Old English: 450 or 700 1100 Full endings/inflections; synthetical language, the alphabet (the runes); spelling- generally phonetic;mutation of umlaut (man-men, foot-feet)Middle English: 1100 1500

French was used in court and by the aristocracy; 90% of the population spoke English- introduced in schools after 1349. After 1300 english spelling was influenced by the French: long vowels began to be doubled (fet-feet, gas-geese); single consonants after a stressed vowel were doubled ( stop-stopped); there was the tendency to shorten long vowels when followed by consonants; unstressed vowels were weakened or lostModern English: 1500 present time:

Coincides with the great cultural progress of Reinaissance

Discrepancy between spelling and sound more evident

After 1500, English sounds underwent significant changes: most vowels were changed in stressed syllables; r was modified being silenced in many casesReceived Pronunciation RP: Spoken by the educated ppl of England, used by radio and tv announcers

/ae/ is diphtongised in /e/ in that man / ^ a: u:/ are fully back

The vowel in nurse is very open /u/ is pronounced /ou/

/i/ is preffered to // in words like waited, horses, private

Some emphasis is added to a voiceless consonant following an accented vowel : it is awfully nice

Assimilation occurs frequently, ten minutes - /tem minits/

Elision, next day /neks dei/

Dropping of unstressed h in him

Compression to arrive- / twraiv/

Cockney:

London speech, described as harsh, avoids movement of the lips and jaw as far as possible

Rhyming slang words or phrases that rhyme with the words that are really meant

Clipped rhyming slang rhyming word is left out

Relations -> relytions; time ->toime; home ->own; insult-> inselt; asked ->arst;

Estuary English EE:

Modified regional speech; mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation; new standard accent

Glottaling: /t/ is replaced by glottal stop when preceeded by a vowel or /ln/ and followed by another consonant or at the end of the word: take it off, football, bentley Yod coalescence

Tense vowels in final position, me, city have a longer vowel in final position than in RP

Intonation proeminence to prepositions and auxiliaries: lets go TO the market

The production Sounds:

Organs of speech: lungs the source of energy, windpipe/trachea; larynx with the vocal cords; glottis (closed for glottal stop/?/, open, leaving a narrow space - /h/, vocal cords are close together and vibrate producing voice, they do not vibrate voiceless position whisper); Pharynx; Mouth (fixed parts/points of articulation: teeth, hard palate, pharyngeal wall, movable: lips, tongue, soft palate, lower jaw); Nose Roof of the mouth: the alveolar/teeth ridige; the hard palate; the soft palate/velum

Classification of vowels:

the position of the tongue: front vowels: /i: I e ae/; back vowels :/ u:, u, u intors lung, o, a:/; central vowels /:, ^/ the position of the lips: rounded vowels / o intors lung, o, u:, u/, unrounded /, e, ae/ degree of muscular tension: tense vowels / i:, u:/, lax vowels / o, , i/Classification of Consonants:

activity of the vocal cords: voiced: / b d g z m n l r/; voiceless: / p t k s/ position of the soft palate: oral c: all except nasal - /m n nasal n/ place of articulation: bilabial: /p b m/, labio dental: /f v/, dental:/ ch1+2/, alveolar:/t d s z n l/, post alveolar + retroflex /r/; palate-alveolar / t d/; palatal: /j/; velar:/ k g n nazal/, labio-velar /w/; glottal /h ?/ manner of articulation: plosives / p b t d k g ?/; affricates / t d/; fricatives: / f v s z h/, continuants: /m n n nasal/; lateral /l/ force of articulation: fortis - voiceless / p t k s/, lenis- voiced / b d g m n l r/ semivowels or approximants /w j/

Phoneme: distinctive feature: choice between two polar qualities of the same category or between the presence or absence of a certain quality (the way you pronounce it, degree of opening your mouth) phoneme= bundle of distinctive features, realized in the acoustic substances of its variants or allophones phonemes of a lg can be established by a process of commutation or the discovery of minimal pairs paris of words that are different in only one segment: not, nodAllophones:

tin, kin, are different phonemes they distinguish diff meaning, but in time, stake, bottom, little the phoneme thas different realizations depending on the phonological context in which it occurs, these realizations=allophones of the phonemet, = positional allophones,

They are in complementary distribution as they cannot occur in the same position, their configuration depending on the adjacent sound;

Allophones for /p: peak- aspirated, speak- unaspirated

Intonation: - an utterance is divided into tone groups or intonation units, a tone group has a nucleus which bears the change direction of the voice or a change in the pitch of the voice which is the terminal contour of the utterance

Front vowels: / i:, I, e, ae/ :

/i:/ - front, close, tense, unrounded ex: quai, people, beauchamp

/i/- front, close, short, lax, unrounded, ex: Sunday, women, build, busy, minute, englang, money, pretty /e/- front, mid-open, short, lax, unrounded, ex: says, said, friend, again, leopard, jeopardy, leonard, ate, leisure, bury

/ae/ - front, open, short, lax, unrounded, ex: plait, plaid, reveille

Back vowels: /a: u intors scurt, o intors lung, u, u:/

/a:/ back, open,long, tense, unrounded,

/ u intors scurt/ - back, open, short, lax, slightly rounded, ex: ou,ow-cough, au-sausage, ua-quality

/u intors lung/ - back, half-open, long, tense, rounded, ex; water, broad, wrath

/u/ - back, close, short, lax, rounded, ex: bossom, wolf, woman / u:/ - back, close, long, tense, rounded,

Central Vowels: / ^ , lung, /

/^/ - central, open, short, lax, unrounded

/ lung/ - central, mid-open, long, tense, unrounded, ex: colonel / / - central, mid open, short, lax, unroundedDiphthongs: *falling (1st element is the nucleus), *rising;

*wide there is a considerable movement of the speech organs from the position of the nucleus so that of the glide /ai au oi/, *narrow: the movement is less marked /ei u i e/; *closing: nucleus is more open than the vowel /ei ai oi/, *opening: nucleus is closer than the glide /i e uConsonants: /p/ - bilabial, fortis, voiceless, plosive, ec: hiccough, silent in pn, ps, pt

/b/ - bilabial, lenis, voiced, unaspirated, plosive

/t/ - alveolar, fortis, voiceless, plosive

/d/ - alveolar, lenis, voiced, unaspirated, plosive

/k/- velar, fortis, voiceless, plosive, silent before n

Glottal stop /?/ - sudden cessation of the preceeding sound or it occurs with the sudden onset of the following sound; voiceless and fortis

/ t/ - palato-alveolar, fortis, voiceless, affricate

/ d/ - palate-alveolar, lenis, voiced, affricate, ex: gaol

/ f/ - labio-dental, fortis, voiceless, fricative, ex: lieutenant leftenant

/v/- labio-dental, lenis, voiced, fricative

// - dental, fortis, voiceless,fricative, occurs in initial position, // - dental, voiced, lenis, fricative, occurs in functional words, the, this, that, there, they /s/ - alveolar, fortis,voiceless, fricative // - palato-alveolar, fortis, voiceless, fricative // - palate-alveolar, lenis, voiced, fricative /j/-leisure, pleasure /h/ - glottal, fortis, voiceless, fricative / m/ - bilabial, voiced, nasal /n/ -alveolar, voiced, lenis, nasal /n nasal/ - velar, voiced, lenis, nasal Aproximants: vowel like frictionless continuant sounds: Lateral consonant /l/- alveolar, voiced, lenis lateral : 1. Clear /l/- leave, million, has the resonance of a front vowel; 2. Voiceless /l/- when preceeded by a voiceless cons, plea, climb; 3. Dark /l/ - in final position, before a consonant, leap, fill, little, middle /r/- 1.alveolar tap /r/- has a short duration:very, marry, 2.linking r: near it, far awar, 3.intrusive r: linking /r/ in the case of // endings: the ideea of itThe semi-vowels /j w/

/j/ - unrounded, palatal, voiced, frctionless, in words spelt eith u, ue, in,ew, eu /w/- rounded, labio-velar, non-fricariveRomanian consonants:

20, voiced /b d g/, voiceless / p t k/, plosives/ p b t d k m n/,fricative /t d/ are alveolar in English and dental in Romanian / ch 1+2/ do not exist inr omanian /s z/ are alveolar in English are dental in Romanian /n nazal / does not exist in RomaniaAssimilation: phenomenon through wich a sound assimilates one or more of its features to a neighboring sound, repr the process of replacing one sound under the influence of a thirs sound.

Is progressive: the assimilated phoneme is infl by the preceding phoneme, regressive, reciprocical, nasalization, partial nasalization

Elision: the dropping of a sound which once existed or which still exists in precise speech Historical (a sound that existed in an older word disappeared in a later form ), contextual elision: occurs in rapid speechSyllable: structure: *the onset (the opening segment, which can consist of up to 3 cons), *the coda(closing segment, up to 4 c), *the nucleus or the peak , *the rhyme (the nucleus and any con following it); types: *open (ending in a vowel), *closed, *light (having a short vowel in the nucleus and no coda), *heavy(long vowel or diph in the nucleus and coda)Stress: relative degree of force used by a speaker on the various syllables he is utterning, a stressed syllable is more prominent than the others, stress is phonemic It distinguishes meaning Fixed stress same syllable is stressed in all words

Free stress can fall on any syllable in the word; romanina, English, sanish

Function words are stressed at the end of a sentence, when are used in tag q, used in the negative form, introducing a question (have you..)

Analytic + synthetic lg: A: low ratio of morphemes to words, sentences are compound of independent root morphemes, grammatical categories are indicated by word order ENGLISH;

S: forms words by affixing a given nr. of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme; word order is less imp; rel between words are expressed by inflections ROMANIAN, german, Spanish, greek