SupplierBusiness The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine ... · Cylinder deactivation ... Automotive SupplierBusiness | The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report. ... Figure

SupplierBusiness

The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report

2013 edition supplierbusiness.com

Sectoral Report

IHS Automotive

SAMPLE

2013 edition 2 © 2013 IHS

IHS Automotive SupplierBusiness | The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report

COPYRIGHT NOTICE AND LEGAL DISCLAIMER© 2013 IHS. No portion of this report may be reproduced, reused, or otherwise distributed in any form without prior written consent, with the exception of any internal client distribution as may be permitted in the license agreement between client and IHS. Content reproduced or redistributed with IHS permission must display IHS legal notices and attributions of authorship. The information contained herein is from sources considered reliable but its accuracy and completeness are not warranted, nor are the opinions and analyses which are based upon it, and to the extent permitted by law, IHS shall not be liable for any errors or omissions or any loss, damage or expense incurred by reliance on information or any statement contained herein. For more information, please contact IHS at [email protected], +1 800 IHS CARE (from North American locations), or +44 (0) 1344 328 300 (from outside North America). All products, company names or other marks appearing in this publication are the trademarks and property of IHS or their respective owners.

IHS AutomotiveSupplierBusiness

ContentsIntroduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7Market drivers ................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Emissions regulations ................................................................................................................................................. 9The United States ......................................................................................................................................................... 9The European Union ...................................................................................................................................................11Japan ..........................................................................................................................................................................11China ..........................................................................................................................................................................11Other countries .......................................................................................................................................................... 12

Fuel costs .................................................................................................................................................................... 13Criterion emissions ................................................................................................................................................... 14

The United States ....................................................................................................................................................... 14Japan ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15Europe ....................................................................................................................................................................... 15China ..........................................................................................................................................................................17Other countries ...........................................................................................................................................................17

Powertrain design ...................................................................................................................................................... 18Powertrain technology ................................................................................................................................................. 22

Engine downsizing and down-speeding ................................................................................................................. 22Combustion cycles .................................................................................................................................................... 26Altered combustion modes ...................................................................................................................................... 27Variable valve actuation ............................................................................................................................................ 29

Variable valve timing and lift ........................................................................................................................................ 30Camless valve actuation ........................................................................................................................................... 35

Electro-hydraulic valve actuation ................................................................................................................................ 35Electromagnetic valve actuation ................................................................................................................................. 35

Cylinder deactivation ................................................................................................................................................ 37Direct injection technology ...................................................................................................................................... 40

Spray-guided injection ................................................................................................................................................ 42Diesel injection technology ......................................................................................................................................... 43

Advanced ignition systems....................................................................................................................................... 45Laser ignition systems ................................................................................................................................................ 47

Compression-ignition engine technologies .............................................................................................................. 50Combustion cycles .................................................................................................................................................... 51Downsizing ................................................................................................................................................................. 51Material development................................................................................................................................................ 52

Forced induction ........................................................................................................................................................... 57Compressors .............................................................................................................................................................. 57

Screw compressors ................................................................................................................................................... 58Centrifugal compressors ............................................................................................................................................ 58

Bearing systems ........................................................................................................................................................ 59Micro turbocharging ................................................................................................................................................. 60Waste-gated turbochargers ..................................................................................................................................... 61Twin-scroll turbochargers ........................................................................................................................................ 61

SAMPLE



Variable geometry turbochargers ........................................................................................................................... 63Multi-stage turbocharging .......................................................................................................................................... 66Sequential twin turbocharging .................................................................................................................................... 66Regulated twin turbocharging .................................................................................................................................... 67Three-stage turbocharging ......................................................................................................................................... 68

Twin vortices supercharger ...................................................................................................................................... 68Multi-speed superchargers ...................................................................................................................................... 68Electric superchargers ............................................................................................................................................. 69

The Future of Turbocharging ..................................................................................................................................... 70Charge air coolers (intercoolers) ............................................................................................................................. 73

Exhaust and emissions control ................................................................................................................................... 75Gasoline engine emissions control ......................................................................................................................... 76

Three-Way Catalytic converter (TWC) ......................................................................................................................... 77Exhaust Gas Re-circulation (EGR) .............................................................................................................................. 79

Diesel engine emissions control .............................................................................................................................. 81Diesel oxidation catalyst ............................................................................................................................................. 81Selective catalytic reduction ....................................................................................................................................... 83Lean NOx trap or NOx adsorber catalyst.................................................................................................................... 86CRT Process .............................................................................................................................................................. 87Diesel particulate filter ................................................................................................................................................ 87Catalyst Poisoning ..................................................................................................................................................... 90The SCR versus EGR debate ..................................................................................................................................... 90SCR plus EGR for Euro 6 ........................................................................................................................................... 92

Thermal management ............................................................................................................................................... 93Alternative compression-ignition technologies .................................................................................................... 94

Homogenous charge compression ignition ................................................................................................................ 94Reactivity controlled compression ignition .................................................................................................................. 94Gasoline direct-injection compression ignition ............................................................................................................ 95

Alternative engine technologies ................................................................................................................................. 97Achates Power opposed-piston engine ...................................................................................................................... 97EcoMotors OPOC ...................................................................................................................................................... 97RadMax Rotary Turbine Engine .................................................................................................................................. 98Tour Engines ............................................................................................................................................................. 99Axial Vector ...............................................................................................................................................................101

Variable compression ratio engines ...................................................................................................................... 101FEV ...........................................................................................................................................................................101MCE-5 ......................................................................................................................................................................101Gomecsys GoEngine ................................................................................................................................................101Lotus Engineering .....................................................................................................................................................101Ilmore five-stroke ...................................................................................................................................................... 102Ricardo 2/4SIGHT engine......................................................................................................................................... 102Scuderi .................................................................................................................................................................... 103Transonic Combustion ............................................................................................................................................. 103Pinnacle Engine ........................................................................................................................................................ 103Wave Disk Generator................................................................................................................................................ 104Cyclone Power Technologies ................................................................................................................................... 105

Alternative fuels .......................................................................................................................................................... 106Alcohols ....................................................................................................................................................................107Algal biofuels ............................................................................................................................................................ 109Bacterial biofuels .......................................................................................................................................................110Biogasoline ...............................................................................................................................................................110Dimethyl ether ...........................................................................................................................................................110Hydrogen ..................................................................................................................................................................110Hythane ....................................................................................................................................................................111

SAMPLE



Liquefied petroleum gas ............................................................................................................................................111Natural gas ................................................................................................................................................................111Coal to liquid fuels .....................................................................................................................................................112Biodiesel ...................................................................................................................................................................113Dimethyl ether ...........................................................................................................................................................114Natural gas ................................................................................................................................................................114

Powertrain market outlook .........................................................................................................................................116North America ...........................................................................................................................................................116Europe ......................................................................................................................................................................117China ........................................................................................................................................................................118

FiguresFigure 1: Global CO2 (g/km) progress normalised to NEDC test cycle .................................................................... 8Figure 2: CO2 (g/km) performance and standards in the EU new cars 1994 - 2011 ................................................ 9Figure 3: Global CO2 (g/km) progress normalised to NEDC test cycle .................................................................. 10Figure 4: US Regular Gasoline prices $/gallon, January 2011 to June 2013 .......................................................... 11Figure 5: WTI crude oil prices (US$ per barrel, monthly average 2010 dollars), 2001 – March 2012 .................. 12Figure 6: NOx limits in the EU, Japan and the US, 1995 – 2010 (g/kWh) ................................................................ 14Figure 7: PM limits in the EU, Japan and the US, 1995 – 2010 (g/kWh) .................................................................. 15Figure 8: Aluminium/ magnesium lightweight design 6 cylinder engine .............................................................. 16Figure 9: Engine weight and performance for aluminium and cast iron blocks ................................................... 17Figure 10: Active engine mount technology .............................................................................................................. 17Figure 11: Cumulative sales of Ford’s EcoBoost engine family .............................................................................. 18Figure 12: 1.0L EcoBoost cylinder head with integrated exhaust manifold .......................................................... 18Figure 13: Progress through powertrain technologies ............................................................................................ 20Figure 14: The effects of downsizing on fuel consumption ..................................................................................... 21Figure 15: Comparison between downsized turbocharged diesel and non-turbocharges gasoline (Volvo) and turbocharged gasoline and non-turbocharged gasoline (Opel) performance ...................................................... 21Figure 16: Performance evolution through downsizing and turbocharging for the Volkswagen Golf .............. 22Figure 17: Low-end torque versus mid-high speed brake specific fuel consumption for gasoline engines from MY2005 to MY2012 ....................................................................................................................................................... 23Figure 18: Low-end torque versus mid-high speed brake specific fuel consumption for gasoline engines from MY2005 to MY2012 ....................................................................................................................................................... 23Figure 19: Atkinson versus Otto cycle operation ...................................................................................................... 24Figure 20: A schematic of homogenous and stratified charge modes .................................................................. 26Figure 21: General classification of variable valve actuation technology ............................................................. 28Figure 22: Honda i-VTEC system ................................................................................................................................ 29Figure 23: BMW Valvetronic system ........................................................................................................................... 30Figure 24: Comparison of airflow with VVT on a diesel engine .............................................................................. 31Figure 25: Variable valve actuation on 6.7-litre Cummins diesel ............................................................................ 32Figure 26: Valeo electromagnetic valve actuation.................................................................................................... 34Figure 27: LaunchPoint’s electromechanical valve actuator system ..................................................................... 35Figure 28: Variable cylinder management ................................................................................................................ 36Figure 29: Pattern of variable cylinder management operation ............................................................................. 37Figure 30: A6 cylinder on demand system ................................................................................................................ 37Figure 31: Direct injection operation .......................................................................................................................... 39Figure 32: Measures to improve fuel economy ......................................................................................................... 40Figure 33: A comparison of wall-guided and spray-guided direct injection ......................................................... 41Figure 34: Comparison of piezo-actuated and servo-hydraulic-actuated injector spray patterns .................. 42Figure 35: BorgWarner’s Dual Coil ignition system .................................................................................................. 43Figure 36: Federal Mogul’s Corona Ignition System ................................................................................................ 44Figure 37: Schematics of ignition using conventional spark and laser technology ............................................. 44

SAMPLE



Figure 38: Schlieren photographs for early stage of ignition in a constant-volume chamber ignited by spark plug and micro-laser in a stoichiometric mixture .................................................................................................... 45Figure 39: New diesel car registrations, EU15 + EFTA, 1991 - 2010 ....................................................................... 48Figure 40: Total cost of ownership, diesel versus gasoline US over 3 years/ 45,000 miles ................................ 49Figure 41: Case study for downsizing versus de-rating for a 1460kg curb weight passenger car ..................... 50Figure 42: A polyamide air intake manifold ............................................................................................................... 51Figure 43: Ultra-thin steel coated cylinder bores in aluminium crankcases (LH image) compared with con-ventional grey cast iron (RH image) ........................................................................................................................... 52Figure 44: Federal Mogul’s DuraBowl technology for piston crown strengthening ............................................. 53Figure 45: Material properties comparing CGI 400, Gray Iron 250 and AlSi9Cu alloy .......................................... 54Figure 46: Global supercharger/ turbocharger fitment by type, 2011 – 2017 ........................................................ 55Figure 47: An Eaton roots-type supercharger with integrated bypass .................................................................. 56Figure 48: Compressor map of a turbocharger for passenger car applications .................................................. 57Figure 49: Fiat two-cylinder MultiAir engine ............................................................................................................. 58Figure 50: Volvo D12D 500hp Euro 3 engine turbo-compound set up ................................................................... 59Figure 51: Multi-scroll turbine housing design.......................................................................................................... 60Figure 52: A schematic of a twin scroll turbocharger .............................................................................................. 60Figure 53: Deflection through a dual-volute-turbine housing with VTG guide vanes .......................................... 61Figure 54: Twin volute VTG with optimised exhaust manifold design .................................................................... 62Figure 55: Holset VGT™ Turbocharging Technology ................................................................................................ 64Figure 56: BMW bi-turbo .............................................................................................................................................. 65Figure 57: Exploded view of a Rotrak variable-speed supercharger ..................................................................... 66Figure 58: Antonov dual-speed supercharger .......................................................................................................... 67Figure 59: Valeo’s electric supercharger ................................................................................................................... 68Figure 60: Turbocharging technologies for high-pressure charging .................................................................... 69Figure 61: GM’s LF3 twin turbocharged V6 engine with integral manifold mounted intercooler ....................... 71Figure 62: A comparison of exhaust systems 1975 and 2009 .................................................................................. 73Figure 63: Tenneco’s technology road map for exhaust systems .......................................................................... 74Figure 64: A 2012 exhaust system including emissions control, CO2 reduction and acoustic design .............. 75Figure 65: Three-way catalytic converter .................................................................................................................. 76Figure 66: The effect of temperature on catalytic converter operation ................................................................ 76Figure 67: The effect of fuel-air mixture on catalytic converter operation ........................................................... 77Figure 68: Exhaust gas recirculation with cooler ..................................................................................................... 77Figure 69: The construction of an electrically heated TWC .................................................................................... 78Figure 70: Denso’s compact EGR cooler for gasoline engines ............................................................................... 79Figure 71: The construction of a diesel oxidation catalytic converter ................................................................... 80Figure 72: Selective catalytic reduction .................................................................................................................... 80Figure 73: Selective catalytic reduction schematic ................................................................................................ 81Figure 74: Delphi’s on-board reformer ....................................................................................................................... 82Figure 75: Faurecia ASDS unit ..................................................................................................................................... 82Figure 76: A schematic of Faurecia’s ASDS system ................................................................................................ 84Figure 77: NOx trap system with ECU control ........................................................................................................... 84Figure 78: Mercedes Benz E Class DPF ..................................................................................................................... 86Figure 79: A schematic of a wall-flow DPF ................................................................................................................ 87Figure 80: Acicular Mulite process effects in DPF substrate .................................................................................. 87Figure 81: A comparison between EGR and SCR technology ................................................................................. 89Figure 82: Schaeffler’s Thermal Management module ............................................................................................ 91Figure 83: Criterion emissions from RCCI engine by % gasoline ........................................................................... 93Figure 84: GDICI emissions results for single, double and triple injection ........................................................... 94Figure 85: Achates opposed piston engine ............................................................................................................... 95Figure 86: EcoMotors OPOC engine ........................................................................................................................... 96Figure 87: RadMax RTE engine driving a pump ........................................................................................................ 96Figure 88: The Tour engine .......................................................................................................................................... 97Figure 89: The Tour engine cutaway ........................................................................................................................... 97

SAMPLE



Figure 90: Axial Vector engine .................................................................................................................................... 98Figure 91: 2/4SIGHT engine concept ........................................................................................................................ 100Figure 92: Wave Disk Generator ............................................................................................................................... 102Figure 93: Wave Disk Generator principles ............................................................................................................. 102Figure 94: SunEco algal fuel production ponds ...................................................................................................... 107Figure 95: GDICI emissions compared to a conventional diesel ...........................................................................111

TablesTable 1: US emissions standards for light-duty vehicles, to five years/50,000 miles (g/mile) ............................ 15Table 2: Japan emissions limits for light gasoline & LPG vehicles (g/km) ............................................................. 15Table 3: Japan emissions limits for light diesel vehicles (g/km) ............................................................................. 15Table 4: Euro 5 emissions limits for light gasoline vehicles (g/km) ........................................................................ 15Table 5: Euro 5 emissions limits for light diesel vehicles (g/km) ............................................................................ 16Table 6: Emissions standards timetable in selected countries, 2012 - 2021 ......................................................... 17Table 7: Fuel economy improvement and costs for powertrain .............................................................................. 18Table 8: Emissions control strategies ........................................................................................................................ 76Table 9: Reactions in a three- way catalytic converter ............................................................................................ 78Table 10: Cost comparison EGR vs SCR in Europe .................................................................................................. 92Table 11: Energy input versus output for alternative fuels .................................................................................... 106Table 12: Global powertrain technology penetration: 2012/2019 ...........................................................................116Table 13: North American technology penetration: 2012/2019 ..............................................................................117Table 14: European technology penetration: 2012/2019 .........................................................................................117Table 15: Chinese technology penetration: 2012/2019 ............................................................................................118

SAMPLE



IntroductionPowertrain has always been perhaps the single most critical aspects of the automotive engineering; the decision taken in the early years of the 20th century to concentrate on internal combustion engines (ICE) rather than electric traction or sterling cycle heat engines has meant that throughout the last century development of ICE was absolutely critical, not only for the competitive aspects of the automotive and commercial vehicle industries, but also in terms of much of the military and civilian aircraft sectors, marine and stationary engines.

As one well-known commentator on technology once said, “if as much research and development resource had been devoted to the sterling cycle engine as has been invested in the sterling engine, we would all be driving around in vehicles powered by external heat engines”. And, while this quote might seem to express a gross simplification of the real situation with vast variability across the realm of ICE engines with different cycles, spark and compression ignition, different levels of forced induction and many variations in control systems from the simple to the very complex, it fails completely to identify the fact that a combination of concepts is now needed to meet requirements for further efficiency.

Until relatively recently choices in powertrain seemed to be, if not simple, at least relatively clear-cut. Depending on the various market drivers affecting a particular market sector the most logical choice might come down to spark or compression ignition, hybrid or electric, gasoline or diesel. Often these choices were very much market driven. In the US there was very little penetration of diesel powertrain in light vehicles and in Europe small turbocharged diesels became a powertrain of choice. However, this has changed considerably in the past few years as regulation has driven a new choice for the powertrain; the question is now about what combination of ICE and electric technologies rather than any kind of either/or situation. Indeed, the term ‘hybrid’ oversimplifies the question of degrees of electrification.

Alternative fuels is also a progressive area within powertrain, particularly with the massive drop in the price of natural gas that has come about through the use of the controversial hydraulic fracturing (or ‘fracking’) process in shales with low permeability and high porosity. According to a 2012 report from the International Energy Authority (IEA) Natural gas is poised to enter a golden age, but will do so only if a significant proportion of the world’s vast resources of unconventional gas – shale gas, tight gas and coal bed methane – can be developed profitably and in an environmentally acceptable manner.

Advances in upstream technology have led to a surge in the production of unconventional gas in North America in recent years, holding out the prospect of further increases in production there and the emergence of a large-scale unconventional gas industry in other parts of the world, where sizeable resources are known to exist. The boost that this would give to gas supply would bring a number of benefits in the form of greater energy diversity and more secure supply in those countries that rely on imports to meet their gas needs, as well as global benefits in the form of reduced energy costs.

This then brings a new dimension to the study of powertrain as ICE is optimised for fuels that can be produced from natural gas. This might include the requirement for innovative high-pressure storage; a function also required for the successful implementation of hydrogen powertrain technology, or gas-to-liquid (GTL). For four decades, Shell Oil has been experimenting with processes to profitably convert natural gas to various liquid fuels, including jet fuel and diesel, which are more valuable than the natural gas itself. Twenty years ago, Shell built its first commercial GTL plant in Malaysia. Two years ago, using the lessons learned in Malaysia, Shell broke ground on the massive Pearl plant in Qatar. Shell has spent nearly $20 billion on this plant in the hopes of liquefying and profiting from Qatar’s gigantic North Field, the largest known natural gas reservoir in the world. From 2013 onward, Shell anticipates generating 260,000 barrels per day of liquids; 140,000 of jet fuel, diesel and other high quality distillates, plus 120,000 of ethane and natural gas liquids. Shell estimates that it will earn $10 billion per year from the Pearl Plant. However projects of this size and scale remain the bailiwick of giants such as Shell, because of the massive capital investment requirements, and they suffer from the risk issue that probability is critically dependent on low gas costs relative to diesel and jet fuel.

When natural gas prices were under $3 per million cu.ft, financing GTL projects was relatively attractive. But prices have already started to rise and are unlikely to dip below $2 or $3 per million cu.ft in the foreseeable future, which raises serious questions about the economics of even the most efficient GTL facilities.

At current gas prices of around $4 per million cu.ft, GTL plants need diesel prices to be well above $4 a gallon to make the conversion process economical. Some commentators are suggesting that at least a 25-year period of sustained low

SAMPLE



gas prices is required for GTL facilities to be economical, therefore investment in GTL is likely to remain minimal for the foreseeable future.

However, natural gas itself is forecast by some commentators to have a significant future and that there will be some 35 million vehicles on the world’s roads by 2020. This position is promoted by the low cost of natural gas versus high gasoline and diesel prices.

Truck and bus use is quickly growing. Natural gas (CNG or LNG) will account for some 9% of the total fleet by 2020, according to some commentary. While CNG vehicles span all vehicle weight classes, LNG vehicles are practically limited to heavy-duty trucks because of the size and cost of the storage equipment.

Asia-Pacific has the most annual natural gas vehicle sales with around 1.2 million sales expected in 2013. China and Pakistan are the largest markets, but Thailand and India are the fastest growing with CAGR at 18% and 12% respectively, between 2013 and 2020.

Although a considerable growth in light and heavy vehicles is also envisaged in North America, a lack of fuelling infrastructure combined with low availability of vehicle powertrain options will restrict growth.

This question over fuelling infrastructure remains perhaps the key question with many alternative fuel or powertrain options. Essentially the optimisation of existing gasoline and diesel technology (with some included amount of ethanol) supported by on-board generated electric functions is the broad subject area covered by this report, and although there will be some commentary within this report about aspects of electric powertrains, other reports from IHS that might address particular subject areas more explicitly are:

• EVs;

• Hybrids;

• Fuel cells;

• The plug-in environment

Today the drivers for powertrain development remain similar to previous ones, in that they remain a combination of issues that significantly affect the competitiveness of the vehicle in competing for volume sales, and those that the OEM is forced to address through regulation in terms of fuel efficiency or greenhouse gas reduction and the restriction of criterion emissions. However, whereas at one time differentiative issues and manufacturing costs were the primary drivers of development, today legislators have emphatically ensured that the wider public good issues of addressing global warming and noxious gas build-up within the atmosphere are pre-eminent when vehicles and powertrain are designed.

It could be said that a long-term failure of the automotive sector to address emissions questions without the imposition of regulation and penalties finally led legislators around the world to act. Previously a sense of public good and a verbal agreement between bodies such as ACEA (the European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association) and the European Union were seen for many years to be largely ineffective in driving the pace of automotive development towards greater vehicle efficiency. Legislation passed around the world backed by the prospect of severe penalties for non-conformers has had a dramatic effect, and in 2013 the industry is, perhaps, pushing forward powertrain development across a broader front than for many decades. And more than ever before, the automotive industry is rising to the challenge in technology research and development. Furthermore, as has been the case for decades, the industry is managing to contain the underlying cost implications; the very intense degree of competition that impacts this industry has meant that the ability to pass additional cost on to the customer is minimised. This means that the industry is not only developing technology at a pace, it is also realigning to bring this development to market quickly and at costs that are commensurate with conditions dictated by the underlying competitive conditions.

SAMPLE



Market driversPowertrain development drivers have always been a complex mix of commercial, technical and customer considerations. However, today these considerations are changing, as environmental issues through challenging regulation have become the dominant development driver in terms of fuel economy or CO2 reduction.

• Overall development drivers can be divided into two broad areas:

• Those that address global regulation such as;

• Increasing fuel economy and reducing CO2;

• Addressing criterion emissions regulation;

• Other regulation, such as pedestrian impact safety, which drives some engine packaging issues;

• Those that address issues around OEM competitiveness such as;

• Drivability, power torque response and engine performance;

• Ride comfort and vehicle NVH performance;

• Powertrain cost;

• Packaging and fitment space considerations and other issues that affect overall vehicle design;

• Systems integration, particularly as the degree of powertrain electrification increases; and

• technology development pace, speed to market and the rate at which plant investment can become amortised.

Although, in reality, these aspects driving powertrain development are naturally intertwined and can in no way be considered as discreet, this tabulation illustrates the complex set of compromises that must be juggled to successfully develop powertrain in today’s competitive environment.

Emissions regulationsInternational CO2 reduction commitments from Europe, the US and Asia, coupled with the promulgation of legislation have forced vehicle manufacturers to produce cost-efficient alternatives whilst driving markets toward an increasing environmental consciousness. While the environmental problem is seen as global, the solutions are being managed in a variety of different ways within each of the vanguard triad jurisdictions. However, overall the global CO2 target range is beginning to converge as the non-CO2 emissions regulation tightens further (Figure 1).

The movement to set fuel economy standards was launched by the US following the first OPEC oil shock of the early 1970s, although the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards that were introduced in 1975 were increased gradually for a few years and then allowed to relax once the global oil price stabilised. However, since the end of the 20th century, the EU and Japan have also developed fuel economy standards for the new light vehicle fleet. The EU opted to use grams of CO2 emissions per kilometre (g/km) as a unit of measure, Japan adopting kilometres per litre (km/l) of fuel and the US retaining miles per gallon (mpg) using the US gallon (3.7854 litres). China has also now set standards that are expressed in litres per 100km (l/100km).

The United StatesThe original sales-weighted CAFE standards applied to light vehicles up to 8,500lb (3,856kg) in weight, and OEMs that failed to meet the annual standard could be fined up to US$5.50 for every 0.1mpg that the average fuel economy of that

SAMPLE

Documents

SupplierBusiness The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine ... · Cylinder deactivation ... Automotive SupplierBusiness | The Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Report. ... Figure