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Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurshipPotential programs to improve livelihoods for vulnerable workers
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurshipPotential programs to improve livelihoods for vulnerable workers
Yoonyoung Cho, David Robalino, and Samantha Watson
© 2014 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org
The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed here do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Rights and PermissionsThe material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowl-edge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given.
Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2422; e-mail: [email protected].
Cover photo: World BankCover design/layout and editing: Nita Congress
This note was prepared to synthesize a series of knowledge products developed under the self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship project (P127002). Useful inputs and suggestions were provided throughout the project by Xavier Cirera, Leonardo Iacovone, and Esperanza Lasagabaster. The authors also thank Graham Dixie, Sukanya Garg, Hyewon Kang, David Margolis, and Marta Malgorzata Milkowska for their contributions. The World Bank Education Team, led by Alexandria Valerio, provided invaluable input through the provision of data from their Entrepreneurship Education and Training database which accounts for half of the inventoried programs in this paper. Helpful comments were received from Mary Hallward-Driemeier, Cem Mete, Jamele Rigolino, and Dena Ringold in their role as peer reviewers. Rita Almeida, Louise Fox, Mattias Lundberg, Iftikhar Malik, Lucian Pop, Patrick Premand, Maria Laura Sanchez Puerta, and conference participants at the 9th IZA/World Bank Conference on Employment and Development in Lima, Peru, provided useful inputs. For more information, contact Yoonyoung Cho ([email protected]), Task Team Leader of this activity.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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Employment status (objective)
∎ Wage workers (wage employment)
∎ Nonwage workers (self-employed)
– Agricultural workers
– Nonpaid family workers
– Own-account workers
– Employers
Entrepreneurs (interchangeable with self-
employed, but often a subjective designation and
not homogeneous)
∎ Transformational: Refers to high-growth, innova-
tive, and expansive entrepreneurs who are likely to
have entrepreneurial traits
∎ Vocational: Refers to those who choose entre-
preneurial activities and business as a vocation,
but who likely lack the desire or ability to grow a
business
∎ Subsistence: Refers to those who are self-em-
ployed out of necessity and who often lack skills
and entrepreneurial traits
Box 1. Terminology usedWorldwide, around 55 percent of work-ers are self-employed, and about three-quarters of these are likely to be subsistence entrepreneurs. These
self-employed workers include farmers and own-ac-count workers, many of whom work in small house-hold enterprises without pay. A large proportion of these workers live in poor or vulnerable households. In Sub-Saharan Africa, for instance, close to 80 percent of the self-employed are poor.1 While numerous countries have adopted programs that aim to promote self-em-ployment and small-scale entrepreneurship (SSE), the design of such programs seems ill suited to respond to the needs of those who engage in entrepreneurial activities not by choice, but by necessity.
This note discusses the potential public policy role of programs aimed at improving the livelihoods of subsis-tence entrepreneurs (box 1). It begins by looking at the characteristics of self-employed workers, the different types of entrepreneurs, and the constraints they face. It then analyzes the potential role of public policy in improving the earning opportunities of subsistence entrepreneurs, the types of programs that could be used, and general issues to be considered when designing and implementing pilot interventions. The note has four main messages:
∎ In the context of a global strategy to increase the incomes of the poorest workers, it is important to identify interventions to support subsistence entre-preneurs. The constraints they face and the type of support they need differ from those of vocational or transformational entrepreneurs.
∎ The evidence of what works is limited. A few pro-grams have been successful, but they tend to be small, and there is limited knowledge available about design and implementation in different con-texts and with different types of beneficiaries.
1 The poverty line is defined as $2 per day for per capita household consumption.
∎ Given the market failures faced by subsistence entrepreneurs interventions that complement safety net programs could be considered to increase earnings and improve the livelihoods of subsistence entrepreneurs.
∎ Going forward, it is critical to adopt a more sys-tematic approach to designing, implementing, and evaluating new programs. Special attention should be paid to eligibility, targeting, and profiling mech-anisms; selection of businesses to be supported; adaptation of core interventions (training, access to finance, advisory and mentoring services, and networking) to beneficiary needs; whether and how programs are integrated into subsectors and/or value chains; and delivery mechanisms for different services.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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1 Understanding self-employment and the role of public policy
Who are the self-employed?
Most workers in middle- and, particularly, low-income countries are self-employed: either farmers or own-ac-count workers in nonfarm activities. The share of workers in agriculture drops as a country's income per capita increases. Even in the average middle-income country, however, around half of workers are self-em-ployed, and three-quarters of the non-agriculture jobs are own-account work (figure 1a). In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, for instance, where the large majority is self-employed, about 20 percent of the employed are own-account or unpaid workers outside agriculture, and more than half are agricultural workers (figure 1b).
Individual characteristics such as education, age, and gender are important determinants of employ-ment status including self-employment. On average, own-account workers and agricultural workers have low educational outcomes, while employers and wage
workers tend to be better educated. Self-employment also tends to follow a strong life-cycle pattern and to become more common with age (figure 2). How-ever, there is large heterogeneity across countries. For instance, self-employment is quite common, even among youth, in countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, par-ticularly in agriculture. Gender effects also tend to be country specific. In Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, women are more likely to be self-employed than men. More women than men work in wage employment in Europe and Central Asia and in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Close to 70 percent of the self-employed worldwide live in poor households; these are subsistence entre-preneurs or severely constrained vocational entrepre-neurs. Given that households often have more than one self-employed individual, the high prevalence of poverty attests to the low level of productivity and earnings of these businesses and activities, particularly in agriculture (figure 3). Clearly, there are important differences across regions which reflect the income level of the countries. In Sub-Saharan Africa, 80 per-cent of the self-employed live in poor households,
Source: Based on data from Gindling and Newhouse 2014.
Figure 1. Proportion of workers who are self-employed
0 20 40 60 80 100
East Asiaand Pacific
Europe andCentral Asia
Latin Americaand the Caribbean
Middle East andNorth Africa
South Asia
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Agriculture Non-agriculture
b. By regiona. By per capita GDP
0
20
40
60
80
100Percent
0.3 0.5 1.0 2.5 5.0 10.0 25.0 50.0Per capita GDP (thousand $)
Non−agricultural unpaidNon−agricultural own-account
Non−agricultural employer
Non−agricultural wage and salaried
All agricultural workers
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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(figure 4). Mobility is generally greater for men than women. Transition rates are higher among the non-ag-riculture self-employed. Nonetheless, mobility is considerably lower when only focusing on movements between jobs, excluding transitions in and out of the labor market and unemployment. Mobility of own-ac-count workers, in particular, is in large part explained by their exiting the labor market or becoming unem-ployed as opposed to transitioning into other employ-ment opportunities. This may suggest the precarious-ness of own-account activities.
Own-account workers are a heterogeneous group. Profiling analysis suggests that among less successful entrepreneurs (own-account workers), there are some that have the characteristics of the more successful (employers).2 For instance, a non-negligible proportion of own-account workers have seemingly similar char-acteristics to employers (table 1). Similarly, employers
2 The propensity for a worker to be an employer or own-ac-count worker is estimated using observable characteristics such as age, education, or sector of employment; this serves a basis for similarity/difference in characteristics.
Figure 2. Non-agriculture self-employment as a percentage of total working-age population, by gender and age
Figure 3. Poverty among the self-employed
Source: Gindling and Newhouse 2014.
Source: Based on data from Gindling and Newhouse 2014.
compared to only about 20 percent in either Europe and Central Asia or Latin America and the Caribbean.
Employment status is not static: workers move in and out of the labor market and transition between jobs
0 20 40 60 80 100
South Asia
All
Latin Americaand the Caribbean
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Europe andCentral Asia
East Asiaand Pacific
Middle East andNorth Africa
Percent
Agriculture Non-agriculture
a. Female b. Male
Percent Percent
20 40 60Age
0
Own-account
Employer
Nonpaid employee
8
6
4
2
10
20 6040Age
0
15
5EmployerNonpaid employee
Own-account
10
20
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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have many observable attributes in common with own-account workers. In general, the literature sug-gests that different types of entrepreneurs—for example, transformational, vocational, and subsistence entrepreneurs—coexist.3
3 For instance, Grimm, Knorringa, and Lay (2012) defined 10 percent of business owners as “top performers,” based on their accumulated capital and its profitability. The likelihood of being a top performer increases with char-acteristics such as age, education, and “entrepreneurial spirit.” The researchers then obtained the propensity to be successful and find those who have similar success pro-pensity among unsuccessful ones (so-called “constrained gazelles”). Thus, high performers, constrained gazelles, and entrepreneurs with low potential coexist in the market.
What are the constraints facing the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs?
Potential constraints and factors that may affect pro-ductivity and earnings can be classified in two groups: individual and environmental (table 2). Individual constraints include lack of entrepreneurial aptitude and traits, skills, and social capital. Environmental constraints include limited access to financial ser-vices and products, an adverse business environment, underdeveloped markets for inputs and outputs, and other impeding cultural factors. Even if the market and regulatory failures that create environmental constraints could be removed, the lack of aptitude, skills, and cognitive abilities to understand, discover, and develop business opportunities traps subsistence
Gender Argentina Brazil Chile Indonesia Mexico Pakistan Philippines South Africa Tanzania Uganda
Men 0.623 0.568 0.185 0.573 0.735 0.309 0.058 0.102 0.287 0.134
Women 0.533 0.503 0.210 0.829 0.534 0.000 0.007 0.195 0.164 0.085
Source: Cho, Robalino, and Romero 2014.
Table 1. Share of own-account workers with characteristics similar to employers in 10 countries
Figure 4. Proportions of individuals who change employment status
Source: Based on data from Cho, Robalino, and Romero 2014.
Note: Panel spans specified in parentheses.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60 Male
Mexico(1)
Argentina(1)
Chile(1)
Brazil(1)
Russia(1)
Moldova(1)
Tanzania(2)
Uganda(4)
S. Africa(2)
Indonesia(7)
Philippines(1)
Pakistan(1)
Percent
Female
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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entrepreneurs in a low-level productivity equilibrium. Therefore, the discussion below is limited to individual constraints, which tend to be the focus of SSE pro-grams. (See appendix for a full list of assessment tools by type of constraint.)
AptitudeSeveral interlinked attributes, such as personality, aspiration, and noncognitive skills, fall in the category of entrepreneurial aptitude or traits. A large volume of literature argues that entrepreneurial aptitude is an important determinant of business success. Some personality traits that are associated with being suc-cessful in business include: innovative, imaginative, creative, flexible, adaptable, reliable, responsible, self-reliant, and calculated risk-taking (Develi 2011). The Big 5 Personality Test and the Pearlin and Schooler scale (the locus of control or self-efficacy) are exam-ples of tools commonly used to assess personality or noncognitive skills. Aspiration, on the other hand, is related to entrepreneurs’ motivation to create new products, innovate, achieve, and grow a business. According to the Skills Towards Employability and Productivity (STEP) skills measurement surveys, the top 25 percent of self-employed earners are differ-entiated from other self-employed counterparts in terms of their socio-emotional skills: they are more intuitive in their decision making and tend to take
risks.4 Self-employed workers who are entrepreneurs by necessity and for subsistence are often deemed to lack entrepreneurial aptitude. There is still a limited understanding of how these traits are formed and affect behaviors. However, an assessment of entre-preneurial traits can potentially inform the targeting or design of SSE programs.
SkillsThe ability of individuals to develop a business activity, solve problems, make financial decisions, manage risks, or find clients depends on their skills. Basic numeracy and literacy skills seem to be a precondition to setting up and operating a business, but these skills are often lacking due to low levels of education, particularly among subsistence entrepreneurs. Low levels of cog-nitive skills affect the capacity of individuals to inter-pret and process information about events that can affect their business and require strategic actions. Low cognitive skills also limit the capacity to choose viable economic activities in the first place and to learn from failure or success (Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua 2006). In Ghana, for instance, about 80 percent of workers with lower secondary education self-report that they are
4 See Pierre et al. (2014) and Valerio et al. (2014) for the sum-mary methodology and findings from the STEP skills mea-surement surveys.
Individual constraints Environmental constraints
∎ Aptitude – Personality (noncognitive skills) – Aspiration and preferences
∎ Skills – Basic skills – Technical skills – Business skills – Financial capability – Noncognitive skills (personality)
∎ Social capital – Networks, associations
∎ Financial services – Availability of banking service – Access to credits/loan – Financial management tools (e.g., debit/credit card)
∎ Local business environment – Regulatory and legal environment – Government capacity (corruption) – Infrastructure
∎ Access to markets
∎ Cultural factors – Attitudes and norms – Social class/status/gender
Table 2. Individual and environmental constraints to entrepreneurship
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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literate, but only 50 percent pass the core reading test because they lack a sufficient level of literacy (Pierre et al. 2014; Valerio et al. 2014).
Technical skills are critical in many jobs—such as a tailor’s skills to make and repair clothes, or a farmer’s skills to operate machinery. Many workers acquire such skills through informal arrangements, learning from family or friends or by working at local workshops. Building these skills and maintaining up-to-date tech-niques can be a challenge for workers. In the region of San Gregorio, Ecuador, for instance, many farmers are engaged in the cultivation of balsa wood. Reported mortality rates of the young trees, however, are over 50 percent because workers are using outdated plant-ing techniques and do not implement schemes to address the most common predators. Such examples of inadequate skills are commonplace in developing countries, particularly in remote areas.
Skills are also lacking with respect to basic principles of business and finance. Business skills enable individ-uals to manage sales and marketing, human resources, customer relations, and accounts. A few recent stud-ies (e.g., Bloom and Van Reenen 2010; Bowen and De Clercq 2008) have emphasized business skills and managerial capital as a key factor in successful entre-preneurship. A survey in Uganda, for instance, shows that managerial deficiencies such as incorrect pricing, poor recordkeeping, inadequate inventory control, and faulty product concept are among the main causes of small business failure (Tushabomwe-Kazooba 2006). Moreover, a lack of financial capability substantially limits the ability to operate a business, particularly over a longer term (Holzman, Mulaj, and Perotti 2013). Along with low education and limited access to finan-cial products, a lack of financial skills often exposes entrepreneurs to mismanagement of cash flows, overindebtedness, and scams and fraud.
Social capitalSocial capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a
society's social interactions. When it comes to busi-ness, social capital is the primary resource entrepre-neurs may rely upon to find new business opportu-nities, manage resources, and secure legitimacy from external stakeholders (Stam, Arzlanian, and Elfring 2013). In particular, the role of social capital in facili-tating access to credit among the poor in developing countries has been widely recognized.5 Vulnerable workers, who are often unable to build or participate in networks—in part due to a lack of noncognitive skills or external constraints such as social norms—tend to lack social capital and engage in business activities in isolation. This limits entrepreneurs’ ability to receive information, learn about new technology, or take advantage of economies of scale. India’s Self-Em-ployed Women’s Association is a good example of how social capital can assist self-employed women in con-necting to information, markets, and financing.
What could be the role of public policy for subsistence entrepreneurs?
Whether governments should intervene to improve the earnings and livelihoods of subsistence entrepre-neurs through entrepreneurship programs is, in the end, a question about the social benefits and costs of the intervention. One strand of research suggests that programs to promote entrepreneurship should target individuals with the highest growth potential, with sufficient cognitive skills and entrepreneurial aptitude. This implies that the support subsistence entrepre-neurs could receive would be limited to antipoverty transfers and probably interventions to connect them to wage employment. When wage employment is lacking, however, safety nets alone will not lead to a sustained increase in earnings and living standards. At the same time, it might be possible—and examples do exist—to have SSE programs that generate social ben-efits greater than social costs. These benefits would
5 See van Bastelaer (2000) for a review.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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include increasing incomes and consumption levels above what could be achieved through safety nets (C in figure 5), and reducing safety net expenditures and their associated opportunity cost (B in figure 5). In addition, there can be positive externalities resulting from potentially higher investments in human capital.
One set of programs would aim to improve the earn-ings generated by current activities, without attempt-ing to change the nature of the work or individual traits. This outcome would be possible by improving pricing mechanisms, product quality, and produc-tion technologies to reduce costs and/or increase output and/or quality; or by expanding markets. Many subsistence farmers, for instance, could be better off simply by having access to better seeds, better products to protect their crops, and appropriate tech-nology—even if their production is only for house-hold consumption and does not generate external employment. Thus, interventions with the potential to increase the earnings of the self-employed would be possible, without expecting subsistence entrepreneurs to become vocational or transformational entrepre-neurs. Such interventions include efforts to improve knowledge and upgrade technology, facilitate better access to equipment and inputs, and offer better opportunities to price and sell products. Some recent
or ongoing experiments (e.g., Conley and Udry 2010; Giné and Yang 2009) are particularly concerned with finding good mechanisms to upgrade skills and facili-tate the adoption of new technology.
More complex interventions would require changes in the organization of a given business, aiming to facilitate entrepreneurs to engage in more transformative activ-ities and/or to be integrated into value chains. Farmers, or other self-employed, for example, could be involved in a processing business of their basic produce: trees into wood planks, fruits into frozen pulp or conserves, and animals into meat. By bringing several small farmers or crafts people into associations or cooperatives and increasing production volumes, the resulting groups could take advantage of economies of scale and the local, regional, or national value chains often found in specific sectors such as food products, tourism, and textiles. For this type of intervention, it is reasonable to envisage that third parties with the necessary tech-nical expertise—either for-profit or nonprofit enti-ties—could develop the business plans and manage the implementation, including mobilizing the necessary resources and expertise. Many of these opportunities might not be exploited because of low expected pri-vate rates of return on investments with high associ-ated risk, lack of local knowledge, coordination costs, or regulatory failures. The role of the public sector would be to facilitate the emergence of business that integrates subsistence entrepreneurs into more lucra-tive and transformative activities, including by ensuring access to skills, credit/grants, and basic infrastructure.
2 What programs exist to promote self-employment and
small-scale entrepreneurship?
This section presents an overview of an inventory of 106 SSE programs, including both organizational approaches and specific entrepreneurship projects that aim to improve the earnings opportunities for self-employed workers, (see figure 6 for regional
Figure 5. Conceptualizing the social cost and benefit of SSE programs
Earnings
Age
Income withoutSSE program
Income with SSE program
Cost of safety net
AA BB
CC
Social cost of not having SSE program = A + B + C Cost of efficient SSE program < B + C
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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distribution of the programs).6 The results show the landscape of current programs, revealing large variations in terms of design and implementation arrangements. Unfortunately many existing programs are unlikely to be suited to the needs of subsistence entrepreneurs.
6 The review was based on an entrepreneurship inventory that documents characteristics of SSE programs, and sup-plementary interviews with practitioners and experts. An emphasis was placed on programs that target the self-em-ployed and businesses with 10 employees or fewer. Some programs discussed here are organizational approaches such as curricula or tools for entrepreneurial training that are adaptable to various projects (e.g., the International Labour Organization’s Know About Business initiative). Others are projects with heterogeneous implementation details. The inventory was drawn from three sources: (1) the Entrepreneurship Education and Training (EET) data-base created by the World Bank Team (see Valerio, Parton, and Robb 2014a and 2014b for more information on the database), (2) the Youth Employment Network (YEN) data-base; and (3) relevant World Bank projects with “entrepre-neurship” and “self-employment” as keywords in the main stated objectives. In selecting programs for the inventory, the focus was on programs that directly address con-straints of individual beneficiaries with respect to business activities as opposed to indirect approaches—such as the construction of business infrastructure, capacity building of financial institutions, or the facilitation of financial inclusion without the promotion of business activities.
Targeting, eligibility, and selection
Definition, identification, and selection of beneficia-ries are often the greatest challenge in program design. The general trend, in both organizational approaches and projects, is toward open beneficiary groups with demand-driven services, targeting mainly existing entrepreneurs; around 79 percent of organizational approaches and 58 percent of projects target this group. Programs often target a broad group by includ-ing micro, small, and medium-size enterprises with more established entrepreneurs covered—suggesting that subsistence entrepreneurs are largely excluded from public intervention.
Targeting based on the characteristics of poten-tial beneficiaries (such as age, education, gender, or income level) is not prominent among the SSE pro-grams in the inventory. For instance, 32 percent of the projects focus solely on women, while the rest include both genders. Similarly, programs that are exclusive to youth are not numerous; about a quarter of projects target this group. Although projects often recognize the greater needs among women and youth and utilize gender- or age-specific quotas or mobilization meth-ods (e.g., women’s associations, youth groups, commu-nity nomination, or outreach campaigns), SSE programs tend not to use demographic targeting. Surprisingly, education or skills levels also are not often part of targeting criteria, and only 25 percent use education levels in eligibility. Some assessment of skills—whether using education as a proxy or directly testing benefi-ciaries—is likely to help customize the design of SSE programs to participant needs. Further, few programs explicitly target the poor or beneficiaries of safety nets. This finding suggests that SSE programs may cur-rently overlook the most vulnerable group of workers who could benefit from such programs the most.
It is not clear what methods programs use to select beneficiaries within the defined target group; in fact, only 20 projects in the inventory report their selec-tion methods. Among these programs, business plan
Figure 6. Regional distribution of SSE programs reviewed
05
1015
202530354045Percent
16%
South Asia
10%
Middle East & North Africa
7%
Europe &
Central Asia
7%
East Asia & Pacific
22%
Latin America
& the Caribbean
41%
Sub-SaharanAfrica
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
9
vast majority of organizational approaches and nearly three-quarters of projects provide some combination of multiple services. The number of services com-bined in a program varies across regions (figure 8). For instance, about 75 percent of programs in the Latin America and the Caribbean region provide two ser-vices or less, compared to the Sub-Saharan Africa and
review/competition is most frequently used, followed by written applications and community nomination (figure 7). Several programs report that business plan review/competition, written application, or interview selection methods often serve as a tool to assess and identify constraints in addition to screening applicants when targeting entrepreneurs with limited skills and education. Recently, a handful of programs have begun using psychometric tests that discern some entrepre-neurial traits as part of their selection process. The World Bank’s Women Entrepreneurship Development Project in Ethiopia, for instance, in collaboration with Harvard’s Entrepreneurial Finance Lab Research Ini-tiative, is testing a psychometric measure of assessing credit for selecting participants for access to finance. If proven effective, such tests will allow commercial banks to assess the credit worthiness of lower-income individuals who lack collateral and credit.
Technical components
Program services were classified into four technical components: training, access to finance, advisory and mentoring services, and networking. The majority of programs provide combinations of these services: the
Figure 7. Selection of beneficiaries
25%
40%
15%
75%
10% 15%
30%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Interview Writtenapplication
Psychometrictests
Business plan review/businessidea competition
Caseworker Voluntary Communitynomination
Percent
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Figure 8. Number of services provided by region
Percent
South Asia
Latin America
& the Caribbean
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sub-Saharan Africa
Other regions
4 services
3 services
2 services
1 service
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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South Asia regions where over 40 percent of programs provide three to four services. This finding probably reflects the fact that individuals in lower-income countries are more likely to be affected by multiple constraints. Similarly, when looking at implementation arrangements, projects implemented jointly by the public and private sectors are more comprehensive than those delivered solely by either private or public service providers.
Training is by far the most commonly offered service (figure 9). Conversely, direct provision of access to finance is the least prevalent service offered, with only 30 percent of the projects reviewed providing it. Instead, many programs (67 percent of organizational approaches and 60 percent of projects) report that they link beneficiaries to outside financial services. Projects that involve the private sector for service delivery are more likely to provide access to financial services than purely publicly implemented projects: 28 percent of public projects, 32 percent of private projects, and 46 percent of combined public-pri-vate projects provided direct access to finance. The low utilization of access to finance in the programs reviewed may reflect the fact that the main objective of financing projects such as microcredit programs
is often consumption smoothing without promoting entrepreneurial activities. Over half of the programs reviewed provided the two remaining services—advi-sory services and mentoring and networking.
TrainingTraining is a key method for building entrepreneur-ial capacity. About two-thirds of the projects in the inventory use traditional classroom-based training; workplace training, including apprenticeships and on-the-job training, is used in 26 percent of the proj-ects. There is great variety across programs in terms of training intensity and duration. In fact, some programs literally customize trainings to each group, without having a standard approach even within the program. Among the many topics covered in SSE programs, business-related training predominates, including business planning, general business and marketing skills, and financial literacy and capability (figure 10a). Foundational skills training such as numeracy/literacy or vocational training is less prevalent. In Latin America and the Caribbean, vocational training is particularly low, with only 6 percent of programs providing such content. South Asia, on the other hand, is the most likely to provide vocational content, with half of the programs that include training addressing vocational content.
Financial servicesAs mentioned above, only 30 percent of the projects reviewed have a component that directly provides access to finance, while 60 percent link beneficiaries to outside financial services. Figure 10b shows the specific types of direct financial products programs provide. Cash grants, scholarships, and prizes are the most common form of financial support, followed by micro-finance. Sixty-three percent of the programs providing access to finance in Sub-Saharan Africa, 100 percent of those in Latin America and the Caribbean, 67 percent of those in South Asia, and 86 percent of those in the other regions provide grants, scholarships, and prizes. Meanwhile, savings and loans group, as well as micro-finance tend to be concentrated in Asia.
Figure 9. Types of services provided
99%
30%
59% 52%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Training Access to finance
Advisory services &mentoring
Networking
Percent
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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Matching grants and loans that require the benefi-ciary to provide materials, investment, or cash up to a certain percentage of the loan/grant amount appear to be common: 40 percent of all programs providing access to finance require matching. The model is based on the belief that matching funds—even if only a small amount—helps ensure that the beneficiary is equally invested in the business. Match requirements
on financial services are more prevalent in Latin Amer-ica and the Caribbean and in South Asia (67 percent and 50 percent, respectively) than in the other regions (under 40 percent).
Different models for matching grants exist. The Eco-nomic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls and Young Women project in Liberia (AGI Liberia) and the Voca-tional Training for Youths with Disabilities in West-ern Area and Kono Districts project of Sierra Leone provide grants to encourage participants to save; the programs match any savings the participants accrue during their participation with a seed grant to start their business. Other programs use matching grants to match any outside capital an entrepreneur can access. The Entrepreneurship Program for Innovation in the
Caribbean (EPIC) is an example of this model. Still other programs require entrepreneurs to invest what they already have into the business as a show of com-mitment. The Congo—Support to Economic Diversi-fication Project uses this model and requires partici-pants to put up some 10–20 percent of the financing.
Advisory services and networkingAdvisory services include technical assistance and mentoring, while network interventions help provide entrepreneurs with linkages to peers and potential cli-ents. Technical assistance is defined as advice based on particular business issues or on the circumstances of the entrepreneur. Mentoring implies a closer relation-ship and can include counseling on more personal and nontechnical issues. In some cases, technical assistance and mentoring are provided together.
With respect to networking, horizontal networking is the most common type of support. Group business organizations, forums, and study tours to establish networks are frequently used tools. The National Rural Livelihoods Project in India provides a good example of horizontal linkages that enable the many to achieve
Figure 10. Training topics and financial service products offered
0 20 40 60 80
General business skills
Vocational knowledge
Marketing
Strategic planning/business plan
Financial literacy, finance& accounting
Management/operations
Life-skills/soft skills
Literacy/numeracy
ICT & computer literacy
0 20 40 60
Loan guarantees
Loans, credits (financial),equity investments
Lines of credit
In-kind credits
Grants, scholarships, prizesVenture capital
Savings and loan groups
Microfinance
Match required
8010 30 50 70 10 30 50 70Percent Percent
b. Financial service productsa. Training topics
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
12
more than any individual could. Specifically, the proj-ect encourages the formation of savings groups that seek to overcome banks’ reluctance to work with small entrepreneurial activities by combining assets; members submit a joint financing request and repay-ment plan to banks. Through these linkages, more rural businesses are able to access finance. Not surprisingly, a higher percentage of programs targeting potential entrepreneurs provide networking services (62 per-cent) than those targeting existing entrepreneurs (48 percent).
Institutional arrangements
Implementation arrangements vary across the pro-grams reviewed. The public sector remains the largest funder for these programs (figure 11a), although some private sector funding complements and supports sev-eral initiatives. More heterogeneity exists with regard to implementing agency (figure 11b). Private sector enti-ties such as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) or contracted service providers are the main implement-ers in over a third of the projects reviewed. An addi-tional 12 percent are implemented by a combination of
private and public sector providers. Quite a high pro-portion of projects (40 percent) report direct service delivery by public agencies; this can be a limitation in low-income settings where resources and institutional capacity are lacking. As noted earlier, some variation exists in how programs are structured depending on the implementation arrangements.
Very few programs provide relevant information on program costs. The available information (based on 10 projects in developing countries in the inventory) suggests that there is considerable heterogeneity across programs. (For more information on program costs, see Valerio, Parton, and Robb 2014a, 2014b). For instance, known cost per beneficiary ranges from $95 (Women’s Enterprise Management Training Outreach Program in India) to $1,200 (AGI Liberia’s business development track). This range reflects many factors, including variety of services provided, program com-prehensiveness, different methods of calculating cost per beneficiary, and variations in geographic pricing. With no standard method for calculating unit costs, few programs providing information on costs, and dif-ficulty in measuring social costs and benefits, little is known about the cost-effectiveness of each program.
Figure 11. Implementation arrangements
Not specified
Public Private
Combination Public
Private
Combination
Not specified
b. Implementing agencya. Funding type
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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Trends in evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation systems are generally weak. Currently, only 7 of the organizational approaches and 36 of the projects reviewed had conducted rigorous evaluations. Impact evaluations are more prominent in the Latin America and the Caribbean region, with 69 percent of the region’s programs having rigorous evaluations, in comparison with 37 percent and 33 per-cent in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, respec-tively. For the remaining three regions, 41 percent of programs have rigorous evaluations. Globally, the rigor of evaluations seems to vary with implementing agency. Half of the programs implemented solely by the private sector have rigorous evaluations, compared to 41 percent of publicly implemented programs and 38 percent of those implemented jointly by the public and private sectors.
Related to the weak monitoring and evaluation system, many programs tend to focus on output indicators (e.g., number of beneficiaries trained, number of toolkits dis-persed) rather than outcome indicators. Several do track outcome indicators (figure 12), including: labor market activities (e.g., employment), income (e.g., profits/earnings), business knowledge and practice (e.g., book-keeping), business performance (e.g., sales), financial behavior (e.g., loan take-up), attitudes (e.g., confidence), and others (e.g., indicators capturing the result of reg-ulation reform or public infrastructure investments). Not surprisingly, the most frequently tracked outcomes of interest include business performance such as sales, number of paid employees, or inventory amounts.
3 What do we know about impacts?
There is limited evidence regarding the impacts of entrepreneurship programs, and the results are mixed. Of the programs reviewed that have been evaluated, only around 30 percent have had positive results, but
the size of these impacts is usually small. What seems clear is that stand-alone interventions—especially access to credit on its own—are less likely to make a difference. This finding suggests that targeted bene-ficiaries face multiple constraints, and effective pro-grams may need to integrate several services.
The likelihood of having positive impacts and the size of impacts vary widely by outcomes of interest (figure 13). Current evaluations suggest that business knowledge and practice, such as recordkeeping, reg-istration, and separation of individual and business accounts, are relatively easy to change compared to other outcomes. Thus, interventions such as business training work relatively well for existing entrepreneurs. However, improved business knowledge and practice do not necessarily translate into business growth or increased profits. This finding may be related to the timing of the post-intervention survey, since the period between program completion and the survey is typically short, and the impacts for final outcomes may not be fully materialized.
Regardless, business training programs are quite het-erogeneous both in terms of design and impact. The
Figure 12. Outcome indicators tracked
10 30 50 70
Labor market activities
Labor market income
Business knowledgeand practice
Business performance
Financial behavior
Attitudes
Other
Percent0 20 40 60
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
14
target group for business training ranges from the rural self-employed to urban small and medium enterprises, and their content, duration, intensity, and survey timing are equally diverse (McKenzie and Woodruff 2012). Although business training improves the survival of existing enterprises and facilitates new business start-up, more evidence is needed regarding best prac-tices in pedagogical approaches and implementation
arrangements. For instance, a study suggests that busi-ness training based on “rule of thumb” rather than on sophisticated and difficult lessons may be more effec-tive, specifically for the most vulnerable subsistence self-employed (Drexler, Fischer, and Schoar 2011). Also, follow-up services beyond in-class business training to provide technical assistance tailored to individual needs can further improve impacts.
Source: Cho and Honorati 2014.
Figure 13. Impacts of SSE programs by outcomes of interest
−4
0
4
8
12t−value
−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size
a. Labor activities
−4
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4
8
12t−value
−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size
b. Labor income
−4
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4
8
12t−value
−.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size
c. Business practice
−4
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−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size
d. Business performance
−4
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Training Financing Combined
e. Financial behavior
−4
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4
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−.6 −.4 −.2 0 .2 .4 .6 .8E�ect size
f. Attitudes
t−value
t−value t−value
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
15
Compared to business knowledge and practice, it is more difficult to change labor market outcomes including employment levels, hours worked, and—certainly—earnings. In general, programs providing training combined with financing or counseling seem to perform better in promoting labor market activities, particularly for youth. Vocational training combined with grants in Nicaragua for social safety net beneficiaries is an example of such a program (Macours, Premand, and Vakis 2012). Grants provided to vulnerable youth in Uganda so they could pursue vocational training also yielded positive outcomes (Blattman, Fiala, and Martinez 2013). Conversely, training or financing provided alone may not be suf-ficient to address the complex constraints faced by microenterprise owners in developing countries. A recent review by the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor of largely stand-alone financing interventions found few impacts regarding business performance and labor market outcomes (Bauchet et al. 2011). There is little evidence of any difference in effective-ness between cash, in-kind grants, and microcredit schemes.
Overall, the impacts of interventions tend to be weaker for women. Women may face more stringent constraints in skills acquisition and business opera-tion, and control over finances often reverts to men even if women are business owners or recipients of microcredits.7 These results suggest that programs need to be better tailored to address the constraints facing self-employed females. A successful example is the business development track of the AGI Liberia program. This initiative specifically targeted young women and provided training in the locality in which they resided (taking into account their mobility con-straints), and included free child care (addressing their
7 Capital infusion for microenterprises has had much lower returns for women in Sri Lanka and Ghana (de Mel, McKenzie, and Woodruff 2008; Fafchamps et al. 2011); impacts of apprenticeship training are weaker for girls than boys in Malawi (Cho et al. 2013).
family responsibilities). These considerations may help explain the project’s success: it led to a 47 per-cent increase in employment and an 80 percent increase in average weekly income among project beneficiaries.
The chief conclusion emerging is that there is still lim-ited knowledge about the specific design and imple-mentation features that make a program successful for a given population group and in a given context. Addi-tionally, the fact that many of the programs evaluated are small pilots raises questions about external validity and the potential for scaling up—a particular concern for programs that support businesses that operate in small local markets. It is also important to note that the evaluations provide little information about program sustainability. Even where there are positive effects on employment and earnings, these might be short-lived given the high mortality and turnover rates of entrepreneurial activities.
A few questions related to targeting, design, and implementation remain to be further researched:
∎ Targeting versus design. Do programs fail because they have targeted the wrong beneficiaries—i.e., the self-employed who have little growth potential? Or do programs fail to adapt the design to respond to the needs of the type of beneficiaries targeted? While great efforts have been made to identify individuals with better prospects for business growth, relatively little attention has been paid to finding the right intervention for subsistence entre-preneurs. Many of the SSE programs reviewed seem to deliver the same kind of business support devel-oped for small and medium-size firms as opposed to providing support tailored to the specific needs of self-employed workers.
∎ Design versus implementation. Even if a program is well designed with technical components appro-priate to the situation and participants, it is likely to yield little impact if not well implemented.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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Seemingly similar programs can work in one place but fail in another. Proving the external validity of certain approaches is difficult due to heteroge-neous implementation arrangements. The review suggests that many programs are still provided directly by governments/public sector. Yet, better programs seem to be delivered by local NGOs or community-level institutions, which are more likely to be familiar with beneficiary needs and con-straints. In future programming, process evaluations should be prioritized along with impact evaluations to gain insight into design versus implementation questions.
∎ Constraints versus complaints. Programs often rely on self-reported surveys to identify serious barriers to productive entrepreneurship. Limited access to finance is among the top constraints. However, limited evidence of financing services on entre-preneurial outcomes suggests that limited access to finance might simply be a common complaint. Many other impeding constraints may exist that are as important as limited access to finance. There is a great need for improving tools that provide objec-tive information about individual and environmen-tal constraints.
4 General considerations in the design and implementation of
programs to support subsistence entrepreneurs
The livelihoods of those engaged, or who can engage, in self-employment or small-scale entrepreneurship as a subsistence activity could be improved through SSE programs. The objective of such programs would not be to identify “gazelles” and help them grow, but to support those who are engaged in subsistence activi-ties even if they lack growth potential. The implication is that government interventions should be properly evaluated. Only after understanding their impacts, implementation challenges, and costs, can decisions
be made in order to adjust and scale-up effective programs. There are four areas of program design that need to receive attention: (1) targeting, eligibility crite-ria, and beneficiary profiling; (2) identifying and select-ing business activities; (3) defining core interventions; and (4) choosing delivery options for various program components.
Targeting, eligibility criteria, and beneficiary profiling
The target group for SSE programs would be indi-viduals—not firms—who are, or who can become, self-employed in, generally, low-productivity/low-earning activities. They are either poor or live in households with consumption levels close to the pov-erty line. They can be engaged in subsistence farming, nonfarm activities in rural areas, or produce goods and services in urban areas. Often self-employment may not be their main, or at least not their only, activity; they can be involved in more than one type of busi-ness. Within this large set, governments should define priorities based on policy objectives and could include eligibility criteria such as age, gender, or geographic region.
The same mechanisms used to target social assistance programs can be used for SSE programs. These mech-anisms include combinations of geographical and categorical targeting, proxy means tests, and com-munity participation. Caution should be exercised with regard to the trend observed in the reviewed programs of open beneficiary groups and self-selec-tion. The most vulnerable are not likely to be reached through these approaches unless they are specifically targeted and actively mobilized. In many cases, the entry point to SSE programs can be existing safety net programs that may have already addressed these issues of outreach to and mobilization of the most vulnerable. Indeed, SSE programs could be linked to existing safety net programs as part of the graduation strategy.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
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Even after identifying and targeting the potential beneficiaries, designing programs to fully benefit the vulnerable groups is challenging. One issue involves the low take-up rate, which has become an ubiquitous observation among the poor across many different sectors in developing countries. Examples of low take-up include underutilization of insecticide-treated bed nets (Ashraf, Fink, and Weil 2010), improved cook-stoves (Hanna, Duflo, and Greenstone 2012), insurance or savings (Mobarak and Rosenzweig 2012), and fertil-izers (Duflo, Kremer, and Robinson 2011). Low take-up may indicate that the returns are highly heterogeneous across different beneficiary groups and that programs are not suitable for a subset of the population, par-ticularly for vulnerable groups faced with complex constraints.
Profiling and understanding the skills, capabilities, and constraints facing potential beneficiaries is, therefore, critical to the design of programs that are able to serve the vulnerable. The profiling method will depend on the context, but it is likely that survey instruments and objective indicators are cheaper and more reli-able than the more subjective assessments of pro-gram managers, counselors, or expert groups. (Some
frequently used instruments to profile individuals and assess constraints can be found in the appendix.)
Identifying and selecting business activities
There are two approaches to identifying business activities. A participant-driven model, which is similar to that used in traditional entrepreneurship programs, is one in which individuals select their business and join the program. The other model is project identi-fied. In this model, the project identifies, ex ante, prof-itable business activities in a region or sector through some type of assessment and guides participant start-up activities to the selected industry or business type. Both methods have pros and cons and are likely to be more relevant to some groups than others.
Participant drivenIn this approach, participants self-select into a program usually by applying for support, submitting a business plan or idea for review, or participating in offered ser-vices (figure 14). Among those who already have an idea about a business or who operate actual businesses,
Identification of business/
individual needs Idea
Current business Business plan
Application Interview
Support servicesprofiling
First come first servedObjective criteria Selection committee
Eligible individual or group of individuals
Contact Selection SUPPORT
Figure 14. Support for participant-driven businesses
Source: Based on SSE program inventory.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
18Model General description
Constraints addressed
Implementation considerations
Specifications for very vulnerable/self-
employed Examples
Technical Training Model with Entrepreneur-ship Track
Technical or vocational training model that offers entrepreneurship support or a separate track for those interested
Technical/vocational skills as well as business skills
∎ Training model does not lend itself to advisory and networking services
∎ Duration of training should consider skill sufficiency for self-employment
∎ Inclusion of literacy and numeracy
∎ Psycho-social sup-port
∎ Business awareness and idea genera-tion
∎ Access to finance, networks, and advi-sory services need to be included
∎ AGI Liberia
∎ Vocational Training for youths with Disabilities in Western Area and Kono Dis-tricts, Sierra Leone
One Stop Shop/Service Window
Training, finance, advisory and networking services available on demand, often through referral. Services are requested via a business idea or plan. Staff can provide guidance as to what services might be most useful. Based on need, a customized package is offered to the beneficiary.
Dependent on services provided and beneficiary needs—customized
∎ One-on-one advising to create business services package for each beneficiary
∎ Considerable linkages to other programs and institutions nec-essary to have sufficient services
∎ An intermedia-tion, hands-on approach, rather than light advising is likely needed, with much more guidance and idea generation
∎ Linkage to social services/psychoso-cial support
∎ Women Entre-preneurship Development Project, Ethi-opia
∎ Self-Employed Women’s Association Community Learning Cen-ters, India
Table 3. Examples of participant-driven models
beneficiaries are selected and support provided. Selec-tion methods to determine beneficiaries among appli-cants, in case of oversubscription, include first come, first served; objective criteria including psychometric tests or randomization; and selection by committee based on interviews or business proposals. Depending on beneficiary needs, support packages can then be designed. Programs following this approach include AGI Liberia and the Women Entrepreneurship Devel-opment Project in Ethiopia (table 3).
This is a standard approach that entrepreneurship programs typically take for business development. The strength of this approach is that it empowers beneficiaries by helping them come up with their own business ideas. The self-employed will choose ideas that match their skills and interests. In addition, they
may have insight into local preferences and tastes, as well as cultural considerations. At the same time, however, it is also possible that beneficiaries end up participating in activities already saturated or eco-nomically nonviable if they lack a good understanding of market demands. The approach requires moti-vation and self-perception as an entrepreneur, not-withstanding the fact that many self-employed might not see themselves as business people. And, even if sufficient applications are collected and business pro-posals are used as a screening method, if the quality of business ideas is low, the program is likely to fail.
For this model to reach out to more vulnerable and subsistence entrepreneurs, the following consider-ations in identifying viable business opportunities for support should be taken into account:
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∎ Entrepreneurship awareness and sensitization should be a priority so that applicants see them-selves as potential business people.
∎ Outreach activities need to be considered, as sub-sistence workers with limited social networks are the hardest group to reach.
∎ Applications should be simple, given the target group’s lack of education and skills.
∎ Potential beneficiaries would need support in pre-paring these applications in selecting types of activ-ity and requested services.
∎ There should be a mechanism to judge whether businesses/activities are economically viable; this is crucial in avoiding market saturation.
Project identifiedIn this case, the project identifies, ex ante, business opportunities through market and subsector mapping and demand surveys (figure 15). The opportunities include both current activities that can be transformed to increase productivity and earnings, as well as new
activities that could be introduced. In some cases, business opportunities can be flagged by the private sector. In others, an assessment would need to be con-ducted; this is usually part of a study of subsectors or value chains, and takes into account the availability of natural resources, infrastructure, regulatory environ-ment, and human capital. The accuracy of such assess-ments has been debated, which should be taken into consideration.
In this model, participants are expected to develop their businesses within the context of the parameters selected by the project.
Given participants’ lack of entrepreneurial traits and ability to develop business ideas, this approach likely has advantages in serving the needs of the less capable entrepreneurs. In addition, this approach, despite its complexity compared to the participant-driven one, holds promise for potential impacts on a large scale.
The project-identified approach includes value chain integration and microfranchising (see table 4 for examples, and box 2 for processes to develop a project of value chain integration). Common features
Identification of business/
individual needs
Idea
Current business Business plan
Eligible individual or group of individuals
Contact SUPPORT
Macrofranchising Value chain assessment
Sectoral studies Consultations with stakeholders
Identification of business
opportunities
Figure 15. Support for project-identified businesses
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
20
across different models are that the project selects a potentially lucrative subsector or industry for intervention, involves a large number of individuals, facilitates the building of group-based social capital, and promotes public-private partnership. The value chain approach works with an identified value chain in an industry (e.g., coffee, tourism, or marble). Ideally, selection of the value chain is based on opportunity for growth or a significant reduction in inefficien-cies, and integrates self-employed individuals and businesses up and down the value chain into the
intervention. An example of this approach is Techno-Serve's Coffee Initiative, started in 2007. This value chain–strengthening program helps small-scale coffee farmers in East Africa boost their incomes by improv-ing the quantity and quality of coffee produced. The project aims to increase yields through extension and training in good agricultural practices and to improve quality by helping farmers establish and operate rural processing facilities (“wet mills”). The model enables achievement of these goals through hori-zontal integration of the farmers involved and better
Model General descriptionConstraints addressed
Implementation considerations
Specifications for very vulnerable/
self-employed Examples
Value chain approach
Refers to all activities and services that bring a product (or service) from conception to end use in a particular industry. The focus is on the system, on end markets, and on relationships. Usually, this approach upgrades business, services, and communication at every level, using mostly existing players. An opportunity exists to integrate the self-employed that have been catering to the local market.
∎ Access to mar-kets and net-works
∎ Information asymmetries
∎ Transportation constraints
∎ Business idea generation
∎ Product quality
∎ Mapping a value chain is time intensive and costly
∎ Extensive relationship building required
∎ Because the focus is on a specific sector and value chain, it might exclude some bene-ficiaries, due to industry needs
∎ Aggregated busi-nesses are often necessary for farmers/self-em-ployed to access a value chain
∎ Technical skills and quality must be upgraded
∎ Inclusion of liter-acy and numeracy training, as well as psycho-social support
∎ Green World Bayer Crop Science
∎ TechnoServ
Micro-franchising
Package interventions that provide beneficiaries with comprehensive support to enable them to replicate existing and proved business model and product. May include training, access to finance, networking, mentoring, access to markets, and many other components. Microfranchise opportunities allow self-employment with features of wage employment: the microfranchisees do not need to devise business models of their own but have minimal supervision and great autonomy.
∎ Reduces risk from potential entrepreneurs
∎ Low business knowledge/skills required
∎ Liquidity often addressed through prod-uct advances
∎ Business idea/product generation
∎ Vertical networking
∎ Limited business scal-ability in any given sector
∎ Costs asso-ciated with product advances lost or damaged, and product dissemination
∎ Inclusion of liter-acy and numeracy training, as well as psycho-social support
∎ Basic accounting skills
∎ Customer service skills
∎ Pricing support
∎ Coca Cola manual distribution centers
∎ Girls Empow-ered by Micro Fran-chise Inter-national Rescue Committee
Table 4. Examples of project-identified models
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
21
Value chains—also referred to as subsectors, clusters, or supply chains—are relevant for SSE programs for two reasons.
First, many producers, particularly in farm and nonfarm activities, are connected in one way or another to these chains.
In these cases, horizontal (between channels) or vertical movements within the chain can lead to gains in productivity
and earnings. Second, for certain producers of tradable goods and services who are only operating in local markets,
connecting to one of these subsectors can be an opportunity to expand sales and earnings. In fact, identifying the right
value chains could be a precondition to make SSE programs viable and avoid saturating local markets and bringing down
prices and earnings.
Two important processes need to be considered when integrating SSE programs into value chains: (1) mapping the rel-
evant subsectors, and (2) identifying the types of interventions needed to increase earnings (usually by reducing costs,
improving quality, and/or increasing productivity).
Mapping the relevant subsectors
There are several methods and instruments to map markets. These methods are often based on interviews with key infor-
mants to identify the main actors, their interactions, and their consumption and supply of different products. Since these
specialized assessments are usually conducted by management consultants, trade associations, business development
service agencies, government development agencies, and NGOs, program and project managers would need to mobilize
the necessary expertise. It is important to note, however, that while in many assessments the entry point is a given prod-
uct, in SSE programs the value chains would need to be selected/designed to be accessible to the target population of
beneficiaries. In all cases, many producers of the same goods and services would need to be brought together—primarily
because it is often through aggregation that the correct scale of the business can be achieved to compete within a given
value chain. Also, aggregation through associations, cooperatives, and firms reduces contact costs, because the program
does not have to coordinate with businesses individually.
Identifying interventions to create jobs and/or increase earnings
Once the business areas to be aggregated and the relevant value chains have been identified, various alternative inter-
ventions are possible. These will usually focus on one or more of the following: connecting beneficiaries to the value
chains; improving production technologies to improve quality, reduce costs, and/or increase productivity; facilitating
vertical or horizontal movements within the value chain; or collectively addressing bottlenecks and regulatory failures.
The challenge is to get skills up to the quality standards required by the value chain and to identify viable business for
the group. Traditionally, the value chain approach has mostly sought to address the constraints of those already in the
value chain, or at its margins. To this end, it is important to identify a value chain that does not only have a high poten-
tial for increased productivity, but already includes targeted groups. When trying to integrate new actors (the self-em-
ployed) into a value chain, a comprehensive approach that includes entrepreneurship sensitization and business and
technical skills development is needed.
Box 2. Value chains: connecting to or moving within subsectors
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
22
Figure 16. Different types and levels of skills
Business skills 2
Vocational skills
Business skills 1
Literacy and numeracy
Business awareness and
financial literacy
Soft
skill
s
⇨
⇨
⇨
management of cooperatives, improved quality of the coffee produced, installation of coffee wet mill facil-ities, the establishment and strengthening of market linkages between the cooperatives and the national value chains, and improving the enabling environment for coffee industry producers.
Defining core interventions
As discussed, four types of services characterize SSE programs: training of various types, access to capital and other financial services, advisory services, and networking. Given a potentially highly heterogeneous group of beneficiaries and evidence of the effective-ness of comprehensive programs, it is unlikely that suc-cessful SSE programs could focus on only one of these services. The findings indicate that the correct strategy is to offer an integrated package of services tailored to beneficiary needs. A good profiling system for ben-eficiaries is therefore a precondition to structure the package of services and avoid offering “off-the-shelf” benefits.
TrainingA general principle with regard to training services in SSE programs is to ensure that basic skills are acquired before moving up to higher-level skills (figure 16). Gaps in literacy and numeracy within the population of beneficiaries should be prioritized as this could be a primary barrier to other skills acquisition.8 Entrepre-neurial awareness is a set of skills training that enables subsistence farmers, indigenous groups, and other vul-nerable self-employed to begin seeing themselves, and acting, as business people—an important prerequisite to the development of business skills. In the same vein, basic financial literacy can help individuals better manage their limited resources. Although few SSE programs currently offer this type of training, it could
8 The African Youth Report documents that primary edu-cation can lead to 40 percent increases in earnings for the self-employed (Filmer and Fox 2014).
be one of the most relevant among the low-skilled self-employed. These basic skills should be followed by technical skills and advanced business skills. For each skill level, training in a complementary set of soft skills—ranging from fostering confidence to improving negotiation—needs to be implemented in order to improve effectiveness.
Financial servicesThe goal in providing financial services is to ensure that beneficiaries are able to fund working capital and equipment, and have access to the relevant types of insurance to protect incomes and equipment, and cope with work-related accidents. In general, provision of these services is beyond the scope of SSE programs. Instead, such programs would need to facilitate access to financial institutions that offer these services (e.g., microfinance institutions). Rather than simply linking individuals with institutions, programs should consider incorporating arrangements to ensure that the nec-essary services are actually obtained. These arrange-ments could include assistance with applications, loan guarantees, and creditworthiness assessment,9 which
9 In Ethiopia, an SSE program uses psychometric testing to assess the creditworthiness of individuals and facilitate their access to financial institutions.
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
23
will likely entail working with both individuals and financial institutions (figure 17).
When it comes to funding working capital and equip-ment, an alternative to credit is to provide grants in cash and/or in kind. Grants would increase the cost of the program, but might be easier to administer while giving cash-strapped beneficiaries more financial flexibility. Another alternative is crowdfunding, which was used in a very small number of the reviewed programs; loan guarantees might also facilitate access. These innovations should be developed further and rigorously tested.
Advisory services and networkingUnlike training programs which are offered at a given point in time and have a finite duration, advisory ser-vices are typically offered on a continuous basis, at least during the first stages of program implementa-tion. These services can take various forms, from very hands-on to on demand only, virtual or face to face, and/or one to one or one to many (through information
and communication technology). The advisors can be experts in the subsector or other entrepreneurs or producers. Their basic role is to answer questions about any aspect of the business or refer the beneficiary to the proper source. They could also be involved in monitoring implementation of different activities and intervene when they feel corrections are needed. Many agricultural projects rely on lead farmers who receive extensive training on new techniques, products, and quality measures, or on business skills to disseminate what they learn to a community of farmers. Other proj-ects use government extension services or more pro-fessional advisors. The right type of advisory services to offer will also depend on local conditions and business needs; multiple options could be offered. In addressing the needs of the vulnerable self-employed, face-to-face and more hands-on approaches might be the best options. Such approaches might require having advisors on the ground who monitor activities and are on call to help beneficiaries when needed. Over time, as benefi-ciaries gain experience in the implementation of their activities and/or the management of their business, some of them could gradually begin to take on advisory responsibilities and help new entrants to the program.
Networking services can take a number of forms as well. Theoretically, networking services create two types of linkages:
∎ Horizontal linkages. These describe relationships between participants operating at the same stage of production. Horizontal linkages include associa-tions, cooperatives, and other forms of cooperation between potential competitors. For example, farm-ers who establish a formal or informal association in order to sell their products in larger quantities to a wholesaler would strengthen their horizontal linkages. Another example is labor unions of service providers or manufacturers.
∎ Vertical linkages. These describe relationships between participants with adjacent roles who potentially add value to the same product at
Figure 17. Access to finance decision tree
Access to finance
Linkage to outside services
(credits, grants, crowdfunding)
Direct provision(grants or credits)
Referral only
Hands-on assistance for borrowers (e.g., with
applications, loan guarantees)
TA to lending institutions (e.g., innovations in creditworthiness
assessment tools and financial product
structures)In-kind
Cash
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
24
different stages of production. Vertical linkages may include buying, selling, or contracting arrange-ments throughout the chain. For example, a farmer gaining access to a wholesaler will strengthen ver-tical linkages, as will a shoemaker who is connect-ing to a leather supplier. Vertical linkages do not include supporting service providers such as banks or insurance companies, as these do not directly add value to a product itself.
While horizontal linkages are often facilitated through SSE programs, few programs include vertical linkages. The value chain inclusion model discussed above has great potential in creating vertical linkages.
Choosing delivery options
The type of institutional arrangements needed to execute the various business processes described above—profiling and assessing the constraints facing beneficiaries, assessing market demand for nontrad-able goods and services, mapping subsectors and value chains, and offering various types of services—is an important policy consideration. Four actors comprise the main institutional choices: government (either a social ministry responsible for safety net programs and social services or an industry ministry responsible for business development and competitiveness), the private sector (for profit), NGOs and social entrepre-neurs, and civil society (table 5).
Governments would need to take the lead in the conceptualization, design, financing, supervision, and evaluation of SSE programs. Large firms, employer associations, and trade associations can find win-win opportunities in helping relevant subsectors and value chains in a given region and for the targeted popula-tion of beneficiaries. A large credit card company in the Republic of Korea, for instance, built infrastructure for traditional vendors with local government coordi-nation. Part of the infrastructure included equipment for financial transactions and a credit card processor. Some NGOs and groups of social entrepreneurs (e.g., Ashoka) have developed an expertise in mapping or developing subsectors in low-income settings—including through the organization of international competitions to find the best ideas to solve a prob-lem or develop a business. NGOs could also play an important role, along with the for-profit private sector, in service provision. Communities and civil society can play a critical role in identifying and mobilizing bene-ficiaries, assessing business opportunities and needs, and monitoring and evaluation.
5 Concluding remarks
Self-employment is the most common type of employ-ment worldwide—and for many, the only alternative. A majority of the self-employed—farmers and own-ac-count workers—are engaged in very low-productivity
Actor
Identification, targeting, profiling
Assessing market and
mapping opportunities
Selecting businesses
Identifying services
Delivering services
Management and
monitoring and evaluation
Government (social) +++ ++ +++
Government (industry) ++ ++ ++ +
Private sector +++ +++ +++ ++
NGOs/social entrepreneurs +++ +++ +++ +++ ++
Communities/civil society ++ + ++ ++ + +
Table 5. Suggested implementation arrangements
Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
25
activities and live in poor households. Simply relin-quishing the self-employed to social safety nets may not be sufficient to improve their standards of living. Programs that support the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs in improving their livelihoods can be an important complementary intervention.
Unfortunately, limited evidence exists regarding the impact and effectiveness of these programs, as well as the best way to design and implement them. Most of the programs that have been evaluated are small pilots, and the results are mixed. There are also questions about the external validity of these results and whether effects would persist if programs were scaled up.
Governments need to continue experimenting with SSE programs targeted to subsistence entrepreneurs. A more systematic and rigorous approach to their design, implementation, and evaluation should be adopted. Research and policy analysis should focus on profiling instruments to better understand bene-ficiary characteristics and constraints, mechanisms to identify business opportunities, guidelines to design and combine interventions tailored to different bene-ficiaries, the effectiveness of various implementation arrangements, and their cost-effectiveness and sus-tainability.
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Supporting self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
27
Appendix: Assessing constraints to self-employment and small-scale entrepreneurship
Many self-employed workers and entrepreneurs face constraints to succeeding in their livelihood activity; often, they face multiple and diverse constraints. The set of constraints may depend on the subpopulation of entrepreneurs targeted. Some are common to all individuals in a country such as business or social envi-ronment constraints; others affect subpopulations within a given country or region. An assessment of the constraints faced by potential entrepreneurs planning to start a business, or by existing entrepreneurs already engaged in business activities, is critical in order to design programs that adequately support them.
Constraints faced by the self-employed are classified as either individual or environmental. Individual constraints are those that affect individuals and subpopulations and include lack of entrepreneurial traits, insufficient cog-nitive or noncognitive skills, and limited access to social capital. Environmental constraints are those that affect larger populations and are external to the individual. They include limited access to financial services, poor business environment, underdeveloped markets or limited access to markets, and other impeding cultural factors.
Of the many possible individual and environmental con-straints, task team leaders and project managers should identify those that are actually present and binding to the businesses of the target population in the target country, and then prioritize those found for full assess-ment. There are several methods of identifying such constraints. Many task team leaders utilize previous research or final reports from already implemented pro-grams. Building on lessons learned and previous research makes for a solid understanding of the situation on the
ground. Others conduct surveys and focus groups with government officials, private sectors, and individuals within the target group profile to obtain a snapshot from different perspectives of the local economic situ-ation. A third option entails hiring a firm to do a formal study, such as a labor market assessment and demand survey. Sometimes all three methods are utilized. The best approach to take depends on the current knowl-edge of the country and the budget and time available.
Programs should be adapted to address the con-straints identified. The following should be taken into account in determining how to prioritize constraints for further assessment:
∎ Those within the scope of the program (e.g., infra-structure may be the greatest constraint, but a short-term intervention for individual entrepre-neurs is unlikely to address it)
∎ Degree to which it hinders business
∎ Existing programs that address constraints with which the present program might partner and create synergy
∎ Project budget
∎ Expertise of program staff to address constraint
∎ Time needed for assessment compared to the timeline of the program
∎ Political issues
∎ Expected return on investment
The following two tables provide a list of commonly used tools that assess constraints faced by the self-employed and small-scale entrepreneurs. This information is not intended to be exhaustive, but has been compiled to help World Bank task team lead-ers and practitioners find relevant information for conducting diagnostic assessment prior to designing entrepreneurship programs.
This appendix was prepared by Yoonyoung Cho, Hyewon Kang, and Samantha Watson with inputs from Xavier Cirera and Leonardo Iacovone.
Tabl
e A
1. To
ols
for a
ddre
ssin
g in
divi
dual
con
stra
ints
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Basi
c sk
ills
Test
Rave
n’s
Prog
ress
ive
Mat
rices
test
∎M
ost p
opul
ar a
nd c
ultu
rally
fair
nonv
erba
l IQ
te
st
∎A
ppro
pria
te fo
r mea
surin
g ge
nera
l int
ellig
ence
an
d ps
ycho
met
ric e
valu
atio
n
∎C
onsi
sts
of 6
0 qu
estio
ns w
hich
are
to b
e an
swer
ed in
40
min
utes
∎In
tern
et a
cces
s re
quire
d
∎C
osts
$5
to t
ake
the
test
http
://w
ww
.our
iq.u
s
Dig
it Sp
an te
st ∎
Mea
sure
s ve
rbal
wor
king
mem
ory
abili
ty
∎M
easu
res
abili
ty o
f bra
in to
hol
d on
to in
for-
mat
ion
need
ed to
com
plet
e co
mpl
ex t
asks
∎Re
spon
dent
mus
t rec
all,
in o
rder
, a s
erie
s of
dig
its
pres
ente
d on
scr
een
Exam
ples
at h
ttp:
//w
ww
.ca
mbr
idge
brai
nsci
ence
s.co
m/b
row
se
Fred
eric
k’s
Cog
nitiv
e Re
flect
ion
Test
∎A
sses
ses
abili
ty to
sup
pres
s sp
onta
neou
s w
rong
ans
wer
in fa
vor o
f cor
rect
ans
wer
∎M
easu
res
time
pref
eren
ce a
nd ri
sk p
refe
renc
e
∎C
onsi
sts
of t
hree
que
stio
ns, e
ach
of w
hich
re
spon
dent
has
30
seco
nds
to s
olve
http
://w
ww
.sjdm
.or
g/dm
idi/
Cog
nitiv
e_Re
flect
ion_
Test
.ht
ml#
Des
crip
tion
Num
eric
al R
easo
ning
Te
st ∎
Ass
esse
s ab
ility
to u
nder
stan
d st
atis
tical
and
nu
mer
ical
dat
a, a
s w
ell a
s ab
ility
to m
ake
a lo
g-ic
al d
educ
tions
∎C
onta
ins
ques
tions
abo
ut ra
tios,
perc
enta
ge
incr
ease
/dec
reas
e, c
ost a
nd s
ales
ana
lysi
s, ra
tes
and
tren
ds, a
nd c
urre
ncy
conv
ersi
ons
∎C
alcu
lato
r and
scr
ap p
aper
can
be
used
dur
ing
the
test
∎C
onsi
sts
of 2
2 qu
estio
ns to
be
answ
ered
in 2
5 m
inut
es
http
://w
ww
.ken
t.ac
.uk/
care
ers/
test
s/m
aths
test
2.ht
m
Surv
ey
STEP
Ski
lls
Mea
sure
men
t Sur
vey
∎O
ne m
odul
e as
sess
es fu
ndam
enta
l ski
lls
(read
ing,
writ
ing,
num
erac
y) b
y co
mbi
ning
sel
f-
repo
rt a
nd te
sts
∎So
me
ques
tions
are
bou
nd to
cop
y rig
hts
http
://m
icro
data
.w
orld
bank
.org
/ind
ex.
php/
cata
log/
step
/abo
ut
Prog
ram
me
for
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l A
sses
smen
t of A
dult
Com
pete
ncie
s (P
IAAC
); Ed
ucat
ion
and
Skill
s O
nlin
e A
sses
smen
t
∎PI
AAC
mea
sure
s lit
erac
y, n
umer
acy,
and
pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng in
Org
anis
atio
n fo
r Eco
nom
ic
Co-
oper
atio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent c
ount
ries
∎Ed
ucat
ion
and
Skill
s O
nlin
e A
sses
smen
t pro
-vi
des
indi
vidu
al-le
vel r
esul
ts c
ompa
rabl
e to
PI
AAC
resu
lts, m
easu
ring
cogn
itive
and
non
-co
gniti
ve s
kills
∎D
esig
ned
for d
evel
oped
cou
ntrie
sht
tp://
nces
.ed.
gov/
surv
eys/
piaa
c/
Lite
racy
Ass
essm
ent
and
Mon
itorin
g Pr
ogra
mm
e (L
AM
P)
∎A
sses
ses
read
ing
and
num
erac
y sk
ills
in t
he
yout
h an
d ad
ult p
opul
atio
n ∎
Adm
inis
tere
d on
pap
er
∎Av
aila
ble
for e
ligib
le d
evel
opin
g co
untr
ies
http
://w
ww
.uis.
unes
co.
org/
liter
acy/
Page
s/la
mp-
liter
acy-
asse
ssm
ent.a
spx
Busi
ness
sk
ills
Surv
ey
Busi
ness
Pra
ctic
e Ev
alua
tion
Tool
∎A
sses
ses
18 b
asic
man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
on
a 5-
poin
t sca
le fr
om w
orst
to b
est p
ract
ice
∎In
terv
iew
with
ent
repr
eneu
rs/f
irm m
anag
ers
Bloo
m a
nd V
an R
eene
n (2
007)
Busi
ness
Ope
ratio
ns
Surv
ey ∎
Col
lect
s in
form
atio
n on
the
ope
ratio
ns o
f N
ew Z
eala
nd b
usin
esse
s
∎C
onsi
sts
of fo
ur m
odul
es o
n bu
sine
ss o
per-
atio
ns, i
nnov
atio
n, b
usin
ess
prac
tices
, ski
ll ne
eds
and
recr
uitm
ent
∎C
ondu
cted
ann
ually
by
Stat
istic
s N
ew Z
eala
nd
sinc
e 20
05
∎A
chie
ved
resp
onse
rate
of 8
0 pe
rcen
t
∎Po
stal
sur
vey
sent
out
in A
ugus
t to
colle
ct in
for-
mat
ion
for t
he la
st fi
nanc
ial y
ear
http
://w
ww
.stat
s.gov
t.nz
/bro
wse
_for
_sta
ts/
busin
esse
s/bu
sines
s_gr
owth
_and
_inn
ovat
ion/
busin
ess-
oper
atio
ns-
surv
ey-in
fo-r
elea
ses.a
spx
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Busi
ness
sk
ills
Surv
ey
Mea
sure
men
ts fo
r Tr
acki
ng In
dica
tors
of
Coo
pera
tive
Succ
ess
(MET
RIC
S Su
rvey
)
∎M
easu
res
a w
ide
rang
e of
con
ditio
ns to
run
coop
erat
ives
, inc
ludi
ng fi
nanc
ial p
rofit
abili
ty,
finan
cial
cap
ital,
finan
cial
man
agem
ent,
gove
r-na
nce
mem
bers
hip,
gov
erna
nce
man
agem
ent
(ape
x or
gani
zatio
n, c
oope
rativ
e fe
dera
tion,
or
coop
erat
ive
unio
n), a
nd b
usin
ess
envi
ronm
ent
∎A
sses
ses
key
dete
rmin
ants
of s
ucce
ssfu
l coo
pera
-tiv
es b
ased
in t
he U
nite
d St
ates
∎Pr
ovid
es in
form
atio
n on
bus
ines
s en
viro
nmen
t, bu
t doe
s no
t cov
er e
cono
mic
and
lega
l env
iron-
men
t in
deta
il
∎C
ombi
natio
n of
yes
/no
and
essa
y qu
estio
ns
http
://w
ww
.ocd
c.co
op/
pdf/
met
rics.
Gha
na E
nter
pris
e Tr
aini
ng B
asel
ine
Que
stio
nnai
re b
y Fa
fcha
mps
and
W
oodr
uff;
busi
ness
pr
actic
es m
odul
e
∎In
clud
es b
usin
ess
man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
, bus
i-ne
ss re
gist
ratio
n, p
aym
ent o
f tax
es a
nd s
ocia
l se
curit
y, c
ompl
ianc
e w
ith h
ealth
and
saf
ety
regu
latio
ns
∎33
5 bu
sine
ss o
wne
rs re
spon
ded
to t
he b
asel
ine
surv
ey
∎Ba
selin
e su
rvey
was
con
duct
ed b
efor
e th
e in
itial
th
ree-
day
busi
ness
pla
n tr
aini
ng c
ours
e; a
fol-
low
-up
surv
ey w
as c
ondu
cted
tw
o ye
ars
late
r
http
://w
ww
.pov
erty
-ac
tion.
org/
proj
ect/
0447
Expe
rt a
sses
smen
t
Gha
na E
nter
pris
e Tr
aini
ng b
y Fa
fcha
mps
and
W
oodr
uff;
pane
l as
sess
men
t
∎Pa
nel o
f exp
erts
pro
vide
s qu
alita
tive
opin
ions
on
ent
repr
eneu
rs’ b
usin
ess
skill
s an
d pr
ospe
cts
for g
row
th
∎11
expe
rts
(e.g
., su
cces
sful
bus
ines
s pe
ople
, con
-su
ltant
s, lo
an o
ffic
ers)
part
icip
ated
in p
anel
s
∎Ea
ch p
anel
revi
ewed
15 w
ritte
n bu
sine
ss p
lans
an
d co
nduc
ted
20–3
0-m
inut
e in
terv
iew
s w
ith
busi
ness
ow
ners
∎Pa
nel r
anke
d ea
ch e
ntre
pren
eur o
n fo
llow
ing
crite
ria: w
ritte
n bu
sine
ss p
lan,
ora
l pre
sent
atio
n,
over
all b
usin
ess
acum
en
Fafc
ham
ps a
nd
Woo
druf
f (20
12)
Fina
ncia
l lit
erac
ySu
rvey
Wor
ld B
ank
Fina
ncia
l Cap
abili
ty
Surv
ey (M
easu
ring
Fina
ncia
l Cap
abili
ty:
Que
stio
nnai
res
and
Impl
emen
tatio
n G
uida
nce
for L
ow-
and
Mid
dle-
Inco
me
Cou
ntrie
s)
∎St
udy
prov
ides
gui
danc
e on
des
ign
and
impl
e-m
enta
tion
of fi
nanc
ial l
itera
cy p
roje
cts
∎St
udy
deve
lope
d ne
w q
uest
ionn
aire
and
tool
ki
t; m
ain
ques
tionn
aire
cov
ers
hous
ehol
d ro
ster
, rol
e in
man
agin
g m
oney
, day
-to-
day
mon
ey m
anag
emen
t, pl
anni
ng a
nd fi
nanc
ial
prod
ucts
, mot
ivat
ions
, sou
rces
of i
ncom
e, a
nd
gene
ral q
uest
ions
∎Su
rvey
con
duct
ed t
hrou
gh fa
ce-t
o-fa
ce, p
aper
-an
d-pe
ncil
inte
rvie
ws
∎Fo
cus g
roup
dis
cuss
ion
incl
uded
to id
entif
y is
sues
an
d di
scus
s m
oney
/res
ourc
e m
anag
emen
t
http
s://w
ww
.finl
itedu
.or
g/te
am-d
ownl
oads
/m
easu
rem
ent/
mea
surin
g-fin
anci
al-c
apab
ility
-qu
estio
nnai
res-
and-
impl
emen
tatio
n-gu
idan
ce-f
or-lo
w-
and-
mid
dle-
inco
me-
coun
trie
s.pd
f
Tabl
e A
1. To
ols
for a
ddre
ssin
g in
divi
dual
con
stra
ints
(con
tinu
ed)
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Basi
c sk
ills
Test
Rave
n’s
Prog
ress
ive
Mat
rices
test
∎M
ost p
opul
ar a
nd c
ultu
rally
fair
nonv
erba
l IQ
te
st
∎A
ppro
pria
te fo
r mea
surin
g ge
nera
l int
ellig
ence
an
d ps
ycho
met
ric e
valu
atio
n
∎C
onsi
sts
of 6
0 qu
estio
ns w
hich
are
to b
e an
swer
ed in
40
min
utes
∎In
tern
et a
cces
s re
quire
d
∎C
osts
$5
to t
ake
the
test
http
://w
ww
.our
iq.u
s
Dig
it Sp
an te
st ∎
Mea
sure
s ve
rbal
wor
king
mem
ory
abili
ty
∎M
easu
res
abili
ty o
f bra
in to
hol
d on
to in
for-
mat
ion
need
ed to
com
plet
e co
mpl
ex t
asks
∎Re
spon
dent
mus
t rec
all,
in o
rder
, a s
erie
s of
dig
its
pres
ente
d on
scr
een
Exam
ples
at h
ttp:
//w
ww
.ca
mbr
idge
brai
nsci
ence
s.co
m/b
row
se
Fred
eric
k’s
Cog
nitiv
e Re
flect
ion
Test
∎A
sses
ses
abili
ty to
sup
pres
s sp
onta
neou
s w
rong
ans
wer
in fa
vor o
f cor
rect
ans
wer
∎M
easu
res
time
pref
eren
ce a
nd ri
sk p
refe
renc
e
∎C
onsi
sts
of t
hree
que
stio
ns, e
ach
of w
hich
re
spon
dent
has
30
seco
nds
to s
olve
http
://w
ww
.sjdm
.or
g/dm
idi/
Cog
nitiv
e_Re
flect
ion_
Test
.ht
ml#
Des
crip
tion
Num
eric
al R
easo
ning
Te
st ∎
Ass
esse
s ab
ility
to u
nder
stan
d st
atis
tical
and
nu
mer
ical
dat
a, a
s w
ell a
s ab
ility
to m
ake
a lo
g-ic
al d
educ
tions
∎C
onta
ins
ques
tions
abo
ut ra
tios,
perc
enta
ge
incr
ease
/dec
reas
e, c
ost a
nd s
ales
ana
lysi
s, ra
tes
and
tren
ds, a
nd c
urre
ncy
conv
ersi
ons
∎C
alcu
lato
r and
scr
ap p
aper
can
be
used
dur
ing
the
test
∎C
onsi
sts
of 2
2 qu
estio
ns to
be
answ
ered
in 2
5 m
inut
es
http
://w
ww
.ken
t.ac
.uk/
care
ers/
test
s/m
aths
test
2.ht
m
Surv
ey
STEP
Ski
lls
Mea
sure
men
t Sur
vey
∎O
ne m
odul
e as
sess
es fu
ndam
enta
l ski
lls
(read
ing,
writ
ing,
num
erac
y) b
y co
mbi
ning
sel
f-
repo
rt a
nd te
sts
∎So
me
ques
tions
are
bou
nd to
cop
y rig
hts
http
://m
icro
data
.w
orld
bank
.org
/ind
ex.
php/
cata
log/
step
/abo
ut
Prog
ram
me
for
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l A
sses
smen
t of A
dult
Com
pete
ncie
s (P
IAAC
); Ed
ucat
ion
and
Skill
s O
nlin
e A
sses
smen
t
∎PI
AAC
mea
sure
s lit
erac
y, n
umer
acy,
and
pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng in
Org
anis
atio
n fo
r Eco
nom
ic
Co-
oper
atio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent c
ount
ries
∎Ed
ucat
ion
and
Skill
s O
nlin
e A
sses
smen
t pro
-vi
des
indi
vidu
al-le
vel r
esul
ts c
ompa
rabl
e to
PI
AAC
resu
lts, m
easu
ring
cogn
itive
and
non
-co
gniti
ve s
kills
∎D
esig
ned
for d
evel
oped
cou
ntrie
sht
tp://
nces
.ed.
gov/
surv
eys/
piaa
c/
Lite
racy
Ass
essm
ent
and
Mon
itorin
g Pr
ogra
mm
e (L
AM
P)
∎A
sses
ses
read
ing
and
num
erac
y sk
ills
in t
he
yout
h an
d ad
ult p
opul
atio
n ∎
Adm
inis
tere
d on
pap
er
∎Av
aila
ble
for e
ligib
le d
evel
opin
g co
untr
ies
http
://w
ww
.uis.
unes
co.
org/
liter
acy/
Page
s/la
mp-
liter
acy-
asse
ssm
ent.a
spx
Busi
ness
sk
ills
Surv
ey
Busi
ness
Pra
ctic
e Ev
alua
tion
Tool
∎A
sses
ses
18 b
asic
man
agem
ent p
ract
ices
on
a 5-
poin
t sca
le fr
om w
orst
to b
est p
ract
ice
∎In
terv
iew
with
ent
repr
eneu
rs/f
irm m
anag
ers
Bloo
m a
nd V
an R
eene
n (2
007)
Busi
ness
Ope
ratio
ns
Surv
ey ∎
Col
lect
s in
form
atio
n on
the
ope
ratio
ns o
f N
ew Z
eala
nd b
usin
esse
s
∎C
onsi
sts
of fo
ur m
odul
es o
n bu
sine
ss o
per-
atio
ns, i
nnov
atio
n, b
usin
ess
prac
tices
, ski
ll ne
eds
and
recr
uitm
ent
∎C
ondu
cted
ann
ually
by
Stat
istic
s N
ew Z
eala
nd
sinc
e 20
05
∎A
chie
ved
resp
onse
rate
of 8
0 pe
rcen
t
∎Po
stal
sur
vey
sent
out
in A
ugus
t to
colle
ct in
for-
mat
ion
for t
he la
st fi
nanc
ial y
ear
http
://w
ww
.stat
s.gov
t.nz
/bro
wse
_for
_sta
ts/
busin
esse
s/bu
sines
s_gr
owth
_and
_inn
ovat
ion/
busin
ess-
oper
atio
ns-
surv
ey-in
fo-r
elea
ses.a
spx
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Non
cogn
i-tiv
e sk
ills
Test
Big
5 Pe
rson
alit
y Te
st ∎
Com
mon
ly u
sed
in a
cade
mic
psy
chol
ogy
∎Bi
g 5
pers
onal
ity
trai
ts: o
penn
ess,
cons
cien
-tio
usne
ss, e
xtra
vers
ion,
agr
eeab
lene
ss, a
nd
neur
otic
ism
∎W
eb-b
ased
sur
vey
of 5
0 qu
estio
ns; t
akes
5–7
m
inut
es to
com
plet
e
∎Re
spon
dent
pro
vide
s ra
tings
from
1 (s
tron
gly
dis-
agre
e) to
5 (s
tron
gly
agre
e) to
sta
tem
ents
in o
rder
id
entif
y pe
rson
alit
y
∎Te
st a
llow
s re
spon
dent
s to
com
pare
the
ir pe
r-so
nalit
y to
oth
ers
http
://pe
rson
alit
y-te
stin
g.in
fo/t
ests
/BIG
5.ph
p
Con
nor-
Dav
idso
n Re
silie
nce
Scal
e (C
D-R
ISC
)
∎C
omm
only
use
d te
st in
mea
surin
g ab
ility
to
cope
with
str
ess
and
adve
rsit
y
∎In
itial
ly d
esig
ned
for p
sych
olog
ical
tre
atm
ent,
but n
ow u
sed
for b
road
er p
urpo
ses
∎Bo
okle
t con
tain
ing
dem
ogra
phic
que
stio
ns a
nd
the
CD
-RIS
C a
re p
rovi
ded
to re
spon
dent
s, w
ith
a re
ques
t to
retu
rn c
ompl
eted
que
stio
nnai
res
with
in a
wee
k
∎Co
nsist
s of 2
5-ite
m (5
–10
min
utes
to c
ompl
ete)
, 10
-item
(1–5
min
utes
), an
d 2-
item
(1–5
min
utes
) seg
-m
ents
cov
erin
g ps
ycho
met
ric p
rope
rtie
s
∎Ea
ch it
em is
rate
d on
a s
cale
of 0
–4, w
ith h
ighe
r sc
ores
refle
ctin
g gr
eate
r res
ilien
ce
http
://w
ww
.co
nnor
davi
dson
-re
silie
nces
cale
.com
/cd
-ris
c/tr
ansl
atio
ns.
shtm
l
Ope
n Ps
ycho
met
ric
Test
Res
ourc
e ∎
Test
s in
duct
ive
reas
onin
g, v
erba
l rea
soni
ng,
num
eric
al re
ason
ing,
Big
5 t
raits
, int
erpe
rson
al
skill
s, re
silie
nce,
ent
repr
eneu
rism
, lea
ders
hip,
an
d 16
per
sona
lity
fact
ors
∎Ea
ch m
odul
e in
clud
es a
n ex
plan
atio
n of
test
ra
tiona
le a
nd u
seht
tp://
ww
w.
psyc
hom
etric
test
.org
.uk
Clif
ton
Stre
ngth
sFin
der
∎Te
st b
ased
on
stre
ngth
s-ba
sed
psyc
holo
gy
∎Te
st u
ses
an in
vent
ory
of 3
4 “t
hem
es” t
o he
lp
peop
le d
isco
ver t
heir
tale
nts
∎O
nlin
e St
reng
thsF
inde
r ass
essm
ent
∎Te
st c
onsi
sts
of 17
0 qu
estio
ns, w
ith re
spon
ses
from
1 (to
tally
dis
agre
e) to
9 (t
otal
ly a
gree
)
http
://st
reng
ths.g
allu
p.co
m/1
1044
0/ab
out-
stre
ngth
sfin
der-2
0.as
px
Cent
er fo
r Rur
al
Entr
epre
neur
ship
’s En
trep
rene
ur S
elf T
est
∎Te
st d
evel
oped
to a
sses
s in
divi
dual
ent
repr
e-ne
uria
l pot
entia
l
∎Q
uest
ions
are
str
aigh
tfor
war
d an
d sh
ort
∎Te
st c
onsi
sts
of 3
2 qu
estio
ns, w
ith re
spon
ses
from
1 (n
o ag
reem
ent)
to 10
(str
ong
agre
emen
t)
∎Ea
ch q
uest
ion
has
diff
eren
t val
ue a
nd w
eigh
t
http
://w
ww
.tvae
d.co
m/
pdf/
entr
epre
neur
_sel
f_te
st.p
df
Entr
epre
neur
ial
Fina
nce
Lab
∎C
ompr
ehen
sive
onlin
e da
ta c
olle
ctio
n in
clud
-in
g ar
ticle
s an
d ps
ycho
met
ric te
sts
to m
easu
re
entr
epre
neur
s’ et
hics
and
cha
ract
er, i
ntel
li-ge
nce,
att
itude
s an
d be
liefs
, and
bus
ines
s sk
ills
∎Kn
owle
dge
cent
er o
n w
ebpa
ge in
trod
uces
pub
li-ca
tions
rega
rdin
g th
e us
e of
psy
chom
etric
test
s in
en
trep
rene
ursh
ip
http
://w
ww
.eflg
loba
l.co
m
Surv
ey
STEP
Ski
lls
Mea
sure
men
t Sur
vey
∎So
cio-
emot
iona
l ski
lls m
odul
es a
sses
s no
n-co
gniti
ve s
kills
∎Be
side
s Bi
g 5
pers
onal
ity
trai
ts, a
dds
mea
sure
-m
ent f
or g
rit, h
ostil
e bi
as, a
nd d
ecis
ion
mak
ing
∎Re
spon
se c
ateg
orie
s ra
nge
from
1 (a
lmos
t nev
er)
to 4
(alm
ost a
lway
s)ht
tp://
mic
roda
ta.
wor
ldba
nk.o
rg/i
ndex
.ph
p/ca
talo
g/st
ep/a
bout
Tabl
e A
1. To
ols
for a
ddre
ssin
g in
divi
dual
con
stra
ints
(con
tinu
ed)
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Non
cogn
i-tiv
e sk
ills
Surv
ey
Star
tup
Con
fiden
ce
Inde
x Su
rvey
∎M
easu
res
entr
epre
neur
s’ co
nfid
ence
in t
heir
busi
ness
as
wel
l as
in t
he n
atio
nal e
cono
mic
cl
imat
e
∎Fo
cuse
s on
new
ly in
corp
orat
ed b
usin
esse
s
∎A
n em
ail i
s se
nt to
bus
ines
s ow
ners
to a
cces
s th
e su
rvey
http
://w
ww
.kau
ffm
an.
org/
mul
timed
ia/
info
grap
hics
/201
3/ka
uffm
an-le
galz
oom
-st
artu
p-co
nfid
ence
-in
dex-
2013
Glo
bal
Entr
epre
neur
ship
M
onito
r’s A
dult
Popu
latio
n Su
rvey
∎A
nnua
l ass
essm
ent o
f ent
repr
eneu
rial a
ctiv
ity,
as
pira
tions
, and
att
itude
s of
indi
vidu
als
acro
ss
a w
ide
rang
e of
cou
ntrie
s
∎Su
rvey
for n
asce
nt a
nd e
xist
ing
entr
epre
neur
s as
wel
l as
inve
stor
s an
d ow
ner-
man
ager
s
∎In
clud
es a
few
que
stio
ns a
ddre
ssin
g m
arke
t as
sess
men
t abi
lity
and
tech
nolo
gy
∎La
ndlin
e-ba
sed
surv
ey o
r fac
e-to
-fac
e in
terv
iew
ap
proa
ch is
pos
sibl
e
∎In
stru
men
t req
uire
s a
min
imum
of 2
,000
par
tici-
pant
s (e
ntre
pren
eurs
, man
ager
s, in
vest
ors)
to ta
ke
part
in t
he s
urve
y
http
://w
ww
.ge
mco
nsor
tium
.or
g/do
cs/c
at/1
35/
ques
tionn
aire
s
Col
e, S
amps
on,
and
Zia
surv
ey o
n fin
anci
al s
ervi
ce in
In
done
sia a
nd In
dia
(risk
ave
rsio
n)
∎M
easu
res
hous
ehol
d fin
anci
al li
tera
cy a
nd
dem
and
for f
inan
cial
ser
vice
s
∎A
lso c
aptu
res o
ther
hou
seho
ld c
hara
cter
istic
s th
at m
ay b
e im
port
ant d
eter
min
ants
in b
ecom
-in
g an
ent
repr
eneu
r suc
h as
risk
ave
rsio
n
∎To
mea
sure
risk
ave
rsio
n, s
tudy
use
d ac
tual
lo
tter
ies,
for r
eal a
mou
nts
of m
oney
.
∎St
udy
cond
ucte
d no
vel s
urve
ys p
rimar
ily m
easu
r-in
g ho
useh
old
finan
cial
lite
racy
∎In
a ra
ndom
ized
fiel
d ex
perim
ent,
indi
vidu
als
are
rand
omly
off
ered
sm
all s
ubsi
dies
for o
peni
ng
a ba
nk a
ccou
nt; s
tudy
com
pare
s th
e ef
fect
of
finan
cial
lite
racy
edu
catio
n to
pric
e su
bsid
ies
http
://w
ww
.hbs
.edu
/fa
cult
y/Pu
blic
atio
n%20
File
s/09
-117
Ash
raf,
Karla
n, a
nd
Yin
(200
8) s
urve
y on
sa
ving
pro
duct
s in
th
e Ph
ilipp
ines
(tim
e pr
efer
ence
)
∎St
udy
test
s w
heth
er in
divi
dual
s w
ould
ope
n a
savi
ng a
ccou
nt w
ith a
com
mitm
ent f
eatu
re
that
rest
ricts
the
ir ac
cess
to t
heir
fund
s
∎Su
rvey
test
s w
heth
er in
divi
dual
s ha
ve a
pr
efer
ence
ove
r nea
r-te
rm t
rade
-off
s or
not
; th
is pr
efer
ence
in h
ypot
hetic
al ti
me
reve
als
peop
le’s
econ
omic
cha
ract
eris
tics
∎U
sing
rand
omiz
ed c
ontr
ol m
etho
dolo
gy, s
tudy
ev
alua
tes t
he e
ffec
tiven
ess o
f a c
omm
itmen
t sav
-in
gs a
ccou
nt o
n fin
anci
al sa
ving
s in
the
Phili
ppin
es
∎St
udy
cond
ucte
d a
base
line
surv
ey o
n 1,7
77 e
xist
-in
g or
form
er c
lient
s of
a b
ank.
One
mon
th la
ter,
720
clie
nts
wer
e ra
ndom
ly o
ffer
ed t
he c
omm
it-m
ent p
rodu
ct
http
://ka
rlan.
yale
.edu
/p/
SEED
Soci
al
capi
tal
Surv
ey
Soci
al C
apita
l A
sses
smen
t Too
l ∎
Inte
grat
ed q
uant
itativ
e/qu
alita
tive
tool
; key
co
mpo
nent
s ar
e su
rvey
s; in
form
atio
n in
ter-
view
s; fo
cus
grou
ps a
t the
hou
seho
ld, c
omm
u-ni
ty, a
nd o
rgan
izat
iona
l lev
els
∎M
ain
com
pone
nts
are
com
mun
ity
prof
ile a
nd
asse
t map
ping
—in
terv
iew
gui
de, c
omm
unit
y qu
estio
nnai
re, h
ouse
hold
que
stio
nnai
re, o
rga-
niza
tiona
l pro
file
inte
rvie
w g
uide
s, or
gani
za-
tiona
l pro
file
scor
e sh
eet
∎C
ompl
emen
tary
tool
s in
clud
e st
akeh
olde
r an
alys
is, i
nstit
utio
nal a
naly
sis,
soci
al im
pact
an
alys
is, b
enef
icia
ry a
sses
smen
ts
∎Ty
pica
l app
licat
ion
take
s 3–
4 m
onth
s
∎W
hen
impl
emen
ting,
soc
iolo
gica
l or a
nthr
opo-
logi
cal t
rain
ing
is he
lpfu
l, in
par
ticul
ar a
sou
nd
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
form
al a
nd in
form
al in
stitu
tions
an
d ne
twor
ks
http
://go
.wor
ldba
nk.
org/
KO0Q
FVW
770
Tabl
e A
1. To
ols
for a
ddre
ssin
g in
divi
dual
con
stra
ints
(con
tinu
ed)
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Tech
nica
l sk
ills
Surv
ey
STEP
Ski
lls
Mea
sure
men
t Sur
vey
∎O
ne m
odul
e as
sess
es jo
b-re
leva
nt s
kills
suc
h as
com
pute
r use
, con
tact
with
clie
nts,
solv
-in
g an
d le
arni
ng a
t wor
k, a
nd a
uton
omy
and
repe
titiv
enes
s
∎Th
e ho
useh
old
surv
ey in
clud
es re
tros
pect
ive
ques
tions
rega
rdin
g jo
b hi
stor
y an
d ex
perie
nce
in e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
∎Th
e em
ploy
er s
urve
y pr
ovid
es in
form
atio
n on
tr
aini
ng a
nd c
ompe
nsat
ion
∎Th
e su
rvey
con
sist
s of
hou
seho
ld s
urve
y an
d em
ploy
er s
urve
y
∎H
ouse
hold
sur
vey:
Doo
r-to
-doo
r sur
vey,
It ta
kes
2 ho
urs
to c
ompl
ete
the
full
surv
ey
∎Em
ploy
er s
urve
y: D
oor-
to-d
oor s
urve
y, It
take
s 45
m
inut
e to
com
plet
e th
e su
rvey
∎So
me
ques
tions
are
bou
nd to
cop
y rig
hts
http
://m
icro
data
.w
orld
bank
.org
/ind
ex.
php/
cata
log/
step
/abo
ut
Tale
nt S
hort
age
Surv
ey ∎
Surv
ey re
flect
s em
ploy
er p
ersp
ectiv
e w
hen
look
ing
for s
kille
d la
bor
∎Su
rvey
iden
tifie
s w
hich
indu
strie
s/jo
b po
si-tio
ns n
eed
cert
ain
skill
s (e
.g.,
hard
ski
lls:
com
pute
r/in
form
atio
n te
chno
logy
, spe
akin
g/ve
rbal
, for
eign
lang
uage
; sof
t ski
lls: i
nter
per-
sona
l ski
lls, m
otiv
atio
n, te
amw
ork,
pro
fess
ion-
alis
m, a
bilit
y to
dea
l with
com
plex
ity,
pro
blem
so
lvin
g)
∎To
pics
cov
ered
: (1)
if em
ploy
ers
are
expe
rienc
-in
g ta
lent
sho
rtag
es in
the
ir re
spec
tive
orga
ni-
zatio
n, (2
) whi
ch p
ositi
ons
do t
hey
find
mos
t di
ffic
ult t
o fil
l, (3
) why
ope
n po
sitio
ns in
the
ir or
gani
zatio
ns re
mai
n di
ffic
ult t
o fil
l, (4
) how
ta
lent
sho
rtag
es a
re a
ffec
ting
the
clie
nt-f
ac-
ing
abili
ties
of t
heir
orga
niza
tions
, (5)
wha
t em
ploy
ers
do to
sec
ure
the
skill
s th
ey n
eed
∎Ph
one
inte
rvie
w w
ith e
mpl
oyer
s
∎Su
rvey
has
bee
n co
nduc
ted
with
nea
rly 4
0,00
0 em
ploy
ers
in 4
2 co
untr
ies
acro
ss E
urop
e, t
he
Mid
dle
East
, and
Afr
ica,
the
Am
eric
as, a
nd A
sia
Paci
fic s
ince
200
6
http
://w
ww
.m
anpo
wer
grou
p.co
m/
wps
/wcm
/con
nect
/m
anpo
wer
grou
p-en
/ho
me/
thou
ght-
lead
ersh
ip/
rese
arch
-insig
hts/
tale
nt-s
ourc
es/2
013-
tale
nt-s
hort
age#
.U
1mIM
VVd
Wk0
Tabl
e A
1. To
ols
for a
ddre
ssin
g in
divi
dual
con
stra
ints
(con
tinu
ed)
Tabl
e A
2. T
ools
for a
ddre
ssin
g en
viro
nmen
tal c
onst
rain
ts
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Fina
ncia
l se
rvic
e
Surv
ey
The
FinS
cope
sur
vey
∎M
easu
res
leve
l of a
cces
s to
fina
ncia
l ser
vice
acr
oss
inco
me
rang
es a
nd d
emog
raph
ics
amon
g ad
ults
.
∎M
odul
es in
clud
e (1)
fina
ncia
l nee
ds a
nd/o
r dem
ands
; (2
) fin
anci
al p
erce
ptio
ns, a
ttitu
des,
and
beha
vior
s; (3
) obs
tacl
es fa
ced
and
fact
ors
that
hav
e an
influ
ence
on
fina
ncia
l situ
atio
n; (4
) cur
rent
leve
ls o
f acc
ess
to, a
nd
utili
zatio
n of
, fin
anci
al s
ervi
ces
and
prod
ucts
(for
mal
an
d/or
info
rmal
); (5
) lan
dsca
pe o
f acc
ess
(i.e.
, typ
es o
f pr
oduc
ts u
sed
in te
rms
of t
rans
actio
ns, s
avin
gs, c
redi
t, in
sura
nce,
and
rem
itta
nces
); (6
) bar
riers
to u
tiliz
atio
n of
, an
d ac
cess
to, f
inan
cial
pro
duct
s an
d se
rvic
es
Surv
eys
have
bee
n co
nduc
ted
in 14
Sub
-Sa
hara
n A
fric
an c
ount
ries,
Paki
stan
, and
Th
aila
nd
http
://w
ww
.fins
cope
.co
.za/
finsc
ope/
page
s/de
faul
t.asp
x
Regu
lato
ry
and
lega
l en
viro
n-m
ent
Thum
btac
k Sm
all
Busi
ness
Frie
ndlin
ess
Surv
ey
∎Su
rvey
mea
sure
s st
ate’
s fr
iend
lines
s to
war
d bu
sine
ss
∎C
over
s a
larg
e ra
nge
of b
usin
ess
envi
ronm
ent t
opic
s, i.e
., (1)
sta
te a
nd lo
cal g
over
nmen
t ove
rall
supp
ort o
f sm
all
busi
ness
es, (
2) h
ealth
insu
ranc
e re
gula
tions
, (3)
tra
inin
g pr
ogra
ms
and
onlin
e re
sour
ces,
(4) s
tatu
s of
resp
on-
dent
s’ bu
sine
sses
and
gen
eral
eco
nom
ic c
ondi
tions
.
Con
duct
ed in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es o
nly
http
://w
ww
.thum
btac
k.co
m/m
edia
/sur
vey/
2013
/fr
iend
lines
s/v1
/Th
umbt
ackM
etho
dolo
gy
Pape
r201
3.pd
f
Coo
pera
tive
Law
&
Regu
latio
n In
itiat
ive
(CLA
RITY
)
∎Pr
ovid
es in
form
atio
n on
coo
pera
tive
law
s, re
gula
tions
, an
d an
alyt
ical
doc
umen
ts e
nabl
ing
envi
ronm
ents
for
coop
erat
ive
deve
lopm
ent
∎A
lso
prov
ides
info
rmat
ion
on h
isto
ry o
f the
dev
elop
-m
ent o
f coo
pera
tive
law
s an
d a
set o
f con
tact
s an
d ci
ta-
tions
to re
leva
nt re
sour
ces
Regu
latio
n an
d in
terp
reta
tion
may
requ
ire
a lo
cal l
awye
rht
tp://
ww
w.o
cdc.
coop
/pd
f/en
ablin
g_co
op_
dev_
engl
ish.
Doi
ng B
usin
ess
∎Pr
ovid
es a
n ea
se-o
f-do
ing-
busi
ness
inde
x sh
owin
g w
hich
co
untr
y pr
ovid
es a
regu
lato
ry e
nviro
nmen
t con
duci
ve to
th
e st
art a
nd o
pera
tion
of a
loca
l firm
∎Sp
ecifi
c m
odul
es c
over
sta
rtin
g a
busi
ness
, dea
ling
with
co
nstr
uctio
n pe
rmits
, obt
aini
ng e
lect
ricit
y, re
gist
erin
g pr
oper
ty, o
btai
ning
cre
dit,
prot
ectin
g in
vest
ors,
payi
ng
taxe
s, tr
adin
g ac
ross
bor
ders
, enf
orci
ng c
ontr
acts
, em
ploy
ing
wor
kers
, and
ent
repr
eneu
rshi
p
Focu
ses
on re
gula
tory
asp
ects
of d
oing
bu
sine
ss; d
oes
not i
nclu
de in
form
atio
n on
so
cial
and
cul
tura
l env
ironm
ent
http
://w
ww
.do
ingb
usin
ess.o
rg/
Oth
ers
The
Nat
iona
l Exp
ert
Surv
ey (N
ES)
∎Re
ceiv
es q
ualif
ied
opin
ions
from
exp
erts
∎A
dmin
iste
red
to a
min
imum
of 3
6 ex
pert
s in
eac
h co
untr
y, m
easu
ring
nine
key
ent
repr
eneu
rial f
ram
ewor
k co
nditi
ons:
finan
ce, g
over
nmen
t pol
icie
s, go
vern
men
t pr
ogra
ms,
entr
epre
neur
ial e
duca
tion
and
trai
ning
, R&
D
tran
sfer
, com
mer
cial
and
pro
fess
iona
l inf
rast
ruct
ure,
op
enne
ss o
f int
erna
l mar
ket,
phys
ical
infr
astr
uctu
re a
nd
serv
ices
, and
cul
tura
l and
soc
ial n
orm
s
∎Fa
ce-t
o-fa
ce in
terv
iew
s w
ith e
xper
ts,
who
mus
t be
resi
dent
s of
the
targ
et o
r re
gion
∎Po
tent
ial e
xper
ts a
re fi
rst i
dent
ified
, co
ntac
ted,
and
an
appo
intm
ent s
ched
-ul
ed; t
he p
roje
ct is
the
n pr
esen
ted
and
the
inte
rvie
w c
ondu
cted
http
://w
ww
.ge
mco
nsor
tium
.org
/do
cs/d
ownl
oad/
2375
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Infr
astr
uc-
ture
Surv
ey
The
Nat
iona
l Exp
ert
Surv
ey (N
ES)
∎Sa
me
as a
bove
∎Fa
ce-t
o-fa
ce in
terv
iew
s
∎Q
uest
ionn
aire
incl
udes
nin
e op
en-
ende
d re
spon
ses:
thre
e fa
ctor
s tha
t re
spon
dent
s con
sider
to in
hibi
t or c
on-
stra
in e
ntre
pren
eurs
hip
in th
eir c
ount
ry,
thre
e fa
ctor
s tha
t enh
ance
or s
uppo
rt
entr
epre
neur
ship
in th
eir c
ount
ry, a
nd
thre
e re
com
men
datio
ns to
impr
ove
the
entr
epre
neur
ial f
ram
ewor
k
http
://w
ww
.ge
mco
nsor
tium
.org
/D
ata-
Col
lect
ion#
NES
FinS
cope
Mob
ile B
anki
ng
Surv
ey ∎
Surv
eys
user
s an
d no
n-us
ers
of m
obile
ban
king
ser
vice
s w
ith re
spec
t to
acce
ssib
ility
of t
he te
chno
logy
∎Fi
ndin
gs fr
om t
he p
ilot p
roje
ct s
ugge
st t
hat m
obile
ba
nkin
g is
conv
enie
nt fo
r use
rs li
ving
rela
tivel
y fa
r aw
ay
from
ban
king
ser
vice
s
∎Te
leph
one
inte
rvie
ws
wer
e co
nduc
ted
with
use
rs o
f mob
ile b
anki
ng s
ervi
ces
∎Fa
ce-t
o-fa
ce in
-hom
e in
terv
iew
s w
ere
cond
ucte
d w
ith n
on-u
sers
http
://w
ww
.fins
cope
.co
.za/f
insc
ope/
page
s/In
itiat
ives
/Mob
ile-B
anki
ng.
aspx
?ran
dom
ID=d
bb25
b1b-
e02f
-496
e-a2
8b-
6e6d
c982
2ebb
&
linkP
ath=
3&lID
=3_2
Oth
ers
Tool
s fo
r Mak
ing
Infr
astr
uctu
re W
ork
for
Wom
en a
nd M
en
∎In
trod
uces
exi
stin
g in
fras
truc
ture
tool
s (t
rans
port
atio
n,
info
rmat
ion
and
com
mun
icat
ion
tech
nolo
gy [I
CT]
) and
be
st p
ract
ices
in g
ende
r iss
ues
∎Ea
ch in
fras
truc
ture
tool
kit s
ugge
sts
indi
cato
rs m
easu
ring
how
tra
nspo
rtat
ion/
ICT
incr
ease
s en
trep
rene
ursh
ip a
nd
prod
uctiv
ity
∎Sa
mpl
e of
Gen
der-
Resp
onsiv
e Pu
blic
Tr
ansp
orta
tion
Use
r Sur
vey:
take
s 5–
10
min
utes
to c
ompl
ete;
que
stio
ns a
re
on h
ow t
rans
port
atio
n an
d m
arke
t im
prov
emen
t inc
reas
e pr
oduc
tivit
y in
bu
sine
ss; t
rans
port
atio
n m
ode,
rout
e,
time,
and
cos
t are
mea
sure
d
∎O
ther
indi
cato
rs s
ugge
sted
in t
he IC
T to
olki
t are
mod
ern
and
trad
ition
al IC
T ac
cess
and
use
, IC
T co
nten
t, em
ploy
-m
ent,
ICT
entr
epre
neur
ship
, edu
catio
n
http
://w
eb.w
orld
bank
.or
g/W
BSIT
E/EX
TERN
AL/
TOPI
CS/
EXTS
OC
IAL
DEV
ELO
PMEN
T/
0,,c
onte
ntM
DK:
2251
2733
~ pa
gePK
:1489
56~p
iPK:
21
6618
~the
Site
PK:
2443
63,0
0.ht
ml
Tabl
e A
2. T
ools
for a
ddre
ssin
g en
viro
nmen
tal c
onst
rain
ts (c
onti
nued
)
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Gov
ern-
men
t ca
paci
ty/
corr
uptio
n
Surv
ey
Wor
ldw
ide
Gov
erna
nce
Indi
cato
rs (W
GI)
∎In
dica
tors
mea
sure
qua
lity
of g
over
nanc
e fo
r 215
eco
n-om
ies
∎Si
x di
men
sion
s of
gov
erna
nce
are
(1) v
oice
and
ext
erna
l ac
coun
tabi
lity,
(2) p
oliti
cal s
tabi
lity
and
lack
of v
iole
nce,
(3
) gov
ernm
ent e
ffec
tiven
ess,
(4) l
ack
of re
gula
tory
bu
rden
, (5)
rule
of l
aw, (
6) c
ontr
ol o
f cor
rupt
ion
∎G
over
nanc
e m
easu
res
rele
vant
for e
ntre
pren
eurs
are
la
ck o
f reg
ulat
ory
burd
en a
nd c
ontr
ol o
f cor
rupt
ion
∎Th
e W
GI c
ompi
les
and
sum
mar
izes
in
form
atio
n fr
om 3
1 exi
stin
g da
ta
sour
ces,
but t
hose
rela
ted
to e
ntre
pre-
neur
ship
are
lim
ited:
Bus
ines
s Ent
erpr
ise
Envi
ronm
ent S
urve
y, G
loba
l Ins
ight
Bu
sine
ss C
ondi
tion
and
Risk
Indi
cato
rs
http
://in
fo.w
orld
bank
.or
g/go
vern
ance
/wgi
/in
dex.
aspx
#hom
e
Cor
rupt
ion
Perc
eptio
n In
dex
∎M
easu
res
perc
eptio
n to
war
d co
rrup
tion
in a
cou
ntry
’s pu
blic
sec
tor
∎In
clud
es B
usin
ess
Inte
grit
y To
olki
t tha
t ass
esse
s an
d m
onito
rs c
orru
ptio
n is
sues
in b
usin
ess
∎20
13 in
dex
scor
ed 17
7 co
untr
ies
∎Th
e Bu
sine
ss In
tegr
ity
Tool
kit i
s a
six-
step
pro
cess
for b
uild
ing
an e
ffec
tive
anti-
corr
uptio
n pr
ogra
m. T
he s
teps
are
(1)
com
mit
to t
he p
rogr
am, (
2) a
sses
s th
e cu
rren
t sta
tus,
(3) p
lan
the
anti-
cor-
rupt
ion
prog
ram
, (4)
act
on
the
plan
, (5
) mon
itor p
rogr
ess,
and
(6) r
epor
t
http
://cp
i.tra
nspa
renc
y.or
g/cp
i201
3/
Wor
ld V
alue
Sur
vey
∎A
sks
ques
tions
abo
ut s
ocia
l and
pol
itica
l cha
nge
in a
co
untr
y
∎Su
rvey
has
bee
n co
nduc
ted
in a
bout
60
coun
trie
s ar
ound
the
wor
ld
∎Th
e 6t
h w
ave,
whi
ch w
as c
arrie
d ou
t in
2010
–14,
will
pro
-vi
de a
30-
year
tim
e se
ries
∎C
ondu
cted
via
face
-to-
face
inte
rvie
ws
∎To
pics
incl
ude
surv
ival
and
wel
l-bei
ng,
auth
orit
y, p
ostm
ater
ialis
t and
mat
eria
l-is
t, cu
lture
and
hap
pine
ss, c
ivil
liber
ties
and
polit
ical
righ
ts, g
ende
r
∎Q
uest
ions
rela
ted
to g
over
nmen
t en
gage
men
t are
lim
ited
to o
wne
rshi
p an
d m
anag
emen
t of b
usin
ess
http
://w
ww
.w
orld
valu
essu
rvey
.org
/in
dex_
htm
l
Mar
ket
Mea
sure
men
ts fo
r Tr
acki
ng In
dica
tors
of
Coo
pera
tive
Succ
ess
(MET
RIC
S Su
rvey
)
∎U
niqu
ely
asse
ss k
ey d
eter
min
ants
of s
ucce
ssfu
l coo
p-er
ativ
es
∎Q
uest
ions
are
eas
y to
und
erst
and
∎Q
uest
ions
rega
rdin
g ac
cess
to m
arke
t are
incl
uded
∎Ei
ght o
rgan
izat
ions
wer
e ch
osen
for
gath
erin
g da
ta; e
ach
appo
inte
d a
lead
fie
ld p
erso
n to
adm
inis
ter t
he q
ues-
tionn
aire
∎M
ajor
ity
of q
uest
ions
are
yes
/no;
som
e re
quire
d w
ritte
n an
swer
s
http
://w
ww
.ocd
c.co
op/
pdf/
met
rics.
Tabl
e A
2. T
ools
for a
ddre
ssin
g en
viro
nmen
tal c
onst
rain
ts (c
onti
nued
)
Cons
trai
ntM
etho
dolo
gyTo
olD
escr
ipti
onO
pera
tion
al c
onsi
dera
tion
sRe
fere
nce/
link
Mar
ket
Oth
ers
Ensu
ring
Dem
and-
Driv
en
Yout
h Tr
aini
ng P
rogr
ams:
How
to C
ondu
ct a
n Ef
fect
ive
Labo
r Mar
ket
Ass
essm
ent
∎Pr
ovid
es g
uide
lines
on
mar
ket a
sses
smen
t ∎
Gui
delin
es c
over
ed a
re (1
) ass
embl
e ad
viso
rs, (
2) s
et g
oals
, (3)
dev
ise
key
rese
arch
que
stio
ns, (
4) id
entif
y ta
rget
se
ctor
s, (5
) con
duct
fiel
d re
sear
ch, (
6)
revi
ew a
nd v
et fi
ndin
gs, (
7) d
esig
n th
e pr
ogra
m, a
nd (8
) rec
heck
(and
rede
sign)
http
://lo
kaln
irazv
oj.
rs/a
sset
s/fil
es/B
aza_
znan
ja/Z
apos
ljava
nje_
mla
dih/
Gui
de%
20to
%20
Yout
h%20
Labo
r_M
arke
t_A
sses
smen
t%20
Inte
rnat
iona
l%20
Yout
h%20
Foun
datio
n.pd
f
A H
andb
ook
for V
alue
C
hain
Res
earc
h ∎
Add
ress
es k
ey c
once
pts a
nd p
rovi
des a
met
hodo
logy
for
unde
rtak
ing
valu
e ch
ain
anal
ysis
and
for u
nder
stan
ding
in
put-
outp
ut re
latio
nshi
ps
∎Pr
ovid
es g
uida
nce
on v
alue
cha
in a
naly
sis,
acce
ss to
fina
l m
arke
t, an
d th
e ro
le o
f sm
all a
nd m
ediu
m-s
ize
ente
r-pr
ises
(SM
Es)
∎M
etho
dolo
gy re
com
men
ds (1
) poi
nt o
f en
try
for v
alue
cha
in a
naly
sis,
(2) m
ap-
ping
val
ue c
hain
s, (3
) pro
duct
seg
men
ts
and
criti
cal s
ucce
ss fa
ctor
s in
fina
l m
arke
ts, (
4) h
ow p
rodu
cers
acc
ess
final
m
arke
ts, (
5) b
ench
mar
king
pro
duct
ion
effic
ienc
y, (6
) gov
erna
nce
of v
alue
ch
ains
, (7)
upg
radi
ng in
val
ue c
hain
s, an
d (8
) dis
trib
utio
nal i
ssue
s
http
://w
ww
.pris
m.u
ct.
ac.z
a/pa
pers
/vch
nov0
1.pd
f
Gen
der
Tool
kits
for f
emal
e en
trep
rene
ursh
ip
publ
ishe
d by
Wor
ld
Bank
’s G
ende
r and
D
evel
opm
ent G
roup
Ther
e ar
e six
wel
l-kno
wn
tool
kits
incl
udin
g be
st p
ract
ices
an
d sa
mpl
e in
dica
tors
: ∎
Mod
ule
1. Fe
mal
e En
trep
rene
ursh
ip R
esou
rce
Poin
t
∎M
odul
e 2.
Mea
surin
g hu
man
cap
ital f
or e
ntre
pren
eur-
ship
Pro
gram
∎M
odul
e 3.
Wha
t are
the
top
four
bus
ines
s re
gula
tory
en
viro
nmen
t ind
icat
ors
for m
easu
ring
cons
trai
nts
face
d by
wom
en le
adin
g SM
Es?
∎M
odul
e 4.
Mea
surin
g A
cces
s to
Fin
ance
for S
mal
l-Sca
le
Ente
rpris
es
∎M
odul
e 5.
Mea
sure
s of
age
ncy
and
non-
cogn
itive
ski
lls
in S
MEs
∎M
odul
e 6.
Und
erst
andi
ng p
rofit
abili
ty fo
r mic
ro a
nd
smal
l ent
repr
eneu
rs
∎M
ost c
ompr
ehen
sive
clea
ringh
ouse
on
the
topi
c of
fem
ale
entr
epre
neur
ship
∎Ea
ch p
aper
intr
oduc
es s
ampl
e su
rvey
qu
estio
ns w
hich
cov
er fi
nanc
ial a
cces
s, bu
sine
ss m
anag
emen
t, en
trep
rene
uria
l tr
aits
, and
inpu
t of f
irms
http
://w
eb.w
orld
bank
.or
g/W
BSIT
E/EX
TERN
AL/
TOPI
CS/
EXTG
END
ER/
0,,c
onte
ntM
DK:
23
3926
38~p
ageP
K:
2100
58~p
iPK:
21
0062
~the
Site
PK:
3368
68,0
0.ht
ml
Tabl
e A
2. T
ools
for a
ddre
ssin
g en
viro
nmen
tal c
onst
rain
ts (c
onti
nued
)