Sustainability and the post-modern city: some guidelines for urban planning and transport practice in an age of uncertainty

The Environmentalist 15, 257-266 (1995)

Sustainability and the post-modern city: some guidelines for urban planning and transport practice in an age of uncertainty

PETER NEWMAN* Murdoch University, Murdoch 6150, Perth, Western Australia

Summary

Sustainability is one of the key concepts that is associated with post-modernism. The old world with its modernist assumptions was based on increasing consumption of fossil fuels and other resources, reducing the natural and the diverse to simple, American-style mass production, with a strong state-based, large-scale approach to providing infrastructure. That old way no longer works but no way forward is obviously apparent. This paper looks at how the uncertainties produced by post-modernism can be put to advantage in providing a more sustainable post- modern city. It is suggested that the key principles are recognizing values, maximizing diversity and crossing boundaries. These are developed into some guidelines for urban planning and transport practice.

Introduction

One of the most characteristic feature of the present age is uncertainty. In recent years, particularly post-second World War, modernism provided the basis for a new age. Modernism was a clear, simple set of ideas, well separated from the previous old order, American in its roots, with a technology that enabled clear and simple univer- sal solutions to be provided. It was seen as 'value free', rational and technocratic with progress as the inevitable outcome. In urban planning and transport this meant (1) concrete and steel city centre office blocks, (2) greenfield, low-density housing in planned suburbs, (3) 'individualized' mass-produced homes, (4) strong regulations gov- erning how and what could be built, (5) cars and highways for transport and (6) infrastructure provided mostly by the state with large-scale power, water, sewerage, and communications.

Modernism as a philosophy has died and its demise has impacted on every aspect of life in the last few years of the twentieth century. The death of modernism is due to a combination of factors, such as the following.

(1) The environmental crisis which high-

*Peter Newman is associate professor of city policy and director of the Institute for Science and Technology Planning at Murdoch University. This paper was delivered at the Global Forum '94 Academic Conference, Manchester, UK.

lighted the darker side to much modern technology.

(2) The women's movement and other 'rights' movements which showed how the simple solutions of modernism had shut them out.

(3) The end of the baby boom which had carried one very uniform group of people through its hey day 'nesting' period.

(4) The awareness of American consumer capitalism's international appeal (mostly through the pervasiveness of television) and its impact on indigenous cultures across the globe.

(5) The increasingly multicultural nature of cities in most Western industrial countries due to immigration.

The decline of modernism has led to the rise of post-modernism - a movement that is defined mostly by what it is not it has no simple solutions. Post-modernism delights in uncertainty, it thrives on the lack of absolutes. It is cynical about the future, it suggests progress is unlikely. Post- modernism is expressed in art, music and litera- ture, but what does it mean for urban planning and transport, particularly in the context of sustainability?

The post-modern agenda

A seminar on post-modernism and cities was held in Sydney in 1993 (Postmodern Cities Conference Proceedings, 1993). Whilst providing some interesting ideas it did not, in the author's view, do much to help the average planning or transport

0251-1088 �9 1995 Chapman & Hall 257

Sustainability and the post-modern city

professional trying to make a serious attempt to plan in the age of uncertainty (Cook, 1990).

This paper attempts to set out some ideas on how to manage this difficult task. It is not possible to just crank up a set of simple solutions - the reality of the post-modern era is that it is not possible to go back to the easy ways and no longer will simple solutions work. Many people now share the post-modern feeling of uncertainty about the future and in urban matters they see high-rise glass towers as being inhuman, low-density suburbs have become a monotonous sprawl with environmental, energy and social problems, the car is recognized as being the biggest polluter on the planet, the highway is now a symbol of monolithic modernism and regulations are seen to be stifling architecture and urban creativity. There is considerable uncertainty about infrastructure provision which is now seen to be inap- propriate, costly and increasingly impossible to re- place in old cities. It is, however, necessary to live somewhere, use transport and infrastructure and to try to improve the world, but the ease with which progress used to be defined is no longer there. So what can be done? In many cities the professionals are caught between those who are pushing for a last gasp in the old paradigm and those trying to find their way to a new and different paradigm.

Newman et al. (1992) placed the emphasis on light rail, traffic calming and urban villages as the three-pronged set of solutions to the world's cities. These can be seen to have some basis, even in a post-modern world, but they need a context and thus this is the aim of the present paper to provide some general principles on how to approach planning and transport in an age of uncertainty.

The challenge is to find a new basis for planning that accepts the reasons for post-modern uncertainty but tries to find how to move forward. As Schumaker (1973) said 'progress is an essential feature of all life. The whole point is to determine what constitutes progress. Hence the call for taking stock and finding a new orientation. The stock taking indicates that we are destroying our very basis of existence, and the reorientation is based on remembering what human life is really about'. In other words it is necessary to redefine progress in the post-modern era and firmly embed it in the reality of sustainability.

Some planning principles in an age of uncertainty

Recognizing values

Much of the philosophical basis to modernism questions whether there are any values. The post-modern world suggests there are values but

they are just associated with individuals. The question today is whether it is possible to locate values that are important in a broader context. To an extent this is an academic question although it impacts when values are so played down that professionals see urban planning and transport as a purely technical process. When the world was simpler and values were easily assumed, planning could be seen as 'value free' and technical. This is no longer possible.

The importance of values is highlighted by the unprecedented demand for public consultation. In a world where planning was meeting all our demands this would not be needed but, the post-modern world no longer trusts the techno- crat. Consultation must, therefore, seek not only to develop a process in which people can feel good, in that they were asked their opinions but that the full range of values on various issues were properly outlined and seen in context. However, once the diversity of values is adequately represented how are things drawn together to make decisions?

Despite the shift towards greater uncertainty there are still and always have been important general values which need to be sought in any planning process. These overall values need to feed decision making in the urban planning and transport area.

The environment matters

The environment still provides cities with their sustenance, even if this is not recognized. It has limits on how much it can be pushed. No matter how much human individualism is asserted, the ozone hole could still be the cause of human dis- tress. Post-modernism can be no excuse for avoiding responsibility for the environment.

Social justice matters

Nor can post-modernism be a way of avoiding the need to consider the underprivileged and those with disabilities. A focus on social justice tends to remove a lot of uncertainty.

Heritage matters

The importance of heritage was discounted in modernism, as modernism was so sure of its own way it needed no sense of the past. Post-modern uncertainty develops awareness of the links to the past and that these provide a more organic base for the future. The past has a significance on which to build because it involved people trying to resolve the complexities of their lives. An approach more like the urban husbandry of Gratz (1993) is required.

258 The Environmentalist

The public realm matters

Streets, parks, meeting areas, public transport and every other part of a city should not be fenced off for private use; they are vital for people to value. When they are not valued and they begin to collapse as places for social interchange, then they are really noticed. The Detroit and Los Angeles syndrome is not something that can be afforded. Post-modern uncertainty cannot be an excuse for abandoning the public realm to economic ration- alists who see only individual consumption as real (Vintila et al. 1992).

The urban economy matters

Post-modern uncertainty can easily assume the economy but planners cannot. There is a growing awareness that the local urban economy must be the focus of how humans develop in cities, particularly in the centres and subcentres. Jacobs (1984) and Gratz (1993) provide a theoretical fra- mework of how to maintain the urban fabric with the local economy mixed in to where people live and enjoy recreation. Much of the current growth in jobs is in small businesses based on information processing and these can be assisted by being part of a local area, not pushed into a city centre tower or a single zoned commercial or industrial area. Frost (1991) has also shown that cities can be drained of their wealth by developing at too low a density, with the emphasis on greenfields rather than reurbanization. Limited capital is important to direct into 'clever country' innovation rather than non-productive infrastructure (see, Newman et al, 1992b).

The community matters

As broader certainties diminish, the need for local communities grows. Surveys of what people want for the future inevitably involve a greater role for the community - people want to live in 'villages' again, even in cities (Community and Family Commission, 1992). Yet this sentiment is occur- ring just as car-based communities have been created with little that draws them together. Never- theless the desire for greater involvement in the future of the local area is a strong part of the

Table 1. Problems of automobile dependence

Newman

new popular agenda. These six values form the basis for a planning

approach in the age of uncertainty. Two other key principles for planning build on these values and provide a basis for decision making.

Maximizing diversity

Probably the most significant planning principle in an age of uncertainty is trying to maximize diversity. This applies to housing types, transport types, fuels and even the provision of an infrastructure, as well as trying to maximize cultural diversity.

Housing diversity

Not only is there a wide diversity of tastes in different cultural groups but there are very different requirements in life cycle/demographic stages. All Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries have passed the baby boom and its echo and are now moving towards an absolute decline in the number of young couples seeking family housing, whilst there is a growing demand for housing suitable for the elderly. This is associated with an unprecedented increase in the number of single-person house- holds. The trade-off in house types has always been with location - the lower the density, the poorer the location in terms of accessibility. This trade-off and the relative importance given to location is a very cultural matter. Non-Anglo-Sax- on cultures have tended to prioritize location to a greater extent than in Anglo-Saxon traditions. The growth in elderly and single person house- holds also tends to increase the demand for location and hence the importance of increased densi- ties. This is a challenge not yet fully accepted by all local governments, but clearly it has been placed on the agenda of most national governments. It is the basis for the strong belief in the need for urban villages in cities as a central part of urban diversity.

Transport diversity

The uniformity of automobile dependence domi- nates cities. The list of problems associated with

Environmental Economic Social

Oil vulnerability Urban sprawl Photochemical smog Lead High greenhouse gas contributions Greater stonnwater problems Traffic problems - noise, severance, etc.

Congestion costs High infrastructure costs Loss of productive rural land Loss of urban land to bitumen

Loss of street life Loss of community Loss of public safety Isolation in remote suburbs Access problems for the carless and those with disabilities

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Table 2. Overcoming automobile dependence

Physical policy Economic policy Social policy

Expand transit, particularly rail

Increase density particularly at transit stops

Mix land use Calm traffic

Emphasize redevelopment over new development at fringe Build pedestrian and cycle infrastructure

Phase in full payment of all transport costs, especially parking Remove subsidies on fringe development

Establish carbon tax on fossil fuels

Provide public education on good cities

Ensure participation on strategic planning especially balance of transit versus cars

Establish demonstration transit-oriented urban villages of high quality, dense housing with good public spaces

Improve human attractions of city centres

auto-dependence is substantial (Table 1). This is not easily overcome but generally involves a combination of physical, social and economic planning (Table 2). The need for greater diversity in t ransport and in housing can be expressed in terms of the future city which follows the three previous city types - walking, transit and auto cities (Figs 1 3). The future city (Fig. 4) provides

for increased opportunit ies to walk, cycle or use public transport , the latter being a combinat ion of line haul rail services (especially light rail due to its cheapness and flexibility) and demand-responsive local bus services. The key roles of traffic calming and light rail in reorienting the suburbs to provide some genuine non-car options is a central par t of this new urban diversity.

'TRADITIONAL WALKING CITY

Up To 1850 In Europe �9 High Density

�9 Mixed Use

�9 Organic Structure

Fig. 1. The traditional walking city.


TRANSIT CITy

" M e d i u m Dens i ty - MLxed Use

Grid Based �9 C e n t r a l i s e d

Newman

; uburbs

Fig. 2. The transit city.

Fuel Diversity One of the great certainties of this age is that a critical point is being reached in the golden age of oil (Campbell, 1991). Fig. 5 shows that the production peak of world oil is being approached. Campbell (1991) suggested that 80% of global oil supplies will be consumed between the 1960s and the 2020s: 'the world is indeed approaching the midpoint in the depletion of its oil resources: the epoch of increasing production is almost over, and the epoch of declining production is about to begin. Future generations will likely look back and see this inflection point as one of the great turning points in history' (Campbell, 1991). Whereas the golden age of oil was represented by new suburbs increasingly scattered from the city and its centres, due to cheap easy car travel,

the new age could mean reurbanization of the city to minimize travel needs. Not only will many more options for reduced auto-dependent life styles need to be ensured but the fuel use of all vehicles will need to be reassessed. Electricity may become the important fuel of the future as renew- able sources such as the sun and the wind are tapped for electricity production. It will also be necessary to convert as quickly as possible to the use of natural gas in vehicles - local governments can take an important lead here.

Infrastructure diversity The simple approach that derived from experi- ences in nineteenth-century cities was that infrastructure was provided by experts in a centralized

Table 3. Nineteenth century, solutions to urban water management

Water supply Storm water Sewage

Large-scale water supply system from a few large water sources

Collect it all and discharge to Collect it all and discharge after some receiving waters treatment to receiving waters i.e. based

on dilution Engineer water courses and drains i.e. 'big pipes in - big pipes out

261


Ex-urba n or

----.......~p ec i a I Rual :�9149

A U T O M O B I L E

1940 rresent, C I T Y \ U S + A u s t r a l i a n

Fig. 3. The automobile city.

author i ty and was provided in big pipes that fed down into smaller and smaller units. A review of this approach is going on at the insti tutional and technological levels in most developed countries. The possibility of localization as the basis for infrastructure is gaining momen tum and should be considered in the spectrum of options for infrastructure provision.

Localization is where the scale of the technology used provides an infrastructure oriented to a local area. It cannot stand alone but its focus is nevertheless on a local solution rather than city- wide. The m omen tum for this is coming from water authorities who are looking at the enormous cost of rebuilding or expanding main sewers or building new dams or even just extending the big pipes out to new areas. The old nineteenth-century

approach is giving way to a new set of urban technologies and a new set of urban management processes (Tables 3-7) all o f these are local in their orientation. A case study in Perth (Mouri tz and Newman, 1993) has shown that this approach will lead to significant cost savings as well as overall environmental gains - an evolution out of the modern and pos t -modern eras into a more community-or iented era.

Cultural diversity Behind all of this desire for greater diversity is the recognit ion that there are different cultural values -- some of which are more urban than others. The importance of cultural diversity ought to be re- flected in more than the planning policy of a

Table 4. Problems with nineteenth-century urban water management

Receiving waters cannot sustain organic loads and in particular nutrient loads from outfalls Urban creeks and wetlands are now valued inherently, i.e. for their ecological and recreational qualities rather than their ability to channel or dilute wastes Stormwater from sprawling bitumen-based cities is excessive in quantity and low in quality Costs of 'big pipes' infrastructure is becoming too much Water supply augmentation solutions are becoming economically and environmentally questionable.


race

r t

t /

1.2,

Y

Newman

Fig. 4. The future city.

council but also in its social policy. Councils that can develop a policy to facilitate cultural diversity adequately, whether it be from ethnic back- g r o u n d s or not, will be more able to bridge the age of uncertainty in their planning.

Crossing boundaries

The kind of diversity required for the future requires urban planning and transport practice to become much more a boundary-crossing exercise. This should occur in terms of physical and disciplinary, as well as cultural boundaries.

Crossing physical boundaries The new demands of the uncertain age require consideration of new physical boundaries to man-

age the environment, community needs and infrastructure requirements.

Environmental boundaries. In new Zealand local government boundaries have been redrawn to coincide with bio-regions, i.e. natural catchment boundaries that define the soil and water interactions and management needs of that area. This is an interesting option as there will be increasing pressures to focus on environmental boundaries. It will require local governments to group and regroup around the particular environmental need. In Australia, Landcare Groups have been established on catchment boundaries and in many places they have become de facto local governments for anything environmental. However, a more positive local authori ty approach is necessary. In cities, new boundaries for environmental

Table 5. Water-oriented goals for a sustainable city

Ocean and river outfalls made redundant Recycling of water for various urban and peri-urban uses Recycling of nutrients and organic Creeks and wetlands an integral part of city but managed for their ecological integrity Increased soft surfaces (and reduced urban sprawl) for stormwater retention Reduced requirement for large pipes

263


o Q.

J

1900 1950

yeor

2000 2050 2100

Fig. 5. The cycle of world oil production (After Campbell, 1991).

purposes will also be required. In Perth there is already a map that sets out 'water management areas', roughly corresponding to natural water catchment boundaries. The Bayswater Drain In- tegrated Catchment Management Group is trying to turn a drain into a natural creek and is heavily involving three local authorities in the consultative process. Around the world there is a new focus on how to connect urban drains back to creeks, as water tends to be the issue that reflects most closely local environmental sensitivity.

Other environmental issues like air quality require comprehensive city management and hence local authorities need to join together to participate in the many transport, industry and land use inputs to this issue. In the USA, the Clean Air Act amendments now require land use solutions to be developed that minimize vehicle use - only local government can help define what this means as it recognizes that planning is important in achieving an environmental goal.

Community boundaries. Communities are as real and important in their diversity as the bio-regional natural diversity into which boundary definitions are being considered. The public realm of a neighbourhood, precinct or community may be hard to define too precisely but if ways of facilitating communities are to be provided then it is necessary to try and define some smaller scale community boundaries. North Sydney, Australia

has created precincts around which local transport and land use issues are discussed. The process has been extremely successful so far. In Portland, Oregon, local areas are being set up to create a 'Reclaim Your Streets' programme. The readjust- ment of wards to represent more precisely particular types of communities could be an exercise with significance that goes beyond the obvious democratic benefits.

Infrastructure boundaries. The 'total city' approach to infrastructure is being localized, i.e. a new scale of community technology is being addressed. Water and sewerage are perhaps the first areas to come back to local government after being under centralized responsibility in the 'modern' era. Power, public transport and communications will be next. Table 8 sets out some of these new technologies and how local authorities should be involved. Though the technology is moving to a smaller scale, localized system, it requires a heavy degree of city-wide coordination.

The next stage of infrastructure management at this smaller community scale will require different management structures - in particular new boundaries at the local level will be required. These could be associated with communities as set out in the future city vision. The benefits to local communities of becoming more involved in an integrated approach to local infrastructure management are multiple. Not only could the ben-

Table 6. Water and sustainable cities

New urban technologies New urban management processes

Small-scale, high-quality sewage treatment Water-sensitive design processes Localized stormwater treatment and recycling Total water cycle planning Water harvesting for localized supply purposes Urban integrated catchment management Water efficient appliances, management, fittings and technologies Localized community processes in water


Table 7. Changes in water management approaches

Newman

City Jbrm Water management

Pre-nineteenth-century walking city Nineteenth-century transit city

Twentieth-century auto-city Twenty-first century future city

Localized supply and treatment 'Big pipes in big pipes out', with quantities of water supply and sewage generally not exceeding surrounding capacities Same as transit city but with capacities exceeded Localized systems, linked to the broader city, but with less centralized big pipe approaches and more sensitivity to local environment.

Table 8. Examples of community technology

Stormwater:

Sewerage:

Power:

Natural gas and hydrogen:

Solid waste:

Light rail

Demand responsive minibuses:

Tele-cottages:

local recharge reharvesting small-scale local plants (high quality) water reused locally (industry, community gardens) renewables garbage methane and biomass burning } cogeneration local fleets local distribution (and production - H2) collected, treated and recycled locally composting linked to permaculture gardens corridor distributer can be local authority owned (again) community based linked to transit coordinates all community buses electronic networking, faxes, videophones, data processing made available in community centres, like post offices for job creation and community building

efits be very tangible in lower rates and taxes, but the responsibilities become key reasons for the community to work more as a community. It also creates local employment not only in managing the technology but in utilizing the resources, such as water and waste, the community tele-cottage, and the community bus services.

Is all this new boundary definition just dreaming? If even partly true it means local government has to set up new boundaries for these new activities. These boundaries do not have to be fixed for all activities but can vary depending on the process. This makes the interactions between local authorities even more critical. The other aspect of physical boundaries, apart from the need for creating smaller units and of course a whole city boundary, is the necessity for local authorities to link into national and international goals. The kind of projects that are defined by the UN through the Rio conference or by national governments, such as the various sustainable development strategies that are being drawn up, must in the end come down to local government. The requirement for national and international groupings of local authorities becomes ever more obvious in the age of uncertainty. Hence, the for- mation of the new Municipal Conservation Asso-

ciation in Australia and the International Council on Local Environmental Initiatives. The need for such groups will grow more and more.

Crossing disciplinary boundaries The new responsibilities for local authorities will require new disciplines being brought into local government. The integrative, synthesizing qualities of local authority professionals will be extremely important. They should incorporate environmental scientists, water and waste water engi- neers, communications and power system engi- neers, public transport planners, sociologists with community boundary expertise, heritage experts, local job creation experts, artists and grass roots community activists who can articulate local vi- sions. The list goes on. There are indeed few disciplines that can be left out of the post-modern local authority. It will require local authority professionals to be open, flexible and self-confident with a low threshold for jargon and 'an eye for' the genuine contributor to the local sense.

Crossing cultural boundaries As well as crossing the artificial boundaries on

265

Sustainabi l i ty and the pos t -modern c i ty

maps and the artificial lines drawn up by univer- sities to define professions, the real boundaries between cultures have to be crossed. This is one of the great values of post-modernism that it has allowed the importance of 'difference' to be recognized. A typical example may be given from per- sonal experience with the Fremantle Council WA. The council was approached by several Italian restaurant owners to see if they could put tables and chairs outside on the footpath. There was immediate opposition as the health and building regulations made it illegal. In reality, this was a purely cultural reaction. The cultural tradition of Anglo-Saxons was that it was not appropriate to be so public about eating habits and it was probably unhealthy and unsafe. Fortunately, some planners listened to the social policy people who gave the perspective of the Italian culture. The practice has now made a significant contribution to the revival of Fremantle's economy and now planning facilitates it by widening footpaths.

The same issues apply to the importance of markets as opposed to large shopping centres, the value of mixed land use such as housing above shops and the whole question of density which is highly cultural (Anglo-Saxons are famous for their anti-density sentiments and impose them on everyone through the planning system).

In Canadian cities more than half the new housing development is in the form of transit-oriented, high-density apartments and medium-density town houses - it is a response to a more cul- turally-sensitive urban market place. The planners and developers have listened to this demand whilst also hearing the more obvious and strident demand from the Anglo-Saxon culture that this is not a 'legitimate' demand. In the process it has created a legitimacy for the whole culture to ac- cept greater diversity in housing and life-style. This is the type of paradigm shift which is becoming increasingly common.

The concentration on cultural diversity as the basis of the new kind of planning mentality is the approach being adopted by many cities that have had a lot of immigration in recent years. It is often difficult and always politically risky but it is the social heart of the sustainability agenda. Cultu- rally sensitive planning encapsulates much of the new approach to planning in an age of uncertainty.

Conclusions

One of the key reasons for the age of uncertainty is the collapse of the auto-city as a paradigm for planning. Just as the walking city began to collapse 100 years ago and the transit city began to

emerge as the solution to its demise, a period where the auto-city is perceived to be unsustain- able is commencing. The emerging city being suggested here contains elements of all the three previous cities with a greater emphasis on the pedestrian and transit qualities and a technology that facilitates diverse communities (Table 7). Just as progress became more certain with the emergence of the transit city, it can be proposed that it will once again occur as the benefits and authenticity of this new planning develop. This is the great hope of those involved in the sustainability movement. Urban planning and transport practice in an age of uncertainty can be exciting processes. If community values are sought, diversity is max- imised, new boundaries are established and flexible movement occurs between them, and a range of new disciplines are incorporated into local authorities; then it will probably be recognised that the old planning regime, with simple goals and regulations, was not only inadequate, it was not nearly as exciting.

References

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Documents

Sustainability and the post-modern city: some guidelines for urban planning and transport practice in an age of uncertainty