkte de rol als emperor. Deed alsof hij gestuurd was door god.

Constantine was een opvolger en stichtte: het Christelijke Constantinople. Constantine was de eerste Christelijke emperor die er voor uitkwam. Maar deed niet tegen Pagans ( niet christelijke mensen ) Constantijn ontwikkelde een Ecumenical - > council of Church leaders , ze maakten the Creed: een verenigde leergedachte van de kerk, stelde vast dat er 1 heilige karholieke and apostelic Church was, deze was universeel en gebasseerd op de lessen van God. The Creed: artikel van geloof. Belief in the invisible, virgin birth of jezus, holy spirit, herrijzing van de dood. Muziek: Abrose was een Bishop in Milaan Schreef Hymns: (kerklieden) die gezongen moesten worden. Simpele melodieuse liederen. 8 coupletten van 4 regels. (short-long-short-long) Antiphonal methode: where one side of the coir responds to the other Saint Peter’s Basilica 320 CE.

check plaatjes in het boek, plattegronden. Harthex -> entrance hall Nave - > middenschip - > 2 aisles (gangpaden) Apse->altar met boog, in het oosten Transept - > doorgang kruisend met het middenschip waardoor er een kruis ontstaan ( latin cross) Clerestory-> Glazen wanden om te verlichten, rijk gedecoreerde ruimte om indruk te maken.


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Santa Constanza Central-plan Church ronde structuren met een dom. Doet denken aan the Dome of rock. Mozaik gedecoreerd, met scenes van bijvoorbeeld: werkers die vruchtenzoeken, transporteren en dan wijnmaken. (plaatje in het boek) Wijn staat dan symbool voor het blood van christus. Dit is een goed voorbeeld vban Syncretism -> wat het samenvoegen is van verschillende ervaringen en ceremonies uit verschillende culturen en deze dan presenteren als een nieuwe vorm.

Dit was erg handig. De christenen gebruikten de ‘pagan’ goden en arts als voorbeelden van christelijke dingen. Handig om pagans christelijke dingen uit te leggen in pagan therms. Er waren verschillende groeperingen rondom romeinse goden. Een eredienst voor 1 of meer goden waaraan ingewijden konden deelnemen. Cults of Bacchus, was populair in rome die overmatig drankgebruik deden. mystery cults waren groeperingen die hun gewoontes geheimhielden Cults of Isis: was gebasseerd op het eb en vloed van de nile. info over CULTS: http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysteriecultus Byzantine: Constantinopel was gebouwd door Constantine 325 CE. Rome was te zwak vergeleken met de germaanse volken en rome ging onder door invasies in 476. Constantinopel werd Hèt centrum van de christenen tot 1453. Romeins en christelijke architectuur waren verweven. Rijk gedecoreerd met pagan art. De christenen negeerden de pagan art en zagen het gewoon als kunst. Volgens Basil the Great (329 – 79) was he tmogelijk om de kunst te zien als literatuur. Niet als theologie of argumenten voor het bestaan van pagan goden. Later werden de pagan temples wel gesloten. Rond 380 werd Christendom officieel maar Romeinse wetten leefden voort. Scholen onderwezen griekse teksten zoals ( illias) en waren nog veel gericht op klassieke teksten. In de 6e century hield dit ook op en werden deze teksten niet meer gebruikt. 476 Rome viel - > germaanse leider Odeacer tot 493. 493 Theodoric the Great till 536. (was christelijk en kwam uit constantinopel) 536 kwam Justinian tot 565. - > herbouwde Constantinopel en het Hagia Sophiaop de plaats waar door rellen een oude tempel was geruineerd. Justinian bracht weer meer eenheid in het romeinse rijk. Hij nam in 535 Noord afrike over en 535 ook Italie.

Hagia Sophia gebouwd door Justinian. Omstreeks 535 in Constantinopel. Procopilus (officiele historicus van justinian die heeft boeken geschreven over het bouwplan van Justinian


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waardoor heel veel details bekend zijn van de bouwwerken, oa. Architecten. De architecten van de Hagia Sophia zijn Isodorus & Anthemius deze zijn ook beide wiskundigen.)

- Grote dom op vierkant vlak. Rust op 4 bogen in de hoeken verbonden met pendentieven. In de dom zijn 40 glazen ramen in een cirkel. - > hemel.

St. Catherine’s Monastery Iconen en afbeeldingen waren belangrijk in Justinian’s architecture. Hij bouwde een vesting St. Catherine. Door opkomst van islam werden afbeeldingen anders wegen verbod op afbeelden van wezens. Iconosslam -> vernietigen van religieuze beelden Hieratic - > islamitische stijl van iconen, die eindeloos verbonden met elkaar waren The art of Ravenna Ravenna is een kleine stad in noord italie waar meeste herkenbare Byzantijnse kunst. De kunst werd gebruikt als propaganda voor vertrouwde goddelijke leiderschap daarcoor werd voor de compositie -> reverse perspective gebruikt. Rise and spread of Islam Mekka, heilige stad van Islam 570 – Mohammed geboren, was vroeg wees, werkte in de woestijn. Toen hij 40 was (610) hoorde hij de stem van Gabriel in de woestijn. Ze zei: ‘Recite’-> hij antwoorde ‘what shall i recite’ -> en daarop volgde dat Mohammed 22 jaar boodschappen van god doorkreeg. Hij schreef deze op in de Qur’an. Hij was de boodschapper van Allah (arabische woord voor god) Islam means - > ‘submission’( berusting) (overgave) 5 pilaren van Islam - Shahadah - > er is 1 god en dat is Allah, Mohammed = messenger - Prajer-> bid naar Mekka 5 keer per dag -Alms - > geef aan de armen - Fasting-> fast 1 maand van elk seizoen, Ramadan, geen eten,drank,tabak,sex,medicijnen gedurende daglicht -Hajj-> elke islamiet moet 1 x in zijn leeftijd pelgrimtocht naar Mekka maken Koran -> 114 chapters -> korter dan het testament en gerangschikt van lange verhalen naar kortere boodschappen. Koran beschikt over hele mooie dichtvorm wat werd gezien als hoogste kunst. Maar zijn verdwenen door vertalingen om niet arabieren te stimuleren de taal te leren. Meeste moslims lezen in het arabisch en de koran mag niet vertaal worden want het is het woord van god. Hadith literature = anecdotes over het leven van Mohammed. Na 100 jaar na de dood van Mohammed begonnen mensen op te schrijven. Hijra was een dag dat Mohammed met volgers naar een oasis ging. En hij richte een commuity op. En deze community moesten de islam voortzetten en verspreiden. Bij means of Jihad (streven, naar zelfcontrole en verspreiding met leger) Kaaka= kubusvormig gebouw, in mekka -> centrale heiligdom, traditie om er 7 x omheen te lopen Nieuwe calender gebaseerd op de maan. 11 dagen korter dan onze kalender. Muhammed built a house - > Medina


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Mosque hypostyle - > noord en zuidkant Portalen gesteunt door palmbomen en bedekt door rieten dag voor bescherming tegen de brandende zon. Gibla-> muur toonde aan waar mekka was Minbar - > spreekgestoelte voor priester Mihrab-> gebedsnis Vrouwen waren welkom, equal. maar mannen mochten 4 vrouwen hebben die ze gelijkwaardig moesten behandelen. Profeten mochten meer. Mohammed had er 10. Hijan-> hoofddoek chador -> burka beide staan niet in de Koran, er staat alleen dat men zich niet te uitdagend moet kleden. Caliphis-> successors to Muhammed - > snel verspreid in 632 tot 710 enorm verspreid. he veroverde gebied was uitgebloeit door oorlog dus makkelijk te overheersen Ze waren sociaal en tolerant. Verboden niks. Mosque bracht mensen samen, werd in de 11e eeuw een leercentre. Waar de koran, wiskunde dichtkunst en astronomie werd bestudeerd. dit heette Madrasas -> Ulama Islam werd dominant in Africa, nam handel over en veel slavengebruik. 1312 Mansa Moussa -> bouwde veel moskeen. ->bouwde Timbuktu ongeveer rond 1312 gemaakt van burnt brick and mud. Werd cultureel centrum voor artiesten en dichters. Mansa Moussa was erg geul voor de armen. Spanje -> Cordoba rond 750 Abdar-rahman bouwde moswuee Cordoba. Moslims in spanje ontdekkten de Algebra en namen nummer system over. Welvarende stad voor medicijnen, wetenschap, welvaart. leercentre of europe. Verspreiding of Buddhism Na de emperor Ashoka (hoofdstuk3) maakte verspreiding van Buddhisme in India, china, korea en japan. 260 CE eerst chinese buddha schrift. Overal boeddha beelden. Boeddha werd niet meteen afgebeeld met de boeddha maar door middel van -> footprints, bomen en olifanten. in de 4th century nam boeddha menselijk vorm aan Top= symbolisering wisdom third eye = spiritual mudra-> houding van de handen Lege hand is physical world of illusion upper hand = nirvana Hoofdstuk 5: Fiefdom and Monastery, Pilgrimage and Crusade Christianity had almost completely disappeared in England after the Romans left in 406. Over the next 200 years, Germanic and Norse tribes – Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians – invited in


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as mercenaries by Romanized British leaders, began to operate on their own and came to dominate cultural life in Britain. Sutton Hoo: burial ship buried in the mount was a lord or chief to whom his followers owed absolute

loyalty, the basis of feudal societies that would later dominate European life in the Middle Ages.

Feudalism: agriculturally based economic system, in which the tenant was obliged to serve the

nobleman (often military) and pay him with goods or produce in exchange for use of a piece of land –

called a fief- and the nobleman’s protection. Noblemen owed allegiance to king (overlord of all

fiefdoms) in return for loyalty, the king rewarded the nobles with gold, weaponry, decorated items

(found at Sutton Hoo)

Two objects discovered at Sutton Hoo show evidence of Christian culture: two silver spoons inscribed

with the names of Saulos and Paulos.(603) Christianity began to reassert itself.

Church adapted feudalism.

All owed allegiance to God. Not protection but salvation. Church became wealthy.

Decorations for sanctuaries: same handiwork as feudal lords but with Christian themes and imagery into

the animal and interlace styles of Germanic and Norse culture.

Property of overseen by clergy (who were feudal lords) developed into monasteries, where like-minded

individuals gathered in pursuit of religious perfection, became centers of learning.

Kloosters promootten het idee van de pilgrimstochten. Redenen:

• Op reis om te boeten voor de zonden.

• Verstedelijking in Europa, minder hygiene, meer ziekte.

• Ziekte gerelateerd aan zonde, boetedoening voor zonde via pilgrimstocht, gered van de ziekte

en verdoemenis in het hiernamaals.

• Economische voordelen.

• Een pilgrimage naar Jeruzalem zou moeten betekenen dat de Kerk de controle van de Moslims

over die regio zou moeten vernietigen, dit wilden ze graag.

• Een pilgrimstocht liet het geloof van de ondernemer zien.

• Het bidden voor vergeving, genezing, vruchtbaarheid, etc. had een betere kans verhoord te

worden als men dichtbij een heilig object of persoon was.

Anglo-saxische cultuur Artistieke stijl van nietchristelijke Germaanse cultuur: symmetrische ontwerp, combinatie van

organische en geometrische vormen, dierenmotieven.

Dit werd in de Middeleeuwen geimiteerd in manuscripten, beeldhouwkunst, kerkelijke versieringen en

wood sculpture.

Engelse taal komt van Anglosaxonse tradities: dagen van de week genoemd naar goden.

Plaatsnamen genoemd naar woorden, bv: bury betekent fort, canterbury is fort van de cantii stam.

Anglosaxonse cultuur draaide om koning en thanes (lords). Koning had z’n eigen huis, thanes ook.

Koning reisde rond en mocht in de huizen van de thanes overnachten ed.

Koning > Thanes (lords) > churls (boeren) > serfs (werkers) >– thralls (slaven)

Wergeld: life-price van een individu. Ieder had z’n eigen waarde.

Beowulf

Oudste engelse epische gedicht. Beowulf verslaat monsters die onder leiding staan van Grendel. Gaat

terug naar huis, regeert 50 jaar, komt draak tegen, vecht en gaat dood. Moraal van het verhaal:

Wanneer je tijd gekomen is ga je. Power, strength, fame and life itself are fleeting. Kan vergeleken

worden met christendom. Beowulf maakt op het laatst een christ-like sacrifice for the greater good.

De eer en moed die Beowulf laat zien zijn in keeping with the values of feudal warrior culture.


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Opmerkelijk: het gedicht gebruikt kennings, compound phrases die normale woorden vervangen, bv sea

= fifelstream, letterlijk sea-monster stream. King = ring-giver.

The merging of pagan and christian styles

Christendom kwam terug in Engeland: Kloosters werden opgezet en paus Gregory I stuurde 40

monniken heen onder leiding van Benedictijnse Augustine om de heidenen te bekeren. Dit mocht niet in

1 keer gebeuren, maar geleidelijk.

Met behulp van de syncretic style:

Een stijl waarbij verschillende principes en practices gecombineerd zijn. Kijk hiervoor naar de carpet

page (blz 148) De versierde letters van de Carpet Page die bedoeld waren om een heidense koning te

eren zijn omgevormd om de christelijke God te eren.

de syncretic style kwam tot bloei in Engeland en Ierland en wordt Hiberno-Saxon genoemd. Dit mengt

de visuele cultuur van de Anglo-Saxon met de textuele traditie van het christendom.

In de scriptoria (werkplaatsen voor monniken) begonnen de monniken met het versieren van de letters

zelf, kijk naar Book of Kells, is mooi. The chief relic of the western world.

De taak van christelijke zendelingen was de mensen bekeren tot God ipv eren van hun koning.

Ze boden geen geld maar redding, spirituele vervulling. De tactiek was om het spirituele te baden in

materiele pracht.

En heidense tradities omvormen tot een context van christelijke aanbidding. Kijk hiervoor naar david

and court musicians, een afbeelding van een scene wat eigenlijk tot Beowulf behoorde maar in de

context van het verhaal van David werd geplaatst.

Carolingian culture Charlemagne wilde Europa verenigen, kerk en staat verenigen in een administratieve en politieke

bureacratie. Hij bekeerde vele heidenen. Hij veroverde Frankrijk, Belgie, Nederland, Zwitserland, bijna

heel Duitsland, Noord Italie en Noord Spanje, en hierom werd hij tot keizer uitgeroepen door Paus Leo

III: the Holy Roman Empire.

Zijn daden werden nog eeuwenlang verteld in gedichten gezongen door jongleurs. Chansons de geste

(song of deeds) bekendste was the Song of Roland. Eerst waarheid, toen legendes, toen een epic.

Werd gezongen in een syllabic setting – een noot per lettergreep.

Het was een strophic – zelfde muziek voor elke stanza van het gedicht.

Het verteld het verhaal Charlemagne’s achterhoede, geleid door z’n neef Roland en kameraad Olivier,

die in de hinderlaag van Moslims liepen.

Roland is een feudal hero: Alle waarden van het feudalisme zitten in het gedicht. Moed en loyaliteit aan

de heerser. Hij offert zich op en wordt een type Jezus.

Roland is een van de eerste expressies van de chivalric code: de kwaliteiten van een ideale ridder, het

reflecteert meer de waardes van de 11e eeuw dan de 8

e.

Feudalisme en chivalry waren krachtige methodes om de sociale orde en politieke harmonie te

bewaren.

Promoting Literacy

Charlemagne wilde de geletterdheid verspreiden. Hij haalde geleerden en kunstenaars naar z’n hof.

Onder hen zat Alcuin, die de persoonlijke leraar van Charlemagne werd. Alcuin wilde een curriculum

(studie) maken om de geletterdheid te bevorderen. Er werden scholen gebouwd om kinderen te leren

lezen.

Verder werd er les gegeven in theologie.

Redenen:


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• Mannen konden the work of the state bureaucracy konden doen, en door de christelijke

lesgeving kon dit met christelijke principes gedaan worden.

• Charlemagne wilde ook het geloof verspreiden, en hiervoor moesten mensen konden lezen en

zingen in de kerk.

The medieval monastery

Het leven in het klooster was eerst best leuk, verschillende condities en regels gelden per klooster.

Maar Charlemagne implementeerde de regels van Benedict of Nursia in het klooster:

• Monastic life as a community of like-minded individuals, all seeking religious perfection,.

• Monk were to live a family life in the pursuit of religious perfection.

• Ze mochten niets bezitten.

• Ze moesten op 1 plek wonen.

• Ze mochten niet trouwen.

• Elke dag werd opgedeeld in 8 delen, the horarium. Zingen en bidden op 8 momenten van de

dag.

Motto: bid en werk

St. Gall was het perfecte klooster.

Functioneel en met perfecte afmetingen ed (voor details blz 153/154.)

Belangrijk: This systematic arrangement reflects an increasing tendency in medieval thinking to regard

Christianity as a logical and rational philosophy of life, based on carefully constructed arguments and

precise definition of parts as orderly as the “rule” of the day in the horarium.

Women in monastic life

Leven in de nonnenkloosters was alleen beschikbaar voor de dochters van aristocraten. Deze konden

veel aanzien krijgen. Een belangrijke vrouw was Hildegard of Bingen.

Deze had ‘visioenen’ die opgeschreven werden in de Scivias (betekent Know the ways of the Lord)

Belangrijk: After describing her vision, she interprets some of the key images. Hildegard’s impulse to

interpret her own words is typical of religious literature in the Middle Ages: It’s primary purpose was to

teach and instruct. But, more than that, Hildegard’s Scivias shares with other visionary and mystical

writing of the period an impulse to make the unknowable vividly present in the mind’s eye of her

audience.

Monastic music

Hildegard maakte Ordo virtutum (Play of the virtues), compositie van teksten en 82 melodieen over

conflict goed/kwaad. Net als de Scivias gemaakt op spirituele waarheden te verduidelijken. Door het

zingen en het spelen van muziek worden de geest, het hart en het lichaam verenigd en de harmonie van

de hemel wordt gerealiseerd op de aarde.

The liturgy had become remarkably unified. Door Charlemagne.

Hij gebruikte een vorm die later de Gregorian Chant werd genoemd.

Het werd plainsong genoemd en het bestond uit monophonic songs: songs for one or many voices

singing in a single melodic line with no harmony.

In z’n simpelste vorm wordt het a capella gezongen (geen muziek) en in syllabic style uitgevoerd (1 noot

per lettergreep)

Neumatic chant: the syllabic style gives way to a form in which each syllable is sung to two or three

notes.

Melismatic chant: a single syllable may be sung to many notes.

The Mass

Rite van de christelijke kerk om Jezus te herdenken door te doen wat hij deed bij het Laatste

Avondmaal: brood breken en wijn drinken.


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Kyrie Eleison (Lord, have mercy) werd drie keer gezongen, dan drie keer Christe Eleison, dan drie keer

Kyrie Eleison, en dit drie keer herhalen.

Belangrijk: The repetition of three phrases three times each is deeply symbolic, the number three

referring to the Trinity, and the three squared (three times three) signifying absolute perfection.

Unieke stijl van Hildegard:

• She uses extremes to create soaring arches that brought heaven and earth together.

• Wider intervals such as fourths and fifths, to create a sense of moving between the divine and

mundane.

Elke plainchant melody had een functie, verschillende liederen werden voor verschillende rituelen

gebruikt.

Charlemagne standardized the liturgy by creating several singing schools. He ordered in the Law of 789,

“instruction shall be given in the psalms, musical notation, chant, the computation of the years and

seasons, and grammar.”

Capetian France and the Norman Conquest

Midden van de 9e eeuw: Noord-Europa werd aangevallen door Vikings.

The Viking invasions fragmented the former empire and caused nobility, commoners, and peasants alike

to attach themselves to annyone who might provide military protection – thus cementing the feudal

system.

Frankrijk werd aangevallen en Koning Charles III moest de Noorse leider Rolf hertog van Normandie

maken. De rest bleef verdeeld en beheersd door verschillende grafen en hertogen.

De Noren veroverden ook Engeland en het werd 1 land met 1 koning, William I. Om zich te verdedigen

bouwden ze motte and bailey kastelen. A motte is a raised earth mound, and a bailey is the enclosed

courtyard at its base.

Omdat William I bang was voor een invasie vanuit Denemarken gaf hij de opdracht voor een inspectie

van het land zodat hij kan kijken hoeveel belasting hij kon vragen om een nieuw leger te bouwen. Dit

resulteerde in de Domesday Book. Dit boek geeft ons inzicht in de samenleving in de Middeleeuwen en

de verschillen tussen rijk en arm.

Pilgrimage churches and the romanesque

• Santiago de Compostela was de populairste bestemming voor de pilgrimstochten.

• Er werd een boek voor geschreven; a Pilgrim’s Guide to Santiago de Compostela

Dit boek beschrijft de dorpen en monumenten op de weg naar de bestemming.

• Er onstonden verscheidene specifieke routes voor de pilgrims langs heilige plekken die relics

bevatten: botten, kleding of andere bezittingen van christelijke heiligen en martelaren.

• Crusaders uit het Midden Oosten verkochten gevonden artefacten en hiermee werden de

kruistochten gefinancierd.

• The Abbey Church of Sainte-Foy is de oudste kerk van de pilgrimstochten en een van de eerste

voorbeelden van de Romanesque stijl: een stijl die elementen uit de oude Romeinse

architectuur gebruikt.

De terugval naar deze architectuur was oorzaak van:

o een gebrek aan innovatie.

o Long standing Christian rejection of its judaic heritage

o Growing identification with the Greco-Roman West

Typisch voor de Romanesque stijl waren de zogenaamde barrel vaults: an elongated arched

masonry structure spanning an interior space and shaped like a half cylinder.


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De ruimte die gemaakt werd door deze vaults was bedoeld om de ogen van de pilgrim naar

boven te richten en dus zijn gedachten naar de hemel.

• De portals van de nieuwe pilgrimage werden gebouwd naar de oude triomfbogen van Rome.

Deze portals waren het eerste wat de pelgrim zag en het waren scheidingen tussen het wereldse

en de heilige plek in de kerk.

• De ruimte onder de portals (tympanum) was gevuld met relief. Bij Sainte-Foy werd the Last

Judgment afgebeeld. Jezus in het midden, links hemel, rechts hel. Om de pelgrim de goede kant

uit te wijzen.

• Paus Innocent III schreef dat de mens rot was in smerige woorden, als een ‘herinnering aan de

dood’. Door deze herinnering konden pelgrims hun tocht volhouden.

• Pelgrims hielpen economie van de gastvrijheid door hun betalingen voor overnachtingen ed,

Er werden pelgrims beroofd of vermoord op de route.

Cluny and the Monastic Tradition

Abbey of Cluny: kerk met meeste invloed.

Speciale status: de Cluniac Order legde verantwoording bij de paus af. Geen wereldse leider had

controle over dit klooster.

De Cluniac Order wilde dat al haar monniken celibaat leefden.

Choral music

Odo of Cluny was een belangrijke musicale theorist. Hij kwam met het idee van het gebruik van de

letters A-G om de noten te benoemen. 100 jaar later kwam Guide of Arezzo met het idee om noten op

een balk te zetten zodat dezelfde noot altijd op dezelfde lijn kwam en hiermee was de moderne

muzikale notering geboren.

Nieuwe mogelijkheid: Polyphony. Dit zijn twee of meer melodielijnen in tegenstelling tot maar

monophonic. De eerste muziek met dit idee heette organum.

The Crusades and the culture of romance First Crusade

Motivatie:

• Een verlangen om vrije toegang te verkrijgen tot Jeruzalem, dat ingenomen was door de

Arabieren.

• Vrede brengen in Europa.

• Feudal primogeniture system: de oudste zoon in een familie erft alles. Hierdoor bleven veel

jongere broers over en die gingen andermans land plunderen. De eerste kruistocht organiseerde

deze lui bij elkaar met beloftes van beloning, zowel materieel als spiritueel.

• De paus presenteerde de kruistochten ook als een heilige oorlog, omdat de Perzen zo bruut

waren voor de christenen.

• De mensen die zich opgaven wilden wat avontuur.

First Crusade was een dieptepunt voor het christendom. Waarom: de christenen vermoordden vele

mensen, namen gevangen, kookten mensen levend en spietsten en grillden de kinderen om ze

vervolgens op te eten.

Wel was het een militair succes. Maar in het midden van de 11e eeuw namen Islaamse legers veel van

het Midden Oosten weer terug en dit zorgde voor een tweede en derde kruistocht.

De motivatie voor de vierde kruistocht was enkel winst maken. Venetie had er mee in gestemd 30.000

ridders te vervoeren in ruil voor het vernietigen van haar commerciele tegenstanders.


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Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Art of Courtly Love

Tijdens de tweede kruistocht ging Eleanor, vergezeld door 300 vrouwen, mee het slagveld op om de

zieken en gewonden te helpen.

Dit werd niet gewaardeerd in hun tijd, maar deze actie laat goed de veranderende rol zien van de

vrouwen in de Middeleeuwse samenleving.

Steeds meer vrouwen konden lezen.

Eleanor en haar dochter Marie, de gravin van Champagne, established that city as the center of a secular

culture and literary movement that celebrated the art of courtly love.

Troubadour poezie vond zijn oorsprong in het zuiden van Frankrijk.

They can be said to have “invented” romantic love as we know it today – not the feeling and emotions

associated with love, but the conventions and vocabulary that we use to describe it.

Het belangrijkste gevoel was dat van verlangen, naar iets waar de liefhebber niet bij kan. Dus liefde is

lijden, doelloos rondzwerven, nergens op kunnen concentreren behalve op de geliefde.

Dit ziet de liefhebber en moet er boven staan, en er alles aan doen om de geliefde te winnen.

If the courtly love tradition reduced women to little more than objects of male desire, in some measure it

also allowed them to share in the power enjoyed by their husbands.

Poezie van de courtly love was geschreven in streektaal, dus voor breed publiek.

Lancelot

Guinevere moet vervoerd worden, Kay gaat het doen, Lancelot gaat erachteraan omdat Kay geen goede

ridder is en hij vindt zijn paard, Guinevere is ontvoerd, Lancelot gaat erachteraan, heeft na een gevecht

geen paard meer, moet bij een dwerg op de kar, twijfelt eerst (omdat het onterend is) maar gaat toch,

komt nog vele gevaren tegen maar overwint het allemaal en redt Guinevere. Hij is verliefd op Guinevere

maar dat is eerst niet wederzijds omdat Lancelot had getwijfeld bij de kar van de dwerg maar later stemt

ze er toch mee in om hem ’s nachts te ontmoeten in een kasteel.

De liefde voor de vrouw in deze poezie werd door de Christelijke denker gelijk gesteld met de liefde voor

de Maagd Maria.

• Lancelot werd geschreven op verzoek van Marie, de dochter van Eleanor of Aquitaine.

• De schrijver van Lancelot, Chretien de Troyes, presenteert zichzelf als de dienaar van Marie die

zijn schrijfvaardigheid in dienst stelt om haar te plezieren, net als Lancelot Guinevere dient met

zijn vaardigheden als ridder.

• Ook transformeert Chretien het heldendom van de Song of Roland , dat gebaseerd is op de

feodale loyaliteit voor de koning, naar een vorm van ridderlijkheid dat gebaseerd is op de

loyaliteit van de ridder aan de vrouw.

• De ridder wordt gedreven door zijn eigen verlangen naar de vrouw. De vrouw is een prijs die

gewonnen moet worden.

• Het conflict tussen de sexuele verlangens van de ridder en de vrouw en de hypothetische

puurheid van hun ‘spirituele’ liefde geeft het verhaal zijn kracht.

• De grootste test die de geliefden moeten afleggen is hun eigen sexualiteit, en dit onderwerp

garandeerde de populariteit van deze schrijfvorm.


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6) The Gothic and the Rebirth of Naturalism Civic and Religious Life in an Aged Inquiry

Thinking Ahead

- “Gothic” = adopted in sixteenth-century Italy to describe the art of northern Europe - In its own time, this style was known as opus modernum or opus francigenum (�

contains contemporary flavor and place of origin [Île-de-France as center of all developments])

- Example: Royal Abbey of Saint-Denis designed by Abbot Suger - Gothic style started in Paris and spread quickly at the end of the 12th, beginning of the

13th century - With this rise came a new standard of beauty and architecture and decoration - Architecture matched the decorative richness of stained glass with sculptural programs

(more naturalistic) - As well: new richer liturgy - New instrument: organ � polyphonic music - Also: Thomas Aquinas initiated most important theological debates of the age at

University of Paris - Importance of Florence and Siena; new here: citizenry expressing their civic pride;

buildings are work of people themselves; - citizenry was thankful to God for its wellbeing � gave thanks by cathedrals - 1348 plague � people thought, the Black Death is punishment for sins - Artworks in this period became works of ever-greater realism and candor

The Gothic Cathedral - Abbot Suger transformed the Abbey of Saint-Denis in Paris � surpassed all others in

beauty and grandeur. - Began work in 1137: painting the walls in gold and other precious colors; added a new

façade and a circular string of chapels with large stained-glass windows (picture page 174)� higher and with more LIGHT!

- Suger said, work should brighten the minds to reach the true light where Christ is the true door � church’s beauty was designed to elevate the soul to God

- Other example: Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Chartres (picture page 175) (translation: “our Lady”!!!)

- Chartres was spiritual center of the cult of the Virgin - Cult of the Virgin = Christians worshipped Virgin an Bride of Christ, Personification of

the Church, Queen of Heaven and prime intercessor (German: erster Fürsprecher) with God for salvation of humankind � contributed to the ever-increasing size of the era’s churches

- Pilgrims came to Chartres to see the “Virgin’s tunic worn at Jesus’s birth” because of “healing powers”


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- 1194 fire � a few stained-glass windows + tunic survived � seen as sign of God Stained Glass:

- Complex structure freed the walls of bearing the weight � could contain glass - Purpose of windows: telling stories of the Bible for an audience that was illiterate - Again: cult of the Virgin - 1st example: “Tree of Jesse” (picture page 176) shows the genealogy (Ahnen-,

Familienforschung/familiekunde) of Christ = Virgin Mary descended from Jesse, father of King David

- 2nd example: rose window and lancets (picture p. 177): Rose is symbolic of the Virgin Mary in her role as the Mystic Rose

- Stained glass in Chartres covers more than 32.000 square feet of surface area! �donated by royal family, noblemen and merchant guilds

- Effect of windows: it’s dark inside of the church, light shines through those colored windows �seem to radiate with an ethereal and immaterial glow � suggesting a spiritual beauty beyond the here and now Gothic Architecture:

- A lot of innovations; key innovation: rib vaulting � pictures page 117!!! - Form of groin vault (Kreuzgewölbe/Kruisgewelf);

� based on the pointed arch (can reach greater high than the rounded arch) � at the groins, ribs channel the vault’s thrust outward and downward � ribs were constructed first; principle of “skeleton” (=rib) and “skin” (=masonry)

- because of this technique: thin columns and patterns of ribs and windows (instead of massive stonework of the Romanesque style)

- Extremely high naves � physical and spiritual sense of elevation - Pointed arch = significant for the Gothic style - Pointed arch allows larger windows and lighter buttresses (Stützpfeiler/ steunpilaar)

because they reduce outward thrust and pressure on supporting walls - Flying buttresses extend away from the wall in the form of an arch � strength of

buttress’s support is focused at the top of the wall (pictures p. 178!) - Thrust moves down the buttresses into the ground - Example: Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris = stunning visual spectacle - During the thirteenth century: exterior decorations started - Stone crockets (leaflike forms that curve outward) were added to the pinnacles,

spires and gables

- Also: finials (knoblike architectural forms) - Example: Amiens Cathedral: is rich of crockets, finials and sculptures (pictures p. 178) - Gothic style spread rapidly across Europe (from France especially to England and

Germany) - Example for England: Wells Cathedral (p. 179)


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- Gothic Sculpture: - Over ca 100 years (from 1145 till 1255) development of sculptures: Gothic style reintroduces

classical principles of cultural composition into Western art - Also: sculptural realization of the human body (pictures p. 180) - New Gothic style of building sculptures is contrary to the Romanesque tradition (new:

freed of their backdrop, posed at ease (recall the Greek sculptures, also carved in that posture, one can see emotions, � most fully human, most natural sculptures since Roman times!)

- Development of a new visual language � narratives of biblical tradition required believable, individual bodies (instead of abstracted and symbolic ones)

- Jesus, Mary and Angel of Annunciation get personality Music in the Gothic Cathedral: Growing Complexity:

- Great acoustic in cathedrals - 1160 at the School of Notre-Dame in Paris: first collection of music in two parts: Magnus

Liber Organi (anonymous composers, only one known: Leonie) - MLO was arranged in song cycles: music for all the feast days of the Church calendar - In this time: most polyphonie was produced and transmitted only orally - Represents the beginning of modern sense of “composition” � works attribulate to a

single composer - Another famous work: Viderunt Omnes from Perotin - Singing in counterpoint, that is in opposition to the plainchant - Music seems to imitate the architecture of the cathedral and to elevate the faithful to new

heights of believe (detailed description of music on page 181 left bottom) - Words are simple, but rhythm is complex - Organ began to replace the choir or tenor (detailed description of development of Organ

p. 181 left column) - Developing from polyphony was the motet which was even more complex; consists out

of three voices - Was sung either in Latin or vernacular French - Hymns or troubadour love songs - Comparison from competing lines with complex façade of gothic cathedrals - They reflect the great debates that defined the age (church – state, faith – reason) - Division in liberal arts curriculum (= ): quadrivium (mathematical arts, music was a part

of it)and trivium (the language arts)

The Rise of the University - 1158 first University in Bologna - Non-clerical students and professors pursued matters of learning beyond their religious

context � this common pursuit of knowledge became the model for Christian Europe’s emerging university system

- University of Bologna established as center for the study of law


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- Latin was mandatory � read ancient Greeks in Latin - Bachelor of arts: 3 – 5 years of studying; oral exams at the end - Further study of a special field � Master of Arts - Doctor: after four more years - Other Universities: University of Paris, Oxford University, University of Cambridge �

emphasized study of theology - Books were too expensive � students relied on lectures and copious note-taking

Peter Abelard: one of the most popular lectures of his day; taught by dialectical method (presenting different points of view and seeking to reconcile them)

- Abelard held opposing views on many issues of the church (unquestioning faith in God and the authority of the Church) � church found it difficult to deal with him

- A. was opposed by Bernard of Clairvaux who prosecuted him for heresy - A. fell in Love with student (Heloise) which became pregnant; angry uncle gets him

castrated � A. retreated to the monastery at Saint-Denis Education of Women: Women were not allowed to study at an University � private lessons

- Some exceptions: e.g. Trotula (wrote “On the Diseases of Women”) Thomas Aquinas and Scholasticism: Dominican monk, studied theology at the University of Paris

- Developed together with Albertus Magnus ()his teacher) and others like them, trained by Dominicans, Scholasticism (based on dialectical method)

- Scholasticism = method of critical thought and a program of employing that method in articulating and defending orthodoxy (Rechtglaeubigkeit) in an increasingly pluralistic context

- Greatest effort from Aquinas: Summa Theologica - Summa Theologica: takes every theological issue of the age; place of woman in society

and church, cause of evil, question of free choice, weather it is lawful to sell a thing for more than it is worth

- “Summa” = authoritative summary of all that was known on a traditional subject; ultimate aim of every highly educated man to produce one

- Aquinas writes in this a rational demonstration of the existence of God (calls it “preamble of faith”)

- Christians cannot rationally know the existence of god but they can know its divinity through faith � some objects of faith (e.g. incarnation) lie beyond our capacity to understand BUT we arrive at truth by faith AND reason � both ways lead to truth

- Summa Theologica is in the scope of its argument and the intellectual heights at one with the Gothic cathedral � architecture built of logic rather than of stone

The radiant style and the court of Louis IX

- Middle of 13th century: Gothic style elaborated into Rayonnant or Radiant style


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- Style was associated with court of Louis IX - Court of Louis IX was seen as model of perfect rule - L. was “a born reformer”; scholastics and Aquinas could argue theology openly ;

believed in certain freedom of thought and in rule of law - � church later beatified him as Saint Louis - Most important for gothic architecture: royal chapel of Sainte-Chapelle (on the Ile de la

Cite) = palatine chapel (palace chapel) � pictures p. 185 - Reliquary: “crown of thorns that Christ wore at the Crucifixion” + other objects from the

emperor of Constantinople - Saint-Chapelle = pretty bright (cause of a lot of stained glass); ratio of glass to stone

higher than in any other Gothic structure � designed to relieve the faithful of any external cares and transport them into realm of heavenly beauty

- L. wanted to “make Paris a new Jerusalem” The Gothic style in the French ducal courts:

- Authority of the French king was challenged by the power of the ducal courts - Dukes: king’s relative, dukes of Anjou, Berry and Burgundy; fashioned magnificent

courts, employed vast numbers of artists to decorate in the radiant style - Important building: Town Hall in Bruges, Belgium

The Miniature Tradition: - Winding interplay of ornamental buds and leaves - As seen by sculptures: developing taste for naturalism - Medieval miniature painters of 15th century French and Burgundian courts merge these

two directions first - Miniature = very small painting associated with illumination (= painstakingly detailed,

hand painted decoration of manuscripts, usually in tempera on vellum) - Most famous miniature painter: Limbourg brothers Paul, Jan and Hermann � Tres

Riches Heures du Duc de Berry (The Very Sumptuous Hours of the Duke of Berry) = illuminated Book of Hours begun in 1411

- Detailed description of Book of Hours see page 187 left column from middle on 10 lines - Example out of Book of Hours: miniature painting of Mehun-sur-Yevre (picture p. 187)

� very detailed The Gothic in Italy

- Italy consisted of a number of individual city-states independent of control � Gothic in Italy manifested itself quite different from the rest of Europe

- City-states competed with one another for the control of trade - Competitive atmosphere prompted civic leaders to commission new cathedrals and

churches to exceed their neighbors - Example: Siena Cathedral with new façade (originally Romanesque cathedral; Giovanni

Pisano integrated features of French Gothic style) picture p. 188


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- Greatest innovations: sculptures � freestanding sculptures of prophets, saints on pinnacles, arches, gables; example: Mary, Sister of Moses (picture p. 188); figure stands independently of the architecture

- Other Example for exceeding: Florence tried to beat Siena � Opera del Duomo 1294 (let op!: Opera in this case not as Theater but as church) The New Mendicant Orders: Dominicans and Franciscans were, in contrast to the Church, both mendicant orders (= they neither held property nor engaged in business, relying for their support from their communities)

- Dominicans = religious order founded by Spanish monk Dominic de Guzman whose most famous theologian was Thomas Aquinas

- Franciscans = religious order founded by Francis of Assisi - Both reformist orders, dedicated to active service among the common people - Dominicans and Franciscans were rivals � Difference: Dominicans’ priority was

preaching; Franciscans thought one could come closer to God by rejecting worldly goods Franciscan and Dominican Churches: difference to Gothic style: less decoration; plain facades, unembellished interiors, wall paintings and frescos instead of stained glass

- First example: Church of Santa Croce, build from Franciscans on the eastern side of Florence

- Second example: Church of Santa Maria Novella, build from Dominicans, on the western side of F.

- Rich families donated chapels; as opposed to the public spaces they were richly decorated The Appeal of Saint Francis

- Pope Innocent III exercised papal authority as no pope had before him; formalized the church hierarchy; was a gifted preacher

- Upper Church of San Francesco was built in the honor of Francis of Assisi in Assisi, cause of the stories about deeds an miracles of his life

- In this Church: paintings of Old and New Testament scenes + series narrating Francis’s life (painter is called Saint Francis Master)

- Poem Canticle of the Sun from Francis is first work of literature in vernacular or spoken language Civic and Religious Life in Siena and Florence

- By the thirteenth century, Italian life and politics were dominated by two city-states: Siena and Florence � influence from the Church was little

- Rivalry between the cities based on the conflict between the pope and the holy Roman Emperor during the time of Charlemagne

- Both weren’t ruled by nobility but were republics; - Out of their competition with one another, the modern Western City was born � there,

citizenry played a role in expressing their civic pride - Governments were ruled by guilds = associations or groups of people with like-minded,

often occupation-based interests


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- Leading in Siena was merchants’ guild - Rich merchant families lent money and dealt with goods

Siena: A Free Commune - S. established in 1125 as a free commune - An increasing number of people were attracted to Siena - Painting Allegory of Good Government from Ambrogio Lorenzetti shows life at that time

in Siena: richly dressed merchants, couples, dancing people, shops, students, workers, farmers, everyday life, above all them flies figure of Securitas reminding citizens that peace depends upon justice Florence: Archival of Siena

- Extremely wealthy (like Siena) cause of trade � by the 12th century F. was the center of textile production in the Western world

- City’s bankers and moneylenders made Florence a vital player in world trade - Introduced Europe’s first single currency in 1252: the gold florin - Florence was Europe’s bank

Painting: A Growing Naturalism - Both cities put themselves under the protection of the Virgin Mary � competing to prove

who could paint her the most magnificently � they began to represent her as a real person of flesh and blood

- Duccio and Simone Martini: painters in Siena - Duccio painted Maestà or Virgin and Child in Majesty in 1308 � great celebration - Breaks from the Byzantine tradition � incorporates the Gothic tendency to naturalism - Picture on page 194 + detailed description p. 195 first alinea - Even more naturalistic: Measà of Simone Martini (p. 195) - Great innovation: Virgin’s crown � signifies her status as Queen of Heaven - Becomes a model for human behavior + en emblem for the most noble types of secular

love and devotion - Both paintings carry a propagandistic message to the city fathers - Stylistic differences e.g. size of Maria in relation to the people surrounding her, crown,

halo, clothes; detailed description p. 195 right column, 2nd alinea - New: realistic tone because of pink cheeks on her porcelain-white skin � blood flows

through her body - Embodies a standard of beauty : physical beauty of the flesh as opposed to the divine

beauty of the spirit - Cimabue and Giotto: painters in Florence - Cimabue painted Madonna Enthroned with Angels and Prophets - Enormous: over 12 feet high - Treatment of human figures with naturalistic expressions - Still a mix between Byzantine style and new Gothic style - Individualization of figures e.g. prophets


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- Italian artists become more skillful in painting with tempera � allowed to portry the worl in detail

- Giotto painted Madonna Enthroned with Angel and Saints - More naturalistic than Cimabue - G. draws accurately from life; was master of the human face, capable of revealing a wide

range of emotions and characters � effect is to humanize Christ, the Virgin and the saints; portray them as real people The Spread of Vernacular Literature in Europe

- Until 12th century literature was in Latin - Writers began to address a wider lay audience � wrote in vernacular, the language

spoken in the streets - Began in France in the 12th century; From Italy in the early 14th century, spreading to the

rest of Europe Dante’s Divine Comedy

- Dante Alighieri: one of the greatest writers working in vernacular - One of the greatest works: Divine Comedy: records the travel of the Christian soul from

Hell to Purgatory and finally to Salvation in three books: Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso - Detailed description of story on page 197 starting at the bottom left-hand alinea going on

in the whole right column and on page 200 till the next title (Sorry, but I think you have to read this cause I tried to summarize it but I actually just copied the text…) The Black Death and Its Aftermath

- 1316 and 1317 crop failures which resulted in the greatest famine known so far - Reasons: for two summers, the sun rarely shown, after this century-long cooling period

with too much rain; population had doubled - 1347 bubonic plague arrived on Sicily (rats infested with fleas carrying this plague) - Symptoms: lymph glands (of the groin or armpits) slowly filled with pus and turned black

� also called Black Death - Hardly anyone was spared � egalitarian disease - Mass graves - By 1350 (almost) all of Europe was devastated by the pandemic - Outbreaks again in 1363, 1388-90, 1400

Literature after the Black Death: Boccaccio’s Decameron: frank treatment of reality (in the visual arts) carried over into literature

- Giovanni Boccacio writes the Decameron (or “Work of Ten Days”) = collection of framed prose tales; 100 prose stories

- B. lived through the plague - First describes Florence in the ravages of the disease: world in virtual collapse; social

breakdown; all tradition has been abandoned - In the midst of this: 7 young woman and three young man retreat to the country to escape

the disease; entertain each other by telling tales


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- Stories are sometimes vulgar and indecent + involve people of the lower and middle classes � social realism

- Francesco Petrarca known as Petrarch, one of Boccaccio’s best friends; rediscovered the forgotten works of the Roman Cicero

- Study Pilatus’s translation of Homer into Latin prose + genealogy of the Greek gods - Petrarch’s greatest work: Canzoniere (Songbook) inspired by his love for a woman

named Laura; - form of Italian sonnet, also known as Petrarchan sonnet cause he perfected the form - 14 lines divided into two parts: an octave which is further divided into two quatrains (first

present a problem, second develops the idea), and a sestet (either attempts to solve the problem or accepts it as unsolvable)

- Most famous: Sonnet 134 (explores complexities of his feelings in the face of his love for Laura; poems in this vein had a lasting influence

- Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales: Geoffrey Chaucer translated Petrarch - Masterwork: The Canterbury Tales (modeled roughly on Decameron); written in verse;

composed in heroic couplets - Wrote 22 tales (wanted to write 120 but died), extraordinary in the range of characters

and social types - Stories reflect perhaps the most fully developed realism of the era - Christine de Pizan: An Early Feminist: first female professional writer in European

history - Well educated; husband died � had to support family � became writer - Popular poem: Roman de la Rose (Romance of the Rose): attacked misogyny - Book of the City of Ladies: again attacked male misogyny


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Summary: book Discovering the Humanities, Sayre, lectures · 2017-10-31 · Sayre - Discovering the Humanities Hoofdstuk 1. The Prehistoric Past and the Earliest Civilazations Prehistoric