Sustainability How-to Guide Series - Knowledge Library · The IFMA Foundation originated the Sustainability How-to Guide series. The ESS SAG took over production of the guides in

Sustainability How-to Guide - Lighting Solutions1

IFMA Enivronmental Stewardship and Sustainability Strategic Advisory Group (ESS SAG)

Sustainability How-to Guide Series

Lighting Solutions

Bill Conley, IFMA Fellow, CFM, SFP, FMP, LEED APFacility Manager, Yamaha Motor Corp.

September 2015



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Table of ContentsAcknowledgements ..............................................................................................5

Foreword ............................................................................................................6

IFMA Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability Strategic Advisory Group .....7

IFMA Foundation ..................................................................................................8

1 Executive Summary ........................................................................................9

2 Introduction ................................................................................................12

3 Detailed Findings ............................................................................................14

3.1.1 Effective Lighting Measures ...............................................................15

3.1.2 Lighting and Global Standards .......................................................16

3.1.3 Lighting Types ...................................................................................18

3.1.4 Ballasts .............................................................................................20

3.1.5 Solid State Lighting (SSL) .................................................................21

3.1.6 Daylighting ......................................................................................22

3.1.7 Measurement ...................................................................................24

3.2 Reduction Strategies ...........................................................................25

3.2.1 Wash and Re-Lamp Procedures .......................................................25

3.2.2 Fluorescent Lamps ...........................................................................26

3.2.3 Induction Lighting ...........................................................................28

3.2.4 Ballast Developments .................................................................30

3.2.5 Solid State Lighting (SSL) .................................................................30

3.2.6 Occupancy Sensors ...........................................................................34

3.2.7 Energy Management ...........................................................................35

3.2.8 Daylighting ......................................................................................37

3.2.9 Exterior Lighting ...........................................................................37

3.3 Summary ..............................................................................................41

Part 4: Making the Business Case .................................................................43

4.1 Retro�t ................................................................................................43

4.2 Legislation ......................................................................................43

4.3 Cost of Lighting ....................................................................................44



4.4 Energy Policy Act (EPAct) 2005 .......................................................44

4.5 Local Utilities .....................................................................................44

4.6 Summary .............................................................................................44

5 Case Studies ................................................................................................46

5.1 Paci�c Building Care ...........................................................................46

5.2 Workstation Luminaires ........................................................................46

5.3 Maines Paper and Food Service, Inc. ...................................................48

5.4 SAP Utilizes LED Lamps with Controls .............................................48

5.5 LED Retro�t at USB Data Center .......................................................48

6 Appendices ................................................................................................50



Acknowledgements

The author would like to express his gratitude to Anita Ciminesi, FMP, facility management consultant, who helped critique and re�ne this guide; Mark Warren, owner/lighting consul-tant, Re-Light, for lending his expertise as a subject matter expert and external reviewer; and Steve McGuire, environmental marketing manager, Philips, for sourcing photos and lending his expertise as a subject matter expert and external reviewer.

Acknowledgement is also given to Jim Brotherton, Associated Component Sales, Inc. and Trond Flagstaff, western U.S. managing partner, Smart Start Lighting, LLC. A special thanks goes to Francis Rubinstein of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for providing per-mission to cite his workstation luminaires case study and Larry Morgan, head of operations, Palo Alto and Vancouver regions global facilities management (Americas), SAP for his case study.

—Bill ConleyIFMA Fellow, CFM, SFP, FMP, LEED AP

External ReviewersAnita Ciminesi FMP, Facility Management Consultant, Lake Elsinore, California, USA

Mark Warren Owner, Lighting Consultant: Re-Light, Irvine, California, USA

Steve McGuireEnvironmental Marketing Manager, Philips Lighting, Somerset, New Jersey, USA

Jim BrothertonDirector, Associated Component Sales, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

Larry MorganHead of Operations, SAP, Palo Alto, California, USA

Trond Flagsta� Western US Managing Partner, Smart Start Lighting, LLC, Aliso Viejo, California, USA

Editor-at-LargeSharon Jaye D.Ed., SFP

Copy EditorErin Sevitz IFMA



ForewordRegardless of the size and scope of an organization, the shared responsibility of creating and imple-menting focused, well-de�ned sustainability strategies is the right thing to do for the environment, for the communities in which they are implemented and for the individuals who live and work there.

In recent years the focus on the triple bottom line of people, planet and pro�t has evolved from a fad of early adopters to the mainstream of standard business practices. Private entities are looking for competitive advantages in green markets while federal, state and local governments are increasingly applying regulatory constraints on design, construction and facility operations standards.

With this change has come renewed focus on �nding people with necessary knowledge and skills. In fact, while technology continues to improve at staggering rates, it is the facility management (FM) pro-fessional who has the most critical part to play in choosing and operating that technology in the �eld.

Modern FM professionals around the world must be able to clearly communicate the bene�ts and pos-itive economic impact of sustainability and energy-ef�cient practices to key stakeholders and decision makers. One way to accomplish this is to utilize rating systems, which are an optimal way to evaluate the performance of a facility. The rating systems reviewed in this document can provide a practical structure for FM professionals to achieve widespread and effective sustainability within their facilities by utilizing the system that best �ts their circumstances.

This document is the result of a collaboration between the International Facility Management Asso-ciation (IFMA) Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability Strategic Advisory Group and the IFMA Foundation working toward a shared goal of advancing sustainability knowledge on behalf of those responsible for its execution.

It is our hope that everyone who reads this report will join our efforts to advance sustainable practices. This resource is a good place to start. If you are interested in learning more, IFMAs fastest-growing professional credential — the Sustainability Facility Professional® (SFP®) — may be for you and your organization.

Tony Keane, CAEPresident and CEO

International Facility Management Association



IFMA Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability Strategic Advisory Group

I. Purpose

The Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability Strategic Advisory Group (ESS SAG) serves as an advisory resource for the integration of the ESS core competency into the practice of facility management. The ESS SAG is responsible for the production of IFMA’s Sustainability How-to Guide series.

II. Direction and Authority

The IFMA Board of Directors authorizes the ESS SAG, within the parameters of its role and respon-sibilities, to act in an advisory role to the board and the ESS community in the integration of ESS into the core competencies of the association.

III. Role and Responsibilities

Environmental stewardship and sustainability is a strategic theme and core competency of facility management that touches every aspect of the association. The primary responsibility of the ESS SAG is to further the development of the ESS competency area by acting in an advisory capacity with re-spect to the policies and strategies that pertain to IFMA’s performance as a sustainable organization, development of the ESS topical area within IFMA’s Online Community and input on the develop-ment of ESS as a core competency.

IV. Membership

SAG members include:* Bill Conley, IFMA Fellow, CFM, SFP, FMP, LEED AP; Laurie Gilmer, P.E., CFM, SFP, LEED AP; Christopher Laughman, CFM, SFP, LEED AP O+M; John Ringness, SFP, MRICS; Sheila Sheridan, IFMA Fellow, RCFM, LEED AP; Eric Teicholz, IFMA Fellow (SAG chair); Jenny M. Yeung, CFM, CEnv.

*as of June 2015

The general objectives of the How-to Guides series are:

1. To provide data associated with a wide range of subjects related to sustainability, energy savings and the built environment;

2. To provide practical information associated with how to implement the steps being recommended;

3. To present a business case and return-on-investment analysis wherever possible, justifying each green initiative being discussed;

4. To provide information on how to sell management on the implementation of the sustainability technology under discussion;



June 2015

IFMA Foundation 800 Gessner Road, Suite 900 Houston, Texas 77024-4257 USA Phone: +1-713-623-4362 www.ifmafoundation.org

The IFMA Foundation originated the Sustainability How-to Guide series. The ESS SAG took over production of the guides in 2014.

Established in 1990 as a non-profit, 501(c)(3) corporation, and separate entity from IFMA (the International Facility Management Association), the IFMA Foundation works for the public good to promote priority research and educational opportunities for the advancement of facility management. The IFMA Foundation is supported by the generosity of the FM community including IFMA members, chapters, councils, corporate sponsors and private contributors who share the belief that education and research improve the FM profession. To learn more about the IFMA Foundation, visit www.ifmafoundation.org.

2014 IFMA Foundation SponsorsMajor benefactors§ East Bay Chapter of IFMA § New York Chapter of IFMA

Platinum sponsor Global workplace workforce initiative underwriter§ A & A Maintenance § Manhattan Software, a Trimble Company

Gold sponsors§ ARAMARK § Atlanta Chapter of IFMA § AquaTech Water Management § Corporate Facilities Council of IFMA § Capital Chapter of IFMA § Milliken § Steelcase

Silver sponsors§ Denver Chapter of IFMA § San Francisco Chapter of IFMA

Bronze sponsors§ Boston Chapter of IFMA § Charlotte Chapter of IFMA § Corporate Real Estate Council of IFMA § CORT § ICS-Innovative Cleaning Services § Los Angeles Chapter of IFMA § Philadelphia Chapter of IFMA § San Fernando Valley Chapter of IFMA § Suncoast Chapter of IFMA § Utah Chapter of IFMA

Friends of the foundation§ City and County Clubs Council of IFMA § Greater Phoenix Chapter of IFMA § Nashville Chapter of IFMA



Many factors drive sustainability. Tenants and oc-cupants are starting to demand greener, cleaner buildings. Legislation is starting to mandate ener-gy ef�ciency and a curtailment of greenhouse-gas emissions. Code requirements dealing with light-ing density and light trespass dictate operational sustainability. Corporate directives are manifest in many decisions to go green. Senior executives are beginning to realize the cost bene�ts of sustain-able operations; the subsequent increase in build-ing valuation; and of being publicly recognized as a good corporate citizen.

According to statistics developed by the Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA), lighting associat-ed with commercial buildings accounts for close to 71 percent of overall lighting electricity used in the United States. It is the largest cost compo-nent of a commercial property’s electricity bill and a signi�cant portion of the total energy bill. With good design, lighting energy use in most buildings can be cut at least in half while maintaining or im-proving lighting quality. Lighting-electricity savings equates to an increase in net operating income (NOI) that drives favorable cap rates.

Updating an existing lighting system with the latest technology will make it more energy ef�cient while yielding cost savings. The aesthetic quality of the environment within a facility will be enhanced and productivity increased without sacri�cing lighting system performance. A lighting retro�t has the best return on investment (ROI) of any energy-ef-�cient technology. Based on cost of the upgrades versus energy saved by decreasing wattage, typ-ical payback periods range between 14 and 18 months. Once the payback is realized, the sav-ings will continue, creating a sound investment in the future. It must be understood, too, that energy savings should be monitored on a consumption level, not a dollar level. Energy costs �uctuate; the amount of energy saved is the telling measure.

Newer lighting technology also leads to decreased demand on heating, ventilating and air condition-ing (HVAC) systems. Lighting is the largest source of waste heat, also called heat gain, inside com-mercial buildings. In fact, for every 3 watts of lighting-load reduction, the air conditioning load required decreases by 1 watt. Lighting also affects the power quality of an electrical distribution sys-

tem in a facility. Poor power quality is a concern because it wastes energy, reduces electrical ca-pacity, and can harm equipment and the electrical distribution system. Upgrading with higher-ef�-ciency lighting systems can free up valuable elec-trical capacity.

Arti�cial lighting consumes a signi�cant part of all electrical energy consumed worldwide. In com-mercial buildings and of�ces, 35 to 50 percent of total energy consumed is due to lighting. Most im-portantly, for some buildings more than 90 percent of lighting energy consumed can be an unneces-sary expense through over illumination or misap-plication of lamp types. The cost of that lighting can be substantial. A single 100W incandescent light bulb used just six hours a day, with a utili-ty cost of US$0.10/kilowatt hours, can cost over US$25 per year.

Lighting represents a critical component of ener-gy use today, especially in large of�ce buildings. High-ef�ciency lighting systems reduce glare, which helps to reduce eyestrain, boosting oc-cupant productivity. Electronic ballasts do not �icker or hum like magnetic ballasts, improving the quality of the commercial facility environment. Proper lighting contributes to occupant comfort and productivity. Light levels need to be main-tained at certain levels for particular surfaces. For example, the number of foot-candles at the desktop level for proper work is different from the number of foot-candles needed at the �oor level to evacuate a building.

This guide has been written to explain the bene-�ts of investigating and upgrading lighting systems in and around facilities. Based on extensive re-search, input from lighting specialists and general experience, it provides a broad description of op-tions available to facility professionals to enhance

Part 1: Executive Summary

“Expand knowledge of the built environment, in a changing world, through scholarships, education and research.”-Vision of the IFMA Foundation



the indoor quality of buildings while saving energy, dollars and manpower to maintain proper lighting.

Detailed �ndings in this guide will serve as a refer-ence for standards and activities to help mitigate the costs and consumption of energy. It includes:

• Basic lighting concepts and terms

• Efforts on a global level to increase lighting ef-�ciency

• Lamp and ballast types

• The bene�ts of occupancy sensors and natural light

• Future technology for lighting solutions

• Lighting upgrades

This updated version will further address solid-state lighting, as well as outline the New ASHRAE Stan-dards 90.1 2010and 90.1 2013 and upcoming federal mandates on exterior lighting. The guide concludes with �ve case studies of lighting retro-�ts and a glossary of lighting terms.

Figure 1: Recommended foot-candle levelfor an of ce space

Arti�cial lighting consumes a signi�cant part of all electrical energy consumed worldwide. In com-mercial buildings and of�ces, 35 to 50 percent of all energy consumed is by lighting.

Foot-candles (FC) are a quantitative mea-surement to describe the total amount of light that actually strikes a work surface, �oor, wall or any single point of calculation. Foot-candles are measured with an illumi-nance meter, a device that measures the photometric rightness falling upon a surface.

One foot-candle is equivalent to the illuminance produced on 1 square foot (0.09 square meters) of surface area by a source of one candle at a dis-tance of 1 foot (0.3 meters). Horizontal foot-can-dles measure the illumination striking a horizontal plane. The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) has published a handbook with a comprehensive breakdown of appropriate foot-candle levels. A candela is the metric equivalent of the light output of that one candle, based on metric calculations.

Lux is the metric unit for illuminance. To convert foot-candles or candela to lux, simply multiply them by 10.76.

Illuminance is the light intensity measured on a plane at a speci�c location, measured in foot-candles or candela (lux). Illuminance is measured using an illuminance meter. Using simple arithmetic and manufacturers’ photo-metric data, illuminance can be predicted for a de�ned space.

1 lumen = the quantity of light falling on a 1 square foot area illuminated to 1 foot-candle





2.1 Background

Addressing lighting systems in a facility is one of the easiest ways to realize cost savings through energy ef�ciency and improve the quality of the in-door environment. A conversion from T12 lamps to high-performance T8 lamps could save up to 50 percent of energy consumption from lighting while providing better working conditions for building occupants. Based on a rate of US$0.10 per kilo-watt hour, savings could average up to US$0.17 a square foot (US$1.85/square meter). Increases in productivity and higher employee morale from proper lighting will feed directly to a company’s bottom line.

The critical success factors for a facility manager revolve around having satis�ed customers, cre-at¬ing positive visibility to upper management and providing measurable and measured results in op¬erations. Facility operations and projects should be planned and implemented so that they coincide with business issues and will always con-tribute to the bottom line, either directly or indi-rectly. Cost of ownership must be taken into con-sideration and attention must be paid to life cycle cost and life cycle assessment criteria. Every tool avail¬able to save money must be considered, re�ecting constant ef�ciency improvements and continued cost savings.

In true facility management fashion, the effect of any action must also be considered as a part of the whole. There are always rami�cations of what is done and how particular services are integrat-ed within a holistic view of operations. Operations and maintenance practices should utilize stan-dards, be proactive and re�ect strategic thinking. Facility profes¬sionals have a �duciary responsi-bility to supply optimum efforts and solutions that will bene�t both the company and its employees.

2.2 Lighting and Facility Management

All of the above responsibilities tie the facility stra-tegic plan to the organization’s strategic plan, and are satis�ed by sustainable operations and by com¬prehensive lighting solutions. One of the

In determining lighting design, there are a number of areas that should be included in an assessment based on areas which facility managers should be managing and directing.

• Illumination requirements are speci�ed for each given use area.

• Lighting quality is analyzed to ensure that components of lighting do not bias the design.

• Space planning and interior architecture are integrated with lighting design.

• Time-of-day use is utilized to minimize energy waste.

• Fixture and lamp types are selected to re�ect technology best available for energy conser-vation as well as being accessible in the mar-ket for replacement purposes.

• Building occupants are trained to use lighting equipment in the most ef�cient manner.

• Lighting systems are properly maintained through predictive and proactive programs.

• Man hours increasing replacement costs are minimized

• Plans are in place for disposal of lamps through a HAZMAT program.

• Natural light is utilized for optimum ef�ciency.

Not only are cost bene�ts and energy ef�cien-cy realized through these actions, but occupant comfort, improved productivity and decreased ab-sentee¬ism can be attributed directly to the quality of the indoor work environment, in which lighting plays a large part.

Illumination is the deliberate application of light to produce an aesthetic or practical effect in the workplace. It includes the use of both arti�-cial and natural light sources, such as lamps and daylight. Indoor lighting provided by electric lights repre¬sents a major component of energy con-sumption, accounting for a signi�cant part of en-ergy con¬sumption worldwide. Thus, the determi-nation of proper lamping is critical in fully serving the needs of the occupants.

Part 2: Introduction



Daylight can be introduced into the facility through windows, skylights and clerestories, and can be used as a major source of light, diminishing en-ergy consumption. Proper lighting can enhance task performance and the look and feel of a fa-cility. Improper lighting leads to energy waste, in-creased cost, adverse occu¬pant health and ad-verse environmental impacts. Using more ef�cient lighting solutions reduces the amount of electricity that must be generated by electrical utilities. By reducing electricity con-sumption, the generation of sulfur dioxide and ni¬trogen oxides is reduced, both of which contribute to smog and acid rain. By leveraging environmen¬tally conscious lighting solutions, occupant satis¬faction and facility aes-thetics will be maintained or improved, while the environmental footprint of the facility is decreased.

Recommended Indoor Light Levels

According to the Illuminating Engineering Soci-ety (IES), outdoor light level is approximately 929 foot-candles (10,000 lux) on a clear day. Near the windows in a building, the light level may be approximately 93 foot-candles (1,000 lux). In the center of a building, away from windows, lighting levels may be as low as 2.3 to 4.6 foot-candles (25 to 50 lux). Lighting must often be added to in-crease indoor lighting levels to 46 to 93 foot-can-dles (500 to 1,000 lux), depending on the activity.

For instance, in a warehouse scenario only about 24 footcandles are needed to illuminate the space. In an of�ce setting, 32-34 footcandles at

the desktop level is recommended. In areas that entail more detailed work, up to 72 footcandles are needed. Through the use of photometrics and dimmable ballasts these light levels can be attained and maintained, utilizing available natural light.

The ideal situation is to have a perfect balance of (natural) light and interior lighting to provide ap-propriate illumination while minimizing energy use.



3.1 Lighting DesignImproved lighting enhances visual comfort, re¬duces eye fatigue and improves performance of visual tasks. Well-designed lighting can in-crease productivity and reduce absenteeism. Most light¬ing upgrades are cost effective based on energy savings alone. However, as the costs associated with a building’s occupants greatly outweighs building-operational costs, any lighting change that improves the indoor environmental quality is worth implementing. Upgrading lighting systems with ef�cient light sources, �xtures and controls can provide several bene�ts:

• Enhanced aesthetics

• Reduced lighting-energy use

• Improved visual environment

• Reduced cooling load,

potentially allowing smaller HVAC and electrical systems to be installed

There are several strategies available to minimize lighting-energy requirements in any building. A study must be done to determine the illumina-tion requirements for each use area within the build¬ing. This requires an analysis of lighting quality to ensure that glare and/or an incorrect color spec¬trum are not adversely affecting the occupants of the area. Space planning, interior architecture and paint palettes must be integrated with lighting design to ensure that competing fac-tors are not evident and that the area and lighting solutions complement each other. Time-of-day scheduling should also be utilized to minimize en-ergy usage. This can be accomplished automat-ically by using a real-time sensor as part of the building automa¬tion system (BAS), or can be performed manually.

The positive ef¬fects of natural daylight are part of a total lighting solution and natural light should be used as a substitute for arti�cial light whenever possible. Access to daylight and windows through of�ce con�gurations and the use of low partitions and/or glass walls; full utilization of existing and/or new skylights; and clerestories improve the quality of the workspace.

Fixtures and lamp types should be chosen to re-�ect the best available technology for lighting re-quirements as well as energy conservation. Eval-uation of current materials and ef�ciencies may provide cost-effective chang¬es that can rectify poor performance in the lighting system. A pre-ventive and proactive maintenance program for lighting systems should be implemented to min-imize energy waste; for example, a scheduled group re-lamping process.

Change management is an important part of the process. It’s extremely important that building oc¬cupants are trained to utilize lighting equip-ment in the most ef�cient manner. If occupancy sensors or scheduled shut-offs are not in place, it is imperative that personnel understand the need to turn off lights when they are not in use.

The speci�cation of illumination requirements is a basic concept of deciding how much illumination is required for a given task (see Table 2). As shown in Table 2, different lighting levels are required to illuminate different spaces. For example, a hallway requires a different lighting level than an of�ce or a workstation. Historically, a lighting engineer simply applied the same level of illumi¬nation design to all parts of the building without considering usage. This resulted in over-lighting or under-lighting por-tions of the facility. Generally speaking, the energy expended is proportional to the design illumination level. For example, a lighting level of 75 foot-can-dles (807 lux) might be chosen for a work environ-ment with meeting and conference rooms, where-as 35 foot-candles (377 lux) could be selected for hallways.

Part 3: Detailed Findings



If the different lighting levels for space uses were not accommodated, the hallway lighting level would be the same as the conference rooms. As a result, over twice the amount of energy need-ed would be consumed for hallway lighting. There are areas in many facilities that do not fall under the same criteria as of�ces. These would include warehouses and spaces such as labs, conference rooms and videoconference rooms. Each needs to be treated based on lighting needs for the work performed.

Most of the lighting standards in recent histo-ry have been speci�ed by industrial groups who manufacture and sell lighting, so that a historical commercial bias exists in designing most building lighting, especially in of�ce and industrial settings. Beyond the energy factors being considered, it is important not to overdesign illumination. Energy could be wasted by over illumination. Additionally, over illumination can lead to adverse health and psychological effects such as headache frequen¬-cy, stress and increased blood pressure. Also, glare can decrease worker ef�ciency.

The average commercial facility is full of oppor-tu¬nities to analyze, redesign or replace outmod-ed lighting systems with more ef�cient lighting tech¬nologies, such as T8 �uorescent lamps, electronic ballasts, compact �uorescent lamps, LEDs, light¬ing controls and occupancy sensors. The substi¬tution in warehouses of T5 �uorescent bulbs or induction lighting for metal halide lamps are also possibilities that should be investigated. Entry and exit lighting must be addressed, as well as proper illumination and energy savings options for park¬ing lots, parking structures and pedestri-an paths.

3.1.1 E�ective Lighting Measures

Lamps, commonly called light bulbs, are the re-movable and replaceable portion of a luminaire that converts electrical energy to both visible and non-visible electromagnetic energy. Com¬mon characteristics used to evaluate lamp quality in-clude ef�ciency measured in lumens per watt, typical lamp life measured in hours and color ren-dering index (CRI) on a scale of 0 to 100. Cost of replacement lamps is also an important factor in design. There are a number of measures that can be implemented in a facility that will upgrade lighting quality and improve energy ef�ciency and costs related to the overall lighting system.

Table 1: Lighting Levels by Activity



3.1.2 Lighting and Global StandardsUnited States

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) re-quires that all states adopt a building standard as stringent as ASHRAE 90.1. ASHRAE 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residen-tial Buildings is a baseline standard that includes criteria for ef�cient lighting systems. ASHRAE 90.1 is typically used as a standard within local build-ing codes and is also referenced in LEED® cer-ti�cation guidelines. Given the wide acceptance of ASHRAE 90.1, sustainable lighting systems are gauged by how their performance compares to ASHRAE 90.1. In 2004, ASHRAE 90.1-2004 was updated to permit a maximum of 1.0 watt per square foot (0.09 W/m2) for commer¬cial of�ce buildings. The prior version of the stan¬dard al-lowed 1.3 watts per square foot (0.11 watts per square meter). ASHRAE 90.1 is a standard devel-oped by the American Society of Heating, Refrig-erating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). The standard is continually updated (Muszynski 2008).

ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 2010 has now been introduced and has been accepted and endorsed by the Federal Government. This version rep-resents the most dramatic revision of the standard since 1999. The 2010 version addresses allowed lighting power and requirements to install light-ing controls to a new level, intending to achieve dramatic energy savings and the ultimate goal of net-zero buildings. According to the Department of Energy (DOE) commercial buildings designed (or retro�tted) to ASHRARE/IES 90.1 2010 are ex-pected to realize a 32.6 percent site energy sav-ings and 30.1 percent energy cost savings com-pared to buildings compliant with ASHRAE/IES 90.1 2004.

Traditionally, 90.1 has covered new construction and major renovations. However, 90.1 2010 now explicitly covers “maintenance-like” lamp plus bal-last retro�ts in both indoor and outdoor applica-tions. Speci�cally, if a retro�t representing 10 per-cent or more of existing �xtures is implemented, compliance with 90.1 2010 is mandatory.

• Other areas impacted by ASHRAE/IES 90.1 2010 require:

• Automatic shut off of indoor/outdoor lighting

• Required for lamp/ballast retro�ts of 10 per-

cent or more

• Broader use of occupancy sensors

• Manual-on or auto-on to 50 percent

• Multilevel lighting in spaces with manual con-trols

• Automatic multilevel lighting in certain stair-wells, parking structures

• Automatic daylight harvesting

• Power credits for utilizing advanced control strategies

• Documentation: control narrative and mainte-nance schedule

Most recently, ASHRAE 90.1 2013 has been in-troduced, in which interior lighting power densities are again lowered but there is also a strong focus on day-lighting requirements to achieve energy ef�ciency goals. It includes signi�cant revisions to building envelope, lighting, and mechanical appli-ances requirements, making the standard 40 to 50 percent more stringent than the 2004 version, according to ASHRAE. The standard includes more intense space-by-space lighting power den-sity limits and thresholds for top lighting.

The new standard contains over one hundred (100) changes from the 2010 version. Fenestration requirements now require double-glazing in many climates and establish a minimum visible transmit-tance/solar heat gain coef�cient (VT/SHGC) ratio to allow daylighting with minimum solar gain.

The 2013 standard will likely take a few years to become widely used. ASHRAE 90.1-2010 is ref-erenced in LEED version 4 and standards 90.1-2007 and 90.1-2004 are still commonly used in local building codes

One of the greatest opportunities in the United States for reducing energy use is by retro�tting existing buildings with more energy-ef�cient sys-¬tems. This is re�ected by the passage of the En¬ergy Independence and Security Act of 2007, also known as the Clean Energy Act of 2007. This act sets energy policy for the United States. It out¬lines revised standards for appliances and light¬ing, requiring approximately 200 percent greater ef�ciency of light bulbs by the year 2020.



Europe

Europe has also implemented regulations and leg-islation dealing with this lighting ef�ciency. The Eu-ropean Parliament and Council Directive 2000/55/EC of Sept.18, 2000, includes energy ef�ciency requirements for ballasts for �uorescent lighting (Of�cial Journal L 279 of 01.11.2000), improving energy ef�ciency to meet three goals of energy policy: security of supply, competitiveness (by consolidating competitive positions) and protec-tion of the environment (by reducing carbon di-oxide emissions). The direc¬tive will allow harmo-nization at community levels to prevent potential barriers to trade (Europe’s Energy Portal 2009).

Under the SAVE Programme, the European Com¬mission has investigated potential lighting energy ef�ciency improvements. A study carried out for the European Commission concluded that pro¬duction of performance standards for �uo-rescent lamp ballasts would be one of the most effective actions the community could take to re-duce light¬ing energy consumption in commercial buildings. Since �uorescent lighting accounts for a signi�¬cant share of electricity consumption, and various �uorescent ballast models available in the market have different consumption levels, the Directive proposes standardization of ballasts, improving energy ef�ciency and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Implementing the recommen-dations of this study is expected to have a limited impact on the industry, as a long transition period is planned (Europe’s Energy Portal 2009).

The directive applies to electric mains-operat-ed ballasts for �uorescent lighting. The member states must take all necessary measures to ensure that ballasts covered by the Directive are placed on the market and put into service only if their power consumption is less than or equal to the maximum allowable power consumption for the category, calculated in accordance with stated procedures. Manufacturers of ballasts covered by the Directive are responsible for ensuring that ev¬ery ballast placed on the market complies with the Directive power consumption requirements. Ad¬ditionally, when ballasts are placed on the market they must bear the CE or ec marking. A CE or ec marking is a con�rmative mark to symbolize that the prod-uct meets the “essential requirements” set by the Directive for the European Economic Area (Sum-maries of EU Legislation 2005; Europe’s Energy

Portal 2009).

At the Dec. 8, 2008, meeting of the Ecode¬sign Regulatory Committee, European Union (EU) Member States’ experts endorsed the Europe-an Commission’s draft regulation to progressive-ly phase out incandescent bulbs. The regulation would start in 2009 and end at the end of 2012. This regulation would reduce energy consump-tion by almost 40 TWh, roughly the electricity con¬sumption of Romania, 11 million European house¬holds or the equivalent of the yearly output of 10 power stations of 500 megawatts. This ener-gy reduction would lead to a reduction of about 15 million tons (13.6 metric) of carbon dioxide emis¬-sion per year (Europe’s Energy Portal 2009).

On Sept. 26, 2012, the European Commission published a new Commission Delegated Regula-tion (874/2012) concerning lamps and luminaires supplementing directive 2010/30/EU. In practice, the new regulation widens the scope of energy la-beling to include all electric lamps and luminaires. Due to this new requirement, changes have been made in regard of the content and use of the ener-gy labeling. Requirements of the Regulation shall be applied for �lament, �uorescent, high-intensity discharge and LED lamps and modules and lumi-naires. The form and content of the new energy labeling depends on the lamp type or construction of the luminaire and requires information of lamp compatibility (lamp type and suitable lamp energy classes) energy consumption and the energy ef�-ciency class of the accompanying lamp.

With global warming and climate change now a reality, many countries across the world are devel-oping their LED industry as part of their national strategies. On Dec. 14, 2012, the European Union of�cially published the commission regulation (EU) No 1194/2012 with regard to ecodesign require-ments for directional lamp and LED lamps. Ac-cording to this regulation, the commission has to, as appropriate, introduce implementing measures starting with those products that offer a high po-tential for cost-effective reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, such as lighting products in both the domestic and tertiary sectors, which include directional lamps, light-emitting diode lamps and related equipment.



Australia and New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand are also enacting leg-islation to reduce electrical consumption through lighting. Lighting generates almost 25 million tons of greenhouse emissions each year in Australia. It is responsible for about a third of the greenhouse emissions from the commercial sector, and is a signi�cant contributor to both residential and in-dustrial sector emissions. Light¬ing also costs more than AU$2 billion annually. These statistics clearly illustrate why improving the ef�ciency with which Australians use energy is a priority of the Ministerial Council on Energy (MCE).

Greenlight Australia is a 10-year strategy to reduce lighting energy consumption. It is part of a package of measures being implemented under the Nation-al Framework for Energy Ef�ciency and is the out-come of consultations with stakehold¬ers in both Australia and New Zealand. These extensive con-sultations determined which light¬ing technolo-gies and market sectors should be included in the framework, voluntary and manda¬tory measures, and priority areas and products targeted for action in the �rst three years.

The Greenlight Australia program has the support of both industry and government. The long-term strategy to improve the energy ef�ciency of light-ing sets immediate and future priorities for consid-eration of speci�c lighting products. The Lighting Council of Australia supports the strategy, and has suggested a target of 20 percent reduction in en-ergy usage over business as usual over the course of the strategy.

Greenlight Australia will improve the ef�ciency of all lighting equipment, including lamps, ballasts, transformers and luminaires, in the residential, commercial, industrial and public lighting sec-tors. The framework also broadly considers light-ing controls, including dimmers and timers, and light¬ing design. It will include a maximum illumi-nation power density for interior spaces in com-mercial buildings; make concessions for intelligent light¬ing controls; set the criteria for mandato-ry time switches or occupancy sensors for large spaces; and establish minimum ef�cacy and sens-ing re¬quirements for exterior lighting (Greenlight Australia 2004).

3.1.3 Lighting TypesFluorescent Lamp Development

Developments in lighting technologies over the last 10 years have created the possibilities of reducing lighting costs by as much as 30 to 50 percent and total facility energy consumption and costs by up to 20 to 25 percent. When used with high-ef�ciency electronic ballasts, T8 �uorescent bulbs can reduce total system wattage by 45 per-cent, when compared to T12 bulbs with magnetic ballasts, the reduction can be as much as 20 to 30 percent, relative to the use of older T8 lamps and electronic ballasts. In fact, major lighting man-ufacturers are now on their seventh generation of high-ef�ciency T8 lamps. If a building was built, or a lighting upgrade performed, more than �ve years ago, signi�cant cost savings are likely. It has frequently been found that the less expensive and less effective T8 lamps are being used primarily because the purchasing department has a prear-ranged buying agreement or a lighting contractor installed the least expensive lamp. An upgrade of old lighting systems to state-of-the-art energy-ef�-cient solutions can cut operating costs, save ener-gy and contribute to an organization’s perception as an environmentally responsible good corporate citizen.

Figure 2: Flourescent Tube



T8 bulbs have continued to improve. Originally the standard replacement for the T12 was the 32-watt T8. Over time, a 30-watt long-life lamp that pro-vided comparable light output, with a 20 percent extended life, was introduced. Later, a 28-watt bulb that offered an additional 6 percent energy savings was introduced. The 28 watt bulb offered a higher output and longer lamp life, and provided an option to minimize the number of lamps per �xture. The newest improvement is the 25-watt lamp. Although the 25-watt lamp does not pro-duce as much light as a standard T8, it has an extended life.

The older 700 series T8 lamps are as common today as T12 lamps were in the past. Price is very low and they can be found in most hardware and home improvement stores. One reason contrac-tors sometimes provide these types of lamps for a facility is due to their accessibility and low initial cost. The perception that these ‘new’ lamps will save more energy may be misleading. High-per-formance 800 series T8 lamps are typically only stocked by lighting and electrical distributors. Large distributors may carry complete lines of all lamp types mentioned above, so lighting speci�-cations must be carefully documented to imple-ment the optimal solution.

The bene�ts of lighting retro�ts include energy ef�-ciency and cost savings which, when utilized with available utility rebates, will minimize the time for payback on the project. Above and beyond that, retro�ts will continue payback through energy sav-ings, longer lamp and ballast life, and improved illumination. Finally, the decrease in wattage from lighting decreases the HVAC cooling load to a space. Every watt of lighting reduced equals 0.33 watt less cooling needed, decreasing cooling costs.

There are still more than 1 billion T12 lamps in use in the United States utilizing magnetic ballasts. Ballast replacement should also be considered as part of any lighting retro�t. Replacing magnetic ballasts with basic electronic ballasts can save an additional 10 percent of energy consumption, with an even greater savings when premium electronic ballasts are used. The change to T8 bulbs with electronic ballasts can achieve an almost 50 per-cent reduc¬tion in energy usage. Changing out a

32 watt T8 to a 25 watt lamp will also generate savings. Ballasts can also be upgraded. Upgrades can include instant start ballasts for dimming and sen¬sor use or power shed ballasts to coincide with demand-response programs.

Retro�tting older 1.5-inch diameter (38 millime-ter) T12 �uorescent �xtures with energy-ef�cient T8 �xtures and installing electronic ballasts is of primary importance. T8s are high-ef�ciency lamps that are thinner in diameter, have a higher ef�cacy (lumens per watt) rating and better color rendering than T12 lamps. Depending on the ballast used, the T8 lamp often delivers the same lumen output while consuming 20 to 40 percent fewer watts. T8s last longer and require less maintenance over the useful life of the lamp. As the light qual¬ity is also better, fewer �xtures per unit area are needed, making de-lamping possible. De-lamping is the removal of one or more �uorescent tubes from an existing ballast where lighting levels are too high, reducing the total wattage. De-lamping and the use of re�ectors in overhead �xtures can reduce energy costs by 33 to 50 percent.

T12 bulbs with magnetic ballasts are being re-placed with T8 lamps with electronic ballasts as the industry standard because they can save a signi�cant amount of electricity, reducing costs from about 40 to 50 percent. Technological ad-vances in the last 10 years have allowed for the 32 watt T8 to replace the T12, previously the most popular bulb used. The T8 has several advantag-es over the T12:

• Color rendering index (CRI) from 75 to 90

• High system ef�cacy of about 90 lumens per watt when used with an electronic ballast

• Smaller bulb diameter than the T12

• T8 has a 1-inch (25 millimeter) diameter bulb

• T12 has a 1.5-inch (38 millimeter) diameter bulb

• Lower amount of phosphors within the bulb



3.1.4 Ballasts

All lamps, except incandescent lamps, require a ballast (Gordon 2003). A ballast limits the cur-rent �owing through the lamp at a constant value (Hughes 1988). Electronic ballasts take advan-tage of the higher ef�cacy of lamps operated with higher current and use solid-state components to transform voltage. A ballast also changes the frequency of the power of the current from 60 to 20,000 Hertz or higher, depending on the ballast

characteristics. This frequency change greatly reduces �icker in the lamp due to burn in or im-proper power. Functioning more ef�ciently and cooler than a magnetic ballast, an electronic bal-last does not use coils and electromagnetic �elds. Operating at roughly 140 to 160°Fahrenheit (60 to 71°Celsius), magnetic ballasts run warmer than electronic ballasts that operate about 10 degrees higher than ambient temperature.

Figure 3: Electronic ballast

To get high output performance out of a T8 �xture, the lamps need to be combined with T8s with high ballast factor. This combination will safely overdrive the lamp output by an additional 12 to 15 percent and provide the highest lumen per watt ratio cur-rently available on the market today. Every ballast has a ballast factor, the ratio of lamp lumens gen-erated on commercial ballasts to those generated on test-quality ballasts, of either low, normal or high (Hughes 1998).Common ballast factors are 0.77, 0.87, 1.0 and 1.15.



Ballast Types

Rapid-start ballasts: Rapid-start ballasts are predominantly used for T12 lamps. They start the lamps quickly, usually within 0.5 to 1.0 seconds, without �icker or a strobe effect. The lamp is started by heating the lamp electrodes and si-multaneously applying a starting voltage of about 500 volts. The electrodes are continually heated during lamp operation, consuming 2 watts per lamp. As lamps within rapid-start ballasts are wired in a series, one failure will affect all lamps in the series. Lamps operated on rapid-start bal-lasts typically fail after 15,000 to 20,000 on/off switching cycles.

Instant-start ballasts: Instant-start ballasts are typ-ically used with T8 lamps. They start the lamps without cathode heating with minimum delay, less than 0.1 seconds, or �icker. The starting voltage of 600 volts is suf�cient to start the lamp without the need to heat the lamp electrodes, which max-imizes energy savings. Instant-start ballasts do not require the electrode to be continually heated during lamp operation. Therefore, compared to rapid-start ballasts, instant start ballasts save 2 watts per lamp. Instant-start ballasts are wired in parallel, so if one lamp fails, it does not affect any

others. Lamps operated on instant-start ballasts will fail after 10,000 to 15,000 on/off switching cy-cles.

Programmed-start ballasts: Programmed-start ballasts can be used with both T8 and T5 lamps to provide a controlled lamp starting sequence. They start quickly, within 1.0 to 1.5 seconds, without �icker. The starting voltage is 320 volts and ramps up to 700 volts until the lamp strikes. The elec-trodes are precisely heated to 1,292°Fahrenheit (700º Celsius) by tightly controlling the preheat du-ra¬tion before applying the starting voltage. This process minimizes the stress on the electrode and reduces emitter depletion. The ballasts are wired in series, so one failure affects other lamps in the �xture. Parallel wiring for programmed start bal-lasts is in development. Programmed-start bal-lasts provide maximum lamp life of up to 50,000 on/off switching cycles for frequent starting ap-plications. Programmed-start ballasts are recom-mended for installations using occupancy sensors and electronic dim¬ming ballasts.

3.1.5 Solid State Lighting (SSL)

Solid state lighting (SSL) is a type of lighting that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) or polymer light-emit-ting diodes (PLED) as illumination sources, as op¬posed to electrical �laments, gas or plasma (used in arc lamps such as �uorescent lamps). Solid state refers to the fact that light in an LED is emit¬ted from a solid object, a block of semicon-ductor, rather than from a vacuum or gas tube, as is the case in traditional incandescent and �uores-cent lamps. Compared to incandescent lighting, SSL creates visible light with reduced heat gener-ation or parasitic energy dissipation, similar to that of �uorescent lighting. In addition, the solid-state na¬ture provides greater resistance to shock, vi-bration and wear. This increases the lifespan of the lamps signi�cantly. Solid state lighting is often used in traf�c lights and is also used frequently in vehicle lights, train marker lights and remote con-trols.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

The emergence of ef�cient and increasingly af-fordable LED devices signals a shift in lighting technology. Major government-sponsored indus-



try consortia currently exist and are being formed in Europe, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. The goal of these efforts is to save energy and gain market share in the emerging SSL industry. It is believed that there is a need for a national initiative to devel-op SSL. Such an initiative would reduce the need for new power plants, hasten¬ing the day in which consumers will bene�t from reduced energy and environmental costs of solid-state lighting. The LED is an environmentally friendly option for many lighting needs. A single kilowatt hour of electric-ity will generate 1.34 pounds (0.6 kilograms) of carbon dioxide emissions. Assuming the average lightbulb is on for 10 hours a day, a single 40-watt incandescent bulb will generate 196 pounds (89 kilograms) of carbon dioxide every year. The elec-tricity needed to operate a 13-watt LED equiva-lent will result in the emission of 63 pounds (29 kilograms) of carbon dioxide over the same time span. A building’s carbon footprint from lighting can be reduced by 68 percent by exchanging all incandescent bulbs for new LEDs.

Figure 4: Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

LEDs can emit light of an intended color with-out the use of color �lters that traditional lighting meth¬ods require. They also light up very quickly and are ideal for use in applications that are sub-ject to frequent on-off cycling. Comparing LEDs to other lighting options, �uorescent lamps tend to burn out more quickly when cycled frequently and

HID lamps require a long time before restarting. LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or by lowering the forward cur-rent. In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radi-ate very little heat in the form of infrared (IR) that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED. LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt burnout of in¬-candescent bulbs, and they have a relatively long useful life. Estimates from 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life have been reported (Wotton 2009), although time to complete failure of the lamp may be longer. CFL lamps are typically rated at about 6,000 to 10,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs are rated at 750 to 2,500 hours.

3.1.6 Daylighting

Greater reliance on natural light reduces energy consumption, favorably impacts human health and improves workplace and academic performance. For example, it is clear that student test scores are higher when children learn in environments with greater amounts of natural light. Based on re¬-search at Carnegie Mellon University and others, daylighting appears to improve productivity and reduce absenteeism by at least 20 percent. Sim-ple calculations show that a 20 percent increase in productivity by an employee making US$50,000 annually yields US$10,000 to the company.

Daylight also bene�ts employees in the workplace. Sunlight generally makes people happier and more energetic, as it provides a vital boost of vi¬tamin D and serotonin, both of which affect mood and the enjoyment of life.

Daylight zones are increasing being determined by codes and standards, most notably the ICC’s 2012 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), ASHRAE/IES 90.1-2010 & 2013, ASHRAE 189.1-2011 and California’s Title 24-2008. These codes and standards all require that daylight zones be established and that general lighting in these zones be separately controlled from other lighting.

Some codes and standards, speci�cally ASHRAE/IES 90.1 2013 and California Title 24- also estab-lish secondary daylight codes.



The zones are de�ned as:

• Primary zone: 15 feet from window

• Secondary zone: 15-25 feet from window

• Daylight zone under skylights

• Daylight zone adjacent to clerestories

• Separate controls from other lighting

• Perimeter lighting in parking garages

Figure 5: Daylighting

Skylights

Skylights are horizontal windows or domes placed at the roof of buildings, often used for daylight-ing. Skylights admit more light per unit area than win¬dows, and distribute the light more evenly over the space. Skylight materials are lightweight so they don’t add to the structural load on the roof. Manufacturers refer to types of skylights by their glazing, a general term used to describe how a skylight or window is constructed.

Skylights are typically constructed with either plas-tic or glass, and those options will rely on several factors, such as climate, where within the facil-ity they will be placed and pricing. Acrylic plas-tics are a popular choice for skylight materials. Polycarbonate plastics, another option, are 200 times stronger than glass, which makes them a durable choice. Plastic skylights shaped into a dome are structurally stronger than �at skylights, which is why many skylights have a domed shape. These skylights also are able to expand and con-tract more easily with weather changes than a �at shape, which can be rigid.

Plastic glazing for skylights is less expensive than glass, yet it is more susceptible to wear and will scratch, discolor or warp easily. And unless the plastic is coated with a special �lm, these kinds of glazes let in dangerous ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun, which can harm people’s skin and fade furniture, too.

Glass made for skylights must be made of safety glazing material, which means it has either been tempered or laminated. Tempered glass is glass that has undergone a process to make the ma-terial much harder than normal glass. As a result, when it breaks it shatters into small pebble-like pieces with no sharp edges. Laminated glass is made with a thin layer of plastic sandwiched be-tween two pieces of glass.

Most lighting specialists believe that the optimum material to use for skylights is a white translu-cent acrylic. This material is a Lambertian diffuser, meaning that the light trans¬mitted through the skylight is perfectly diffused and distributed evenly over the area the light hits.

The EPA, through its ENERGY STAR® program, has established minimum energy performance rating criteria by climate for labeling energy-ef-�cient skylights. Various glazing techniques can increase a facility’s energy ef�ciency. Tinted glass can absorb heat and reduce the solar heat gain coef�cient (SHGC), a measure of the amount of heat from sunlight a window or skylight blocks. A skylight with a high SHGC, for instance, would be best to have for colder winters, while a skylight with a low SHGC is better at blocking heat during hot summers.

The optimum number of skylights, usually quan-ti¬�ed as effective aperture, varies based on cli-mate, latitude and characteristics of the skylight. How¬ever, 4 to 8 percent of the �oor area is a good rule of thumb to determine the optimum number of skylights for a space. A skylight’s po-sition should also be considered in order to max-imize day-lighting and/or passive solar heating potential. Skylights on roofs that face north pro-vide fairly constant but cool illumination. Those on east-facing roofs provide maximum light and solar heat gain in the morning. West-facing sky-lights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain. South-facing skylights provide the greatest po-tential for desirable winter passive solar heat gain than any other location, but often allow unwanted heat gain in the summer.



There are also low-emissivity (low-E) coatings on skylights, microscopically thin layers of metal spread over one or more of a skylight’s panes. A low-E coating reduces the U-factor of a skylight — the amount of non-solar heat allowed in. The lower the U-factor, the more ef�cient the window.

Figure 6: Skylight

Some of the major advantages of skylights are:

• Interior blinds, shades and exterior heat-block awnings can be installed at the skylight to control heat loss and heat gain.

• Properly designed skylights are very energy ef�cient (Murdoch 2003).

• Skylights are not dependent on building ori-entation, but location of skylights can be op-timized

• Fixed and vented modules are available with a large selection of glass.

• Electrochromatic glazing can allow the occu-pant to darken or lighten the glass using a re-mote control, without losing a view of the sky.

• Some dual pane, argon gas-injected, low-e glass models are ENERGY STAR quali�ed. These models also block UV rays from the sun that can fade furniture.

3.1.7 MeasurementTypical Cost of Light

Building Information

• 6,000 square foot space (557 square meters)

• Average lighting plan with 120 �xtures, 12 rows, 10 �xtures per row

• Two T8 lamps per �xture, total = 240 lamps

Cost

• Cost of electricity = US$2,680/year

• Lamp replacement cost = US$72/year

• Ballast replacement cost = US$120/year

• Labor to replace lamps cost = US$300/year

• Labor to replace ballasts cost = US$96/year

• Disposal of lamps = US$24/year

TOTAL = US$3,292

The number of lamps required to achieve the desired lighting level is an important factor when upgrading a lighting system. As a general rule, a four-lamp T5 HO �xture will replace a standard 400 watt HID �xture on a one for one basis. This update will also improve light levels and reduce energy consumption by 40 to 50 percent.

If T8 lamps were used, instead of the 400 watt HID �xtures, six T8 800 high-lumen or high-per-formance series lamps with high ballast factor bal-lasts would be needed to achieve the same result.

RULE OF THUMB

(RATED LAMP LUMENS) X (BALLAST FACTOR) = LIGHT OUTPUT

Building Description

• 10,000 square foot (929 square meters) area with a 12 foot (3.7 meters) ceiling



Standard Design

• 56 standard 32 watt ceiling mounted lamps

• Illumination = 30 footcandles (323 lux)

• Ballast factor = 0.87

Ef�cient Design

• 36 high lumen 32 watt lamps

• Illumination = 30 footcandles (323 lux)

• Ballast factor = 1.15

The ef�cient design will generate the same level of light using fewer �xtures. Eliminating 20 �xtures from the design saves construction, maintenance, lamp replacement and energy costs.

The more starts to which a lamp is subjected, the shorter the lamp life will be. The choice of the proper ballast will make a signi�cant difference in lamp longevity.

Kelvin

A numerical measurement expressed on the Kel-vin (K) scale to describe the color appearance of light produced and of the lamp itself.

Lamps are categorized as warm, neutral or cool, based on how the light source appears visually. Warm, soft-light sources will have a lower color temperature of 3500K or less. Warm lamps will appear in the red-yellow color range. Warm light sources are traditionally used for applications where warm colors or earth tones dominate the environment, and provide a feeling of comfort, co-ziness and relaxation.

Neutral sources, between 3500K and 4100K, will appear to be more yellow. As the color tem-perature increases, the lamp becomes more blue, sometimes called “hard’ light. Lamps with a color temperature of 5000K are considered cool light sources and are described as pure white light or full spectrum. Cool light sources have high color rendering capabilities. Cool light sources are tra-ditionally used when there is a need to enhance all colors equally, to help increase productivity and reduce errors within the of�ce environment, and to create a more natural, day-lit feel in an indoor

environment.

3.2 Reduction Strategies

3.2.1 Wash and Re-Lamp Procedures

Wash and re-lamp procedures are an effective cost-savings strategy. Light output from �uores¬-cent lights will decrease in brightness and white¬-ness over time, lamp lumen depreciation, prior to the lamp burning out. The wash and re-lamp pro-cedure includes preventive maintenance to clean the interior surface of each �xture and eliminate the labor of replacing lamps one by one. Part of a preventive maintenance program includes clean-ing lighting �xtures and re�ectors to remove built-up dust or debris that can absorb light and heat. Clean �xtures run cooler, last longer and provide higher lighting levels. When cleaning, consider group re-lamping, replacing lamps in batches rath-er than intermittently as they fail. Schedul¬ing the replacement of lamps in conjunction with washing the �xtures saves maintenance time, allowing two activities to be completed at one time. While lamp lifes vary, group relamping cycles for linear �uores-cent lamps are should be planned for every four(4) to �ve (5) years.

That time span is based on a typical 20,000 hour lamp lifetime, which is when, based on manufac-turer speci�cations, 50 percent of the lamps will have burned out. An example would be that at 70 percent of that time, based on 3,000 burn hours per year, a cycle of 4.7 years can be derived. A carefully planned re-lamping schedule allows for the repair or replacement of defective parts in a �x¬ture, such as sockets and ballasts, and can assist budgeting future costs more accurately. Group re-lamping can be sequenced as needed to accommodate business operations, minimizing inconvenience and interrup¬tions and mitigating occupant complaints.

When it is time to re-lamp, while lamp lives vary, group relamping cycles for linear �uores-cent lamps are often spaced about four to �ve years apart. That calculation is based on a typi-cal 20,000-hour-lamp lifetime which is when (by de�nition) 50 percent of lamps will have burned out. At 70 percent of that time, for example, and 3,000 annual burn hours, a cycle of 4.7 years can be derived (see http://www.facilitiesnet.com/lighting/article/Group-Relamping-All-Together-Now--6481#). It is crucial to remem¬ber to main-



tain the same or equal performance as the original installation. If a high-lumen/high-per-formance T8 lamp was used, 8 to 10 percent lu¬men deprecia-tion will occur at the end of lamp life. If re-lamping is done with less expensive 700 se¬ries T8 lamps, the lighting level will be lower prior to re-lamping. A standard 700 series T8 starts out with 15 per-cent less lumens compared to an 800 series T8. This means a 5 percent decrease in lighting level may occur and desired energy savings may not be achieved. Conversely, if a facility currently uses 700 series lamps, upgrading to a higher standard makes sense because the lumen depreciation will be less and ef�ciency will be increased.

Installing longer life bulbs during group re-lamp-ing means less maintenance. Utilizing lower watt bulbs can generate the same light level while con-suming less energy. Using fewer lamps per �xture, retro�tting with re�ectors or minimizing number of bulbs per �xture when possible will also reduce maintenance and energy costs. By install¬ing longer lasting bulbs, the number of lamps made, transported and recycled is reduced, reducing en-vironmental impacts.

Another item of consideration is the disposal of the lamps when replacement does take place. Fluorescent lamps, whether linear or CFL, contain harmful elements, not the least of which is mercu-ry. HAZMAT procedures must be followed, which should be a part of normal facility operations. For guidance on proper disposal, there is the Associa-tion of Lighting & Mercury Recyclers (ALMR).

The ALMR represents the majority of commer-cial processors of mercury-bearing wastes in the U.S. and around the globe. They have established a comprehensive service network to assist with collection, processing, recycling, and recovery of spent mercury lamps, ballasts, batteries, elec-tronic products, and other wastes with hazardous levels of mercury. Lamp recycling facilitates the re-covery of Rare Earth Elements considered critical for many uses.

The ALMR serves as an educational and informa-tion resource to government agencies, municipal authorities, industry and businesses, Universal Waste handlers, generators, environmental groups and trade organizations. They provide assistance to anyone searching for proper mercury and lamp management.

3.2.2 Fluorescent LampsT5 Lamps

T5 lamps are being installed in many facilities as they offer various opportunities for lighting design¬ers and manufacturers. T5 lamps mea-sure 5/8 inch in diameter (16 mm). The smaller di-ameter lamp allows for smaller luminaires, includ-ing sur¬face mounted, cove lighting and cabinetry applica¬tions.

Some care must be taken in the application of T5 lamps. T5s are designed mainly for new con¬-struction and not intended for standard grid ceiling retro�t applications. Optimum use of T5 lamps are in high bay ceilings, such as outdoor overheads and warehouses. When T5 lamps are installed, fewer �xtures are needed, resulting in cost savings because fewer parts are needed, resulting in lower installation and energy costs.

T5 bulbs are available in lengths of 2 to 5 feet (0.6 to 1.5 meters). However, they are actually 2 inch¬es (51 mm) shorter than a T12 or T8 lamp. There¬fore, in order to complete a retro�t using T5 bulbs, the ballasts would need to be replaced. A T5 lamp will outperform a T8 when mounted at high ceiling heights. For example, T8 lamps pro-vide better lighting quality and less glare when mounted at ceiling heights of 18 feet (5.5 meters) or less. To date there are only two types of T5 high output (HO) lamps available: 28 watt T5 and the 54 watt T5 HO. Both lamp types are 4 feet (1.2 meters).

The 54 watt T5 high output lamp will supply 5,000 lumens and provides superior performance at elevated temperatures. They have a 30,000 to 36,000 hour life, depending on starting frequency, and are suggested replacements for metal halide �xtures. Inef�cient traditional metal halide lamps provide minimum light at maximum expense. T-5 HO lamps in high bay areas maximize foot can-dles at the work surface and use half the energy of HID or metal halide lamps. T-5 HO lighting sys-tems maintain up to 95 percent of initial lumens over their rated life: metal halide lamps lose 1/3 or their initial lumens in just 40 percent of their rated life. Overall, T-5 lamps offer a 60 percent energy savings over metal halide with 75 percent longer lamp life.



Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)

A compact �uorescent lamp (CFL) is a type of �uo-rescent lamp. Many CFLs are designed to replace incandescent lamps and can �t into most existing �xtures that use incandescent lamps. CFLs are more energy ef�cient than incandescent lamps, typically using 75 percent less energy and gen-erating less heat, and can last 10 times as long. CFLs radiate a different light spectrum than incan-descent lamps. Improved phosphor formu¬lations have improved the subjective color of the light emitted by CFLs such that some sources rate the best soft white CFLs as subjectively similar in color to standard incandescent lamps.

Compared to general service incandescent lamps producing the same amount of visible light, CFLs generally use less power and have a longer rat-ed life, but a higher purchase price. In the United States, a CFL can save over US$30 in electricity over the lamp life compared to an in¬candescent lamp and can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2,000 times the weight of the lamp. Like all �uorescent lamps, CFLs contain mercury, compli-cating their disposal.

CFL Energy Savings

CFLs use between one-�fth and one-third of the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. Since lighting accounted for approximately 9 percent of household electricity usage in 2001 in the United States, widespread use of CFLs could save as much as 7 percent of total US household elec-trici¬ty usage. Commercial buildings can realize like savings in their operations through the appro-priate use of CFLs instead of incandescent lamps.The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 contains language to phase out cur¬rent incandescent lamps between 2012 and 2014 and EU member states progressively phased out use of incandescent bulbs in most applications by 2012Although CFLs require more energy to manu¬facture than incandescent lamps, this en-ergy consumption is offset because the operation-al life is longer and CFLs use less energy during their lifespan.

Cost of CFLs

While the purchase price of a CFL is typically 3 to 10 times greater than an equivalent incandescent lamp, the extended lifetime and lower energy use will more than compensate for the higher initial cost. An article titled “The End of the Light Bulb as We Know It” (US News & World Report 2007) states:

“A household that invested US$90 in chang¬ing 30 �xtures to CFLs would save US$440 to US$1,500 over the �ve-year life of the bulbs, de¬pending on your cost of electricity. Look at a utility bill and imagine a 12 percent discount to estimate the savings.”

CFLs are extremely cost effective in commercial buildings when used to replace incandescent lamps. Using average US commercial electricity and gas rates for 2006, a 2008 article printed by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) (EERE 2009) found that replacing each 75W in-candescent lamp with a CFL resulted in yearly en-

Figure 7: Compact Flourescent Lamp



ergy savings of US$22, reduced HVAC cost and reduced labor to change lamps. The incremental capital investment of US$2 per �xture is typically paid back in about one month. Savings are great-er and payback periods shorter in regions with higher electricity rates and, to a lesser extent, in regions with higher than aver¬age cooling require-ments.

In the United States and Canada, the ENERGY STAR program labels compact �uorescent lamps that meet a set of standards for starting time, life expectancy, color and consistency of per-for¬mance. The intent of the program is to reduce consumer concerns from product variability. CFLs with a recent ENERGY STAR quali�ed products la-bel start in less than one second and do not �icker.

Use of CFLs Worldwide

In the United Kingdom a program similar to EN¬ERGY STAR is run by the Energy Saving Trust to identify lighting products that meet energy con-ser¬vation and performance guidelines. In Austra-lia the demand for CFLs is growing rap¬idly and the range of available products is expand¬ing. In this context, consumers should be able to eas-ily identify and purchase quality CFLs that meet their requirements. The Australian National Appli-ance and Equipment Energy Ef�ciency Com¬mit-tee (NAEEEC) plans to introduce Minimum En-ergy Performance Standards (MEPS) for CFLs, together with an endorsement label for comply-ing high-performance products. MEPS and en-dorse¬ment labels for CFLs exist in many other countries and there is considerable interest in the harmo¬nization of CFL standards between China, the United States, Europe, Brazil and other coun-tries. Australian CFL test standards AS 60969 and AS 60901 already exist, and are technically equiva¬lent to the standards used in Europe and China (IEC 60969 and IEC 60901). It is intended that Australian MEPS and high-ef�ciency levels will match the equivalent existing Chinese standards for self-ballasted CFLs. Subject to the agreement of Standards Australia, an additional section will be added to each Australian Standard, detailing a mandatory minimum energy performance level and a more stringent voluntary high-ef�ciency lev-el, suitable for an endorsement label and En¬ergy Allstars registration.

3.2.3 Induction Lighting

Induction lights are similar to �uorescent lights, as they use excited gases that react with phos-phor to produce a pure white light. Unlike �uores-cent lamps, induction lamps are rated at 100,000 hours. Fluorescent lamps have a shorter rated life be¬cause electrodes that must be used to excite the gases within the tube degrade over time. In-duction lamps utilize the principle of induction, instead of electrodes, to transit energy by a mag-netic �eld. The life of induction lamps translates to over 20 years of lamp life at 11 hours a day. Induc-tion light¬ing can provide high lumen per watt out-puts. Metal halide lamps, in some cases, can be replaced by lamps ranging from 400W to 1,000W.

Figure 8 : Induction Lamp Components

Induction lamps are most appropriate for areas in which lighting is hard to access, such as high bay warehouse lighting, parking lots and struc-tures, and tunnel and street lighting. Given the long life of induction lights, replacement intervals are mini¬mized. Induction lamps also use a low-er wattage compared to metal halide, high-pres-sure sodium or mercury vapor lamps that typically serve these areas.



Comparing the lamp life of induction lamps to several other lamp types, four to �ve re-lamping rounds would be needed (see Table 4). The cost of the reduced re-lamping rounds when using in-duction lamps can be minimized by 400 to 600 percent. The Table below indicates the project-ed lamp life by lamp type compared to induction lamps.

Some additional characteristics of induction lamps include:

• High color rendering: Up to color rendering in-dex (CRI) of 85. A CRI of 85 means that the color of the item under the lamp will appear as it actually is.

• Multiple lamp colors are available, with a range of color temperatures from 2700K to 6500K.

• Minimal color shifting over the lamp life.

• Energy ef�cient: 85 lumens/watt.

• Less than 5 percent of energy consumed is lost a heat.

• Instant on/re-strike capability. No warm- up period.

• Can be used with both photo and motion sen-sors.

• Starting temperature as low as 40°F (4.4°C).

• Does not �icker, have strobe effects or make noise, like some HID lamps.

• Superior lumen maintenance.

• At 90,000 hours, 70 percent of light output is maintained

Table 2: Lamp life by lamp type and re-lamping rounds when compared to induction lamps

Table 3: Comparison of lamp type to reduced light output



3.2.4 Ballast Developments

Old generation ballasts were a maximum of 85 percent ef�cient and used 120V or 277V power. Newer generation ballasts are over 90 percent ef-�cient and operate in a power range of 108V to 305V. Additionally, newer generation ballasts are:

• Anti-striation, providing cleaner light

• Offer low temperature starting, while rated for use at high temperatures

• Anti-arcing

• Supplied with various ballast factors

• Can be used with controllable or dimmable light

• Can be used for programmed starts to ac-com¬modate lighting sensors

3.2.5 Solid State Lighting (SSL)

On June 30, 2009, US President Barack Obama passed legislation that called for stricter energy-ef-�cient lighting standards. Solid state lighting was a part of this initiative. Products made in the Unit-ed States or imported for use in the United States were required to meet new energy param¬eters in 2012. According to the United States Department of Energy (DOE), the changes in lamps and lighting equipment would prevent the emission of about 594 million tons of carbon dioxide between 2012 and 2042. This is roughly equivalent to removing 166 million cars from the road for a year. It would save consumers US$1 bil¬lion to US$4 billion an-nually from 2012 through 2042 and save enough electricity in those three decades to power every home in the United States for up to 10 months. Finally, it will eliminate the need for up to 7.3 giga-watts of new generating capacity by 2042, which the DOE says is equiva¬lent to as many as four-teen 500MW coal-�red power plants.

A press release from IFMA in July 2009 on sol-id-state lighting noted that the US DOE solid-state lighting research activities represent an essen-tial component of the Department’s strategy for achieving zero enery buildings- buildings that pro-duce as much energy as they use. The de¬velop-ment of highly ef�cient, cost-effective solid state lighting technologies, along with advanced win-dows and space heating and cooling technolo¬-gies, can help reduce total building energy use by 60 to 70 percent. This improvement in component and system energy ef�ciency, coupled with on-site renewable energy supply systems, can result in marketable net zero energy buildings. Some solid state lighting products last 10 times longer than �uorescent lamps, are not breakable and do not contain mercury. It is estimated that the use of SSL in the industrial/commercial market will save billions of dollars in maintenance and ener-gy costs, reduce carbon emissions by 31 to 44 million tons (28 to 40 million metric tons) annually and potentially reduce spending on electricity by US$125 billion over the next 20 years.

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and The International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD) have signed a Memorandum of Under-standing (MOU) to work cooperatively toward improving the ef�cient use of energy by lighting equipment and systems. The IALD is an interna-tionally recognized organization comprising inde-pendent and esteemed professionals dedicated to the very highest standards in lighting design. The agreement emphasizes the importance of minimizing the impact of energy use on the en-vironment in support of DOE Solid State Lighting programs on lighting quality. The DOE’s collabora-tion with IALD further strengthens its commitment to developing innovative, energy-ef�cient lighting solutions while providing an international platform from which to work.

There are four key areas on which DOE and IALD will collaborate. They will be working on the pro-motion of lighting design principles and technolo-gies that improve lighting quality, energy ef�ciency, and environmental sustainability. They will develop and disseminate technical information to assist the lighting design community in the assessment and speci�cation of SSL. They provide jointly fa-cilitated forums in which lighting designers can exchange ideas and information with DOE and



provide input to DOE lighting program planning. They are encouraging professional lighting design-ers to participate in DOE lighting projects, such as GATEWAY demonstrations and other ef�cient technologies to support DOE programs on lighting quality such as ENERGY STAR® and SSL Quality Advocates, with particular attention to helping as-sess lighting quality on a global level.

Another global organization aimed to foster suc-cess in the SSL �eld is The International Solid State Lighting Alliance. The (ISA) serves as an international alliance of regional alliances and as-sociations that aims at enhancing public-private partnership and intensifying global cooperation to accelerate and foster the sustainable develop-ment of SSL. The ISA is truly an international or-ganization based in East Asia with signi�cant rep-resentation from North America, Europe, and the rest of the world.

ISA`s scope covers the complete spectrum of SSL technologies and applications. This includes ma-terials and equipment, LED-based light sources, modules, lamps, and luminaires and testing and quali�cation. It also advises the industry on the development of electronics for lighting; innovative systems; lighting design and architecture as well as monitoring SSL related regulations. Its activities involve initiating a strategic research agenda and a global SSL industrial roadmap. It implements and coordinates global showcases while focusing on Eco-system development which entails recogniz-ing talent and providing education and training.

Not only will SSL lead to energy and environ-men¬tal savings, but it will change the way we think about lighting. SSL devices:

• Are vibration and shock resistant

• Have exceptionally long operational lives

• Allow for a wide variety of lighting, including arti�cial lighting similar to natural daylight

• Control color and intensity of the light with ap-propriate circuitry

• Can be coupled with light pipes, allowing for ef�cient distribution of light

• Can be manufactured as �at packages of any shape, allowing them to be placed on �oors, walls, ceilings or even furniture

• Can be made with either inorganic or organic semiconductors. Light-A emitting diode (LED) is an inorganic semiconductor.

Figure 9 : Solid state lighting (Philips Lighting Academy 2009)

LEDs, being solid state components, are dif�cult to damage with external shock, unlike �uorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile. LEDs are also nontoxic, unlike compact �uorescent lamps that contain traces of mercury. LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best en-vironmental lighting method (Wotton 2009). Ac-cording to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use 10 percent of the power used by a standard incandescent bulb, 20 percent of the power used by a compact �uorescent and 70 percent of the energy used by a halogen lamp.

A downside is still the initial cost, which is higher than that of compact �uorescent lamps. Howev-er, when the life expectancy and other factors are incorporated, LEDs are more cost effective than CFLs. Additionally, by 2015, organic LEDs will be expected to be available at a cost comparable to incandescent lamps.

The continued development of LED technology has caused their ef�ciency and light out put to increase exponentially, with a doubling occuring about every 36 months since the 1960s. In the last 50 years, LED performance has been improv-ing at logarithmic rates while the cost of light from LEDs has similarly decreased. The trend was �rst



recognized by Dr. Roland Haitz of Agilent Tech-nologies and is now referred to as Haitz’s Law. This law states that every 10 years, the price of LED lamps decreases by a factor of 10 while their performance increases by a factor of 20. The ad-vances are generally attributed to the parallel de-velopment of other semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science.

Light is produced from an LED by electrolumi¬-nescence when a low voltage is directly applied to a special type of semiconductor. The current passing through the semiconductor is controlled by a driver (Wotton 2009). LEDs are generally small, less than 0.002 in2 (1 mm2) and use optical components to shape the radiation pattern and assist with re�ection.

The application of LEDs is diverse. They are used as low-energy indicators, video displays, within sensors and within automotive lighting applica¬-tions, and are useful for communications tech-nolo¬gies because they have high switching rates.

LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources:

• Lower energy consumption

• Longer life

• Improved robustness

• Smaller size

• Faster switching

• More lumens per Watt

Although there are multiple advantages to LEDs, facility managers who decide to procure LEDs must be careful due to the disparate types of man-ufacturers in the market. Be sure to check the life and light output of the lamps being considered. The best way to ensure a quality LED product is to check if the lamp has been tested to meet IESNA Standards LM-79-08 and LM-80-08 for life and lumen ratings. An additional resource to consult is the United States Department of Energy (DOE) LED standards for consumer reference study completed by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA).

The Department of Energy (DOE) and the Environ-mental Protection Agency (EPA) also conduct what is called CALIPER Testing- Caliper- Commercially Available LED Product Evaluation and Reporting

program tracks industry progress, helps consum-ers understand the products on the market and holds companies accountable for their claims.

When considering LEDs for warehouses and in-dustrial installations, be sure to consult the Design-Lights Consortium (DLC) and their Quali�ed Prod-ucts List (QPL). The EnergyStar program does not address highbay or midbay lighting categories, but has partnered with the DLC, an association of utili-ties from across the country, to evaluate products in these segments. Quali�ed products are listed on the DLC site and facilitate rebates for numer-ous utilities. Products under consideration should also have UL listing on the entire �xture, not just an individual component.

Cost of LEDs

LEDs are currently more expensive in terms of initial capital cost than most conventional light-ing technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. When considering the total cost of ownership (includ¬ing maintenance costs and energy consump¬tion), LEDs far surpass incandescent or halogen sourc-es and are becoming a threat to compact �uores-cent lamps.

Light emitting diodes are rapidly evolving to pro¬vide light sources for general illumination. This technology holds promise for lower energy con¬sumption and reduced maintenance, as the cost per lumen has been steadily falling as per-for¬mance has been consistently increasing. By the year 2000, the cost per lumen for red LEDs dropped to US$0.06/lm. At this price, the LEDs in a typical 25 lumen application con¬tribute only US$1.50 to the cost of the complete unit. White LEDs now cost about US$0.20/lm. If white LEDs follow the same de¬velopment pattern as red LEDs, and the cost per lumen of white LED lamps falls by a factor of 10 each decade, then white light produced by LEDs cost US$0.05/lm by about 2005 and US$0.01/lm by about 2012. With these predicted costs, a 50 lm/W LED lamp paid for itself through energy savings in 3,000 to 10,000 hours in 2005 and has a projected pay-back of 500 to 1,500 hours in 2012.

The lumen output of LEDs has continued to im-prove rapidly, making LEDs suitable for high-in-



tensity applications in highbay and midbay envi-ronments. However, the best solutions for these environments have well-designed optics that concentrate the delivery of the light to the target surface. Many light �xtures throw lumens in every direction — around the ceiling, for example — and achieve a high lumen-per-watt rating, but do not successfully get the light to where it is needed. These �xtures are not a good investment and should be avoided. Test the �xture in the target en-vironment, measure the delivered light, and make an informed decision.

An additional note: While LED solutions are more expensive at initial purchase, it is important to consider the total cost of ownership equation to understand all the variables.

TCO (total cost of ownership) – All the vari-ables across a �ve- or 10-year period. The equa-tion = Up-front costs less offsets, annual energy bills, maintenance expenses, + cooling savings.

The less expensive �xture is not necessarily the better choice if it uses signi�cantly more electrici-ty, requires frequent maintenance and re-lamping, and doesn’t offer the controls that help with con-tinuous management and feedback.

Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLED)/Light Emitting Polymer (PLED)

An organic light emitting diode (OLED), also known as a light emitting polymer (PLED) or organic elec-tro luminescence (OEL), is any light emitting diode (LED) with an emissive electrolu¬minescent layer composed of a �lm of organic compounds. The layer usually contains a polymer substance where

suitable organic compounds are deposited by a simple printing process. The resulting matrix of deposits emits light of differ¬ent colors. OLEDs/PLEDs are used in television screens, computer displays, for signs used for advertising and the display of information, indica¬tor lights and small, portable system screens, such as cell phones and PDAs, and general space illumination.

OLEDs typically emit less light per area than in-organic solid-state LEDs, as solid-state LEDs are usually designed for use as point-light sources. A signi�cant bene�t of OLED displays over traditional liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is that OLEDs do not require a backlight to function. As a result, OLEDs:

• Draw less power

• Operate longer from the same charge when powered from a battery

• Have a thinner display, compared to an LC-Dpanel

Light Emitting Plasma (LEP)

Signi�cant changes are taking place in the world of commercial lighting at an ever-increasing pace. Speci�cally, new lighting technologies are impact-ing the traditional realm of high-intensity discharge (HID) lighting systems and relegate HID lamps as inef�cient, fragile and antiquated. Major consum-ers now require light sources that perform more ef�ciently to save on energy costs and reduce long-term maintenance costs. They look for lamps that can be easily controlled, are more durable, provide better color and reduce hazardous waste and carbon emissions to help protect the environ-ment.

Figure 10 : Organic light emitting diodes (OLED)/light emit¬ting polymer (PLED) (Philips Lighting Academy 2009)



Generally, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps, a form of HID, are utilized for street-lighting and industrial applications due to their ef�ciency and 24,000-hour life. But HPS exhibits poor color with a yellowish cast. Metal halide lamps, with whiter color rendering are used for most HID applica-tions, but possess shorter lamp life, usually around 10,000 hours. All HID lamps employ an electrode to ignite gasses contained within the bulb enve-lope, and require a ballast for start-up and voltage regulation. HID lamps require minutes to achieve full illumination after energized, and after power in-terruption.

Induction technology uses a �uorescent-type lamp powered by high frequency electromagnetic energy from an electronic generator without elec-trodes. Induction provides far superior color and is available in a range of warm to cool (3500 to 5000 degrees Kelvin) color temperatures. Induction lamps use less energy and less mercury per hour of operation than conventional lighting due to their long lifespan, and the solid form mercury is easily recycled at its end of life, thus having a lessened impact on the environment. These bene�ts offer a considerable cost savings of 35 percent to 55 percent in energy and maintenance costs for in-duction lamps compared to other types of lamps. In some applications, Magnetic Induction �xtures can provide energy savings as high as 75 percent.

Plasma, of�cially known as LEP (lighting-emitting plasma) utilizes Induction technology. It is a sol-id state high-intensity light source that reportedly brings clean, ef�cient lighting solutions to general and specialty lighting. It is said to combine many of the best attributes of Induction, LED and metal halide sources. As well as being energy ef�cient, it is touted as long lasting, full spectrum and brighter than other lighting technologies such as HID and LED in many applications. It provides a technolo-gy beyond LED and metal halides, with project-ed savings of at least half of all costs and with an ef�ciency as high as 115 lumens per watt at the source. It offers exceptional color; rated as high as 95 CRI, and has an estimated 50,000 hour lamp life.

Plasma luminaires utilize a single, very small elec-trodeless quartz lamp and a solid-state power ampli�er (driver). The driver generates RF (ra-dio frequency) energy to create the plasma light source. The lumen output from a single small lamp

far exceeds a typical LED luminaire that requires numerous light emitting sources. Like induction, the plasma lamp has no electrodes to wear out.

The brilliance of LEP’s architecture lies in its sim-plicity. By energizing a plasma arc without using �laments or electrodes, all the shortcomings of traditional HID technology are eliminated, leaving behind an incredibly bright and stable source. Its lumen ef�cacy is above 80lm/w and there is no �icker or glare, providing eyesight protection. The white light of an electrode-less lamp has complete spectral distribution, so the photopic effectiveness is 20 percent higher than other lamps with the same illuminance. Energy savings using LEP lu-minaires comes from a combination of source and application ef�ciencies and their maximum bene-�ts are realized at high lumen output.

This is a new and rising lighting technology that is yet to be fully tested and reported by third-par-ty veri�ers. The EPA and DOE are evaluating LEP lamps, but have yet to issue a full endorsement. Unlike the LED industry which was assisted by the Design Lighting Consortium (DLC) for its testing and approvals, as of this writing LEP manufactur-ers do not have quanti�able results from indepen-dent sources available for consumers.

3.2.6 Occupancy Sensors

Occupancy or motion sensors are devices that turn lights and other equipment on or off in re¬-sponse to the presence or absence of people in a de�ned area. Some sensors can also control lighting based on the amount of daylight within an area.

In an average facility, lights are left on in unoc¬cu-pied spaces for a large percentage of the day (see Table 3). If occupancy sen¬sors are not used, a large amount of energy can be wasted daily. Ac-cording to the United States Environmental Pro-tection Agency (EPA), energy savings can range from 40 to 60 percent in class¬rooms, 20 to 50 percent in private of�ces, 30 to 90 percent in re-strooms, 22 to 65 percent in confer¬ence rooms, 30 to 80 percent in corridors and 45 to 80 percent in storage areas.

Having lights turned off when space is unoccupied can save energy and money. Occupancy sen-sors eliminate wasted electricity, minimize lighting



pol¬lution and enhance security in the workplace. Due to their relative simplicity and high energy savings, combined with the requirement in energy codes for automatic lighting shutoff, occupancy sensors should be considered a standard feature when determining lighting solutions.

State energy codes in the United States must be at least as stringent as ASHRAE 90.1-1999. ASHRAE Standards have been upgraded over the years, but the requirements set in the 1999 version still hold true as to minimum compliance. This standard requires automatic shutoff of light-ing in commercial buildings greater than 5,000 square feet (460 square meters). Automatic shut-off can be provided by occupancy sensors or program¬mable time-scheduling devices. When occupancy in a space is intermittent or not pre-dictable, occu¬pancy sensors are the most eco-nomical solution. Occupancy sensors use different technologies to detect the presence of people in a space. The three most prevalent applications are passive infrared (PIR), ultrasonic and dual technol-ogy.

Figure 11 : Occupancy sensor

PIR sensors monitor the difference in heat emitted by people in motion from that of the background space. They require a line of sight and have an effective range of 15 feet (4.6 meters) for minor movement and are best used in smaller, enclosed areas.

Ultrasonic sensors detect occupancy by emitting an ultrasonic high-frequency signal. By sensing changes in the frequency of the re�ected signal, they interpret these changes as motion. These sensors do not require a direct line of sight and

are more effective for low motion activity with a range of about 25 feet (7.6 meters). Ultrasonic sen¬sors are suitable for open spaces, spaces with obstacles and spaces with hard surfaces. Dual-technology sensors utilize both PIR and ul-trasonic sensors, activating lights only when both technolo¬gies detect occupants in the space.

3.2.7 Energy Management

There are energy management activities that can be taken in conjunction with local utilities or at the facility level per directives by the facility man-ager. Two of the most prevalent are peak load man¬agement and demand response programs. In demand response programs, customers agree to reduce their electricity load on the hottest days or when there is a large demand for power. This can be accomplished by either using less elec-tric¬ity or using alternative sources of power gen-era¬tion. Participants are paid for enrollment and/or for responding during a peak event.

Some utility companies offer lower rates to par-ticipants of the demand response program. Oth-er utilities might create a tariff-based incentive by passing along short-term increases in the price of electric¬ity. Alternately, during a heat wave, a mandatory decrease for selected high-volume users could be imposed, with compensation for participation. Other users may receive a rebate or other incen¬tive based on �rm commitments to reduce power during periods of high demand.

During times of peak demand, smart-grid-enabled lighting systems receive a digital message from the grid requesting to curtail power usage by a predetermined amount based on site evaluations.

It is also important to note that lighting is just one component of a total EMS system. ISO 50001 deals with energy management: it speci�es re-quirements for establishing, implementing, main-taining and improving an energy management system. The purpose of the standard is to enable an organization to achieve continual improvement in its energy use and consumption or energy per-formance through a systematic approach. While it does not de�ne speci�c energy consumption criteria, it requires organizations to de�ne its en-ergy performance indices and targets and achieve them by implementing a proper action plan.



Energy Management System (EMS)/Build-ing Automation System (BAS)

Building automation systems (BAS) are universal-ly used to represent most mechanical, electron-ic and computerized systems within a facility. An energy management system (EMS) is included as part of most BAS and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably within the buildings industry

EMS/BAS are computer systems, sensors, me-ters and sub-meters that control and monitor the heat¬ing, ventilating, air conditioning and lighting sys¬tems within a building or group of buildings. The core functionality of a BAS is to keep the building at the speci�ed conditions; control light-ing and mechanical equipment; monitor system perfor¬mance and device failures; and provide email and/or text noti�cations to building engi-neering staff about device failures or maintenance needs. Most BAS can also be connected to elec-tricity, gas and water meters. Utility meter data, as well as data from sensors and meters directly con-nected to the BAS, can be used to perform trend analysis and forecast annual energy consumption.

Lighting can be turned on and off with a BAS based on time of day using occupancy sched¬ules, or occupancy sensors and timers. A typical example of an occupancy application is to turn the lights off in a space where it has been a half hour since the last motion was sensed. A second example is us-ing a photocell outside of a building to sense dark-ness, modulating lights to turn on in a parking lot.

Intelligent Lighting Systems

LEDs alone provide substantial savings. But intel-ligent lighting systems, which combine solid-state lighting with sensors and a complete set of con-trols and software into a single system, multiply the energy ef�ciency of simple LED �xtures. With energy savings of up to 90 percent over tradition-al illumination sources, intelligent lighting systems increase light levels while providing new levels of functional control and insight.

Intelligent lighting systems use integrated sensors to determine when and where to provide light, and integrated intelligence to turn the lights off when not in use. They also provide granular control over how much light is delivered, giving facilities man-agers a range of choices around dimming levels

and programming by shift, while gathering data about energy use and occupancy patterns. That data is presented in standardized reports which help facilities staff manage lighting as a resource, while providing measurement and veri�cation data for their utility. It is the combination of technologies — all built into a well-integrated, single solution — that maximizes the energy ef�ciency while creat-ing a platform for managing lighting as a strategic asset. Intelligent lighting systems are available for of�ce spaces (Redwood Systems) and for ware-houses and industrial spaces (Digital Lumens).

Interior Lighting Campaign

An initiative recently created by the United States Department of Energy (DOE) and the Better Build-ings Alliance is an Interior Lighting Campaign (ILC). The organizing committee consists of representa-tives from the DOE as well as IFMA, BOMA and the IESNA. The intent of this program is to rem-edy outdated or inef�cient lighting by challenging facility managers, building owners and operators and organizations to eliminate energy waste by recon�guring their lighting systems. It is a recog-nition and guidance program designed to encour-age professionals in the built environment to take advantage of savings opportunities from high ef-�ciency lighting solutions with a speci�c focus on troffer lighting and associated controls.

A troffer is a rectangular light �xture that �ts into a modular dropped ceiling grid (i.e. 2’ by 2’ or 2’ by 4’). Troffer �xtures have typically been designed to accommodate standard �uorescent lamps (T12, T8, or T5), but are now often designed with inte-gral LED sources. Troffers are typically recessed sitting above the ceiling grid, but are also available in surface mount ‘boxes’.

The initial campaign focus has a goal of replacing 100,000 standard troffers with high ef�ciency trof-fers by May 2016. The ILC will offer a consolidat-ed set of resources regarding high ef�ciency troffer lighting and controls, including a searchable list of utility incentives, technical assistance, case stud-ies and educational webinars to help practitioners make informed decisions on lighting in their facili-ties. More information can be found at www.interi-orlightingcampaign.org.



3.2.8 Daylighting

A clerestory is a row of windows above eye level to allow light into a space. In modern architecture, clerestories provide light without distractions of a view or compromising privacy. Often, cleresto-ry windows provide light into interior wall surfac-es painted white or another light color. The walls are placed to re�ect indirect light to interior ar-eas where it is needed. By redirecting the light, the light can be softer and more diffuse, reducing shadows.

Another type of device used to redirect light is the light tube, also called a solar tube or the tubular skylight. Light tubes can be placed into a roof and admit light to a focused area within the interior of a building. Light tubes passively collect light us-ing a rooftop dome and transmit the light into a space through a highly re�ective rigid or �exible tube to a ceiling diffuser that looks very much like a re¬cessed light �xture (Gordon 2003). An advan-tage of light tubes, compared to skylights, is that they allow less heat to be transferred to the space, as light tubes have less exposed surface area.

Daylight Harvesting

Daylight harvesting, also known as constant day¬light, is the process of using light level detec-tors to augment natural light with arti�cial light to main¬tain a constant lighting level within a space, while reducing energy consumption. This tech-nique is similar to a heating control with a ther-mostat. Daylight harvesting assumes an area in a build¬ing, such as an of�ce, will have a natural source of light available during the daylight hours. A pro¬cessing device monitors the natural light level and continuously adjusts the arti�cial light level using dimming to maintain the required light level.

Daylight harvesting can reduce the energy con¬-sumption from arti�cial lighting 35 to 60 percent. Daylight harvesting can also provide signi�cant opportunities to reduce peak demand charges, as peak demand typically occurs when the most nat-ural light is available.

Simplified Daylight Harvesting

Simpli�ed daylight harvesting (SDH) is an ap¬proach designed to operate as a bi-level

light¬ing system and be applicable to existing bi-level systems. These systems have been re-quired in California by Title 24 since 1983. A SDH system works without any calibration or commis-sioning. A SDH system automatically operates the bi-level lighting system through high, low and off states based on available daylight levels using a simpli¬�ed control algorithm. The simpli�ed con-trol al-gorithm avoids cycling and supports an occupant on/off adjustment through a wall switch or �xture-mounted switch. SDH can also be con-trolled via a wireless infrared or radio frequency sensor. Initial studies have found that SDH sys-tems can signi�¬cantly reduce energy and peak demand, offering 100 percent savings for most daylight hours in work spaces adjacent to win-dows (CLTC 2009).

The key elements of SDH are automatic calibra¬-tion and occupant controls. SDH automatically calibrates during installation, without any site- or building-speci�c calibration. SDH automatically updates the switching part of the algorithm each time the sensor switches the lighting system from high to low. This continuous, automatic calibra¬-tion process accounts for lumen depreciation and changes in re�ectance within the space that may occur from furniture being moved, spaces being repainted or other changes that occur over the building life. The SDH system offers a simpli�ed, robust, user-friendly and low-cost approach to in-terior lighting (CLTC 2009).

3.2.9 Exterior Lighting

Light trespass is a major issue around the world. According to the International Dark Sky Associa-tion (IDA) it is estimated that over US$4.5 billion is wasted every year on light pollution in the United States alone. Light pollution occurs when exterior lighting is mis-directed, unshielded or incorrectly placed. The lighting may actually be excessive or unnecessary. Light spills unnecessarily upward and outward, serving no purpose. It causes glare, light trespass and a nighttime ‘urban’ glow indi-cating wasted energy. Human produced light pol-lution threatens astronomy, disrupts eco-systems and affects human circadian rhythms. The prob-lem is worsening as China, India, Brazil and nu-merous other countries are becoming increasingly af�uent and urbanized. As more developing coun-



tries develop the capacity for electric light, these problems will be exacerbated.

The international standard for night skies has been proscribed by the International Astronomical Union and focuses on a night sky unaffected by man-made lighting. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is a collection of professional astron-omers active in research and education in astron-omy that was founded in 1919. Its mission is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation. Its input on light pollution is extremely relevant as they need unimpeded vision of celestial bodies.

Researchers and dark sky advocates are contin-ually seeking ways to minimize the adverse effect lighting has on the environment. The IDA and the IESNA have collaborated to design the “Model Light Ordinance,” which communities can adopt. The ordinance recommends limits of lighting in �ve different zones of lighting intensity. The ordinance also recommends the banning of all unshielded lights. One research group funded by the German government — Verlust der Nacht (Loss of Night) — is coordinating numerous studies on light pollu-tion, ranging from research into the socio-political challenges of cutting light pollution in the Berlin metropolitan area to the effects of light pollution on nocturnal mammals. Australia is home to SO-LIS- the Sydney Outdoor Lighting Improvement Society.

In Europe, many countries are adopting legislation to address light pollution. The Czech Republic en-acted the world’s �rst national light pollution law in June 2002. Entitled the Protection of the Atmo-sphere Act, it is only a declaration and does not contain enforcement principles, but it was a start. Italy, Slovenia, the United Kingdom and Scotland have also enacted such legislation.

Of all electricity generated in the U.S., 6 percent is used for outdoor lighting and 20 percent of all electricity consumed for lighting is outdoor lighting. The use of ef�cient outdoor lighting technologies will reduce waste and emissions from power gen-eration. On May 18, 2009, the United States Fed-eral Outdoor Lighting Legislation was introduced. This legislation will effectively eliminate nearly all lighting �xtures now used in exterior lighting by the year 2015.

By 2011- lights manufactured will have lighting ef-�ciency of at least 50 lumens per watt;

By 2013- 70 lumens/watt

By 2015- 80 lumens/watt

Also, lighting must have the capacity of producing 2 different light levels- 100 percent & 60 percent. This would be in line with ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 2010, whereby it will be required to reduce lighting when it needs to be ON but is unlikely to be used. Exterior lighting, in this standard, must be controlled to reduce lighting power by 30 per-cent from midnight (or within 1 hour of business closing) until 6 AM, OR when no activity has been detected for a time of no longer than 15 minutes.

The �rst step to select exterior lighting for a facil-ity is to identify where the lighting is needed and what hours of operation are necessary. Lighting should only light the area that must be illuminated for safety and property identi�cation during busi-ness hours to minimize light trespass. Drawings and/or documents that are used to de�ne the lo-cation of the lighting should include the function of the space and the anticipated hours of operation of the lighting. Exterior lighting is commonly used in parking lots, at doorways, along walkways, for signage and for decorative lighting.

It is important to control the direction and spread of light by choosing the correct type of �xture. The correct lamp type must also be selected based on need and application. Induction lights, because of their long lamp life, are a viable option for parking lots and exterior walls. Metal halide lamps should not be considered for exterior lighting applications because they are expensive, are energy intensive and make a greater contribution to light trespass.

Shutoff controls such as sensors, timers and mo¬-tion detectors should be utilized. Automatic con-trols can be used to turn on exterior lights when they are needed for safe passage of pedestrians. Using shutoff controls and/or automatic controls allows lights to be turned off after a business is closed to the public. When using shutoff and/or automatic controls, it is good practice to turn off lights a half hour after the business is closed to the public. If dusk-to-dawn �xtures are used, con-sid-er using �xtures that have a night step-down or shutoff control for late night hours.



Often businesses will keep lights on all night as a method to protect the property. However, it should be acknowledged that lights alone will not protect a property and are poor security devices. If protec-tion of property at night is important, other means of property protection and methods to discourage criminal activity should be used.

Figure 12 : Exterior pole mounted lighting

To minimize the amount of light that escapes from a property, the height of �xtures should be limited and lamps should be shield¬ed. Fixtures should be located no closer to the property line than four times the �xture mounting height and should not exceed the height of ad¬jacent structures. Excep-tions may be made for larger parking areas, com-mercial zones adjacent to highways or �xtures with greater cut-off shield¬ing behind the pole mount in commercial zones (Dark Sky Society 2009).

Light should not be allowed to cross property lines. Light levels at the property line should not exceed 0.1 footcandles (1 lux) adjacent to busi¬-ness properties, and 0.05 footcandles (0.5 lux) at residential property boundaries. Light levels and uniformity ratios should not exceed recommend-ed values, per IESNA RP-33 Lighting for Exterior Environments or RP 20 Lighting for Parking Fa-cili¬ties. Lumen caps for areas to be illuminated are recommended as shown in Table 6 (Dark Sky Society 2009)

Table 4 : Lumen cap per areaFor the illumination of signage, top-mounted sign lighting is recommended, with RLM (dish) type shields, provided that the light falls entirely on the sign and is positioned so that the lamp is not visi-ble from any point off the property or into the road-way (Dark Sky Society 2009).

For large projects over 15,000 lumens, greater energy conservation and control of light pollution, light trespass and glare may be achieved with the help of a professional lighting designer with dark sky lighting experience. Once a lighting project or lamps are replaced in an outdoor setting, a post-installation inspection should be conducted to check for compliance. Substitutions by elec-tri¬cians and contractors are common and should not be accepted without review and approvals (Dark Sky Society 2009).

The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES or IESNA) is an organization that establishes updated standards and illumination guidelines for the lighting industry. They have published Recommended Practices (RP-33-99): Lighting for Exterior Environments and (RP-20): Parking Lots that will guide the selection and in-stallation of exterior lighting. For instance, the fol-lowing list can serve as a guide to exterior light¬ing levels for lampposts (Dark Sky Society 2009).

Lighting Energy E�ciency in Parking Areas

Coincident with the introduction of the ASHRAE Standard 90.1 2010, and in an effort to emphasize the importance and bene�ts of addressing parking lot & exterior lighting, the Department of Energy has partnered with organizations focused on the built environment to challenge property owners and facility professionals to decrease energy us-age in these areas.



Called the Lighting Energy Ef�ciency in Parking (LEEP) Campaign, it encourages owners and managers of both commercial building and park-ing garages/lots to take advantage of proven op-portunities to save energy and money. By utilizing high ef�ciency lighting technology in parking lots and structures, energy conservation and the re-sultant cost savings can be realized. The LEEP program is a collaboration between the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) Inter-national, the Green Parking Council, and the Inter-national Facility Management Association (IFMA) and is administered by the Department of Energy through its Better Buildings Alliance.

Most parking lots are illuminated by older high-in-tensity discharge (HID) lighting technology without any energy-saving controls. The latest high-ef�-ciency alternatives with energy-saving controls -- including LED, induction, and �uorescent tech-nology options—can save building owners over 40 percent on their parking lot lighting bills* while delivering additional bene�ts, like better-lighted spaces. Light-emitting diode (LED) technology with controls can cut parking lot lighting energy bills by 40 percent or more while delivering addi-tional bene�ts including long life, reduced main-tenance costs, and improved lighting uniformity. Light Emitting Plasma™ (LEP) is an up & coming technology that promises to go even beyond LED and metal halides, citing savings of at least half of all costs. It is a solid state high intensity light source that brings clean, ef�cient lighting solutions to general and specialty lighting and is relatively new to the lighting industry.

The LEEP campaign provides access to tools and expertise to lower facility operating costs through thoughtful design of a new site, or a lighting retro-�t. State-of-the-art lighting technologies can last 2 to 5 times longer than traditional outdoor lights. These systems pay for themselves quickly by cut-ting energy costs up to 70 percent and mainte-nance costs up to 90 percent.

LEEP’s goal is to have 100 million square feet of parking structure or lot space use roughly a third less energy than ASHRAE Standard. 90.1-2010. Based on estimates, these energy savings equal over 51 million kilowatt-hours which is equal to the annual electricity use of almost 4,500 homes or the annual greenhouse gas emissions from almost

7,000 passenger vehicles

As an ancillary note to this campaign, the U.S. Department of Energy states that commercial buildings; of�ces, schools, hospitals, restaurants, hotels and stores, consume nearly 20 percent of all energy used in the United States. More than US$200 billion is spent each year to power our country’s commercial buildings. Much of this en-ergy and money is wasted; a typical commercial building could save 20 percent on its energy bills simply by commissioning existing systems so they operate as intended. Energy ef�ciency is a cost-ef-fective way to save money, support job growth, reduce pollution, and improve competitiveness. Lighting is just one component of this practice.

Through the Better Buildings Alliance, members in different market sectors work with the U.S. De-partment of Energy’s (DOE) exceptional network of research and technical experts to develop and deploy innovative, cost-effective, energy-saving solutions that lead to better technologies, more pro�table businesses, and high performance buildings

Assisted by members of the Better Buildings Alli-ance lighting project team, industry leaders such as Safeway, the Cleveland Clinic, USAA Real Es-tate, Walmart, and BJ’s Wholesale are already saving millions of dollars annually through light-ing improvements that can be replicated by citing these speci�cations when requests for proposals for projects are distributed. In fact, Walmart now requires LED lighting that conforms to the speci�-cation for all new stores, and is achieving energy savings of over 55 percent compared to typical new parking lots.

Technical and �nancial assistance is available on the LEEP campaign website: LEEPcampaign.org. Participants can �nd case studies, rebates and in-centives, and useful contacts on the website to help them take advantage of these energy savings opportunities.



Table 5 : Recommended lumen levels by mounting height for exterior fixtures

(Dark Sky Society 2009)

Impact of Interior Lighting on Exterior Lighting

Interior lighting should be designed so that it does not illuminate the outdoors. To prevent this, de-ter¬mine interior lighting photometrics at the pe-rimeter of the building, ensuring that the interior lighting falls substantially within the building and does not exit the building through the windows. When the building is unoccupied, interior lighting should be turned off. Automatic shutoff, occu-pancy sensors or automated lighting schedules can be used to help ensure that interior lights are turned off when the building is not occupied.

Education is also a common sense, easy solution for ensuring lights are off. It should be ingrained in employees to turn out the lights when an area is not being utilized, especially at the end of the day. The janitorial staff can also be a valuable resource in this effort. Whether they perform team clean-ing (working a building section by section, turning lights on and off as they go), do a sweep of the building before they leave or just make sure the lights are off when they �nish an of�ce, the janitors are typically the last personnel to exit the building at night. If a security force is employed, this task could also be part of their post orders. Educating everyone who may have last access to the build-ing can save energy, money and minimize light trespass in the late evening hours.

3.3 Summary

Effective lighting solutions must be addressed in a holistic fashion. When it comes to proper illu-mi¬nation, one size does not �t all. Speci�c lighting needs must be addressed throughout the facility to minimize problems that arise with over-lighting or under-lighting an area. In an existing build¬ing there are certain con�nes one needs to work with-in, including the placement of �xtures, of¬�ce layout and adjacencies. Although complete stan-dardization may make some decisions easier, a smart selection of lighting alternatives, includ¬ing lamps and ballasts, will provide the optimum ben-e�ts to the facility.

When upgrading a lighting system in an existing facility, the �rst step is to determine what lamps and ballasts are currently being used. Second, de-termine what upgrades are possible. Two simple upgrades are:

• If T12 lamps are currently in use, replace them with a more ef�cient alternative, such as a 32 watt or 700 series lamp.

• If incandescent lamps are used, replace them with compact �uorescent lamps.

When determining what upgrades are possible, also be sure to consider:

• If a wash and re-lamp program could be used to save money and manpower

• The use of T5 lamps within high bay areas and for accent lighting

• The use of LEDs for accent lighting

• The use of occupancy sensors and/or oc¬cu-pancy schedules to turn off lights when the building is not occupied

• When natural light can be used instead of electric lights

There are resources that can assist in these ef¬-forts. Local utility companies are very interested in saving energy and can help evaluate a facility and provide information on lighting system up-¬grades rebates or incentives. Electricians, light-ing contractors and lighting manufacturers can also be contacted to discuss the best alternatives for a facility. Most manufacturers will provide a repre¬sentative to evaluate the current status and



Table 6: Typical time spaces are unoccupied

Lighting accounted for approximately 9 percent of household electricity usage in the U.S. in 2001. Widespread use of CFLs could save as much as 7 percent of total U.S. household energy usage. CFLs can be used in refrigerators and freezers. Using CFLs in walk-in refrigerators is a good ener-gy-saving strategy because the CFLs give off less heat compared to incandescent light, so the re-frigerator does not have to work as hard.

Lasers: Ultra high brightness point sources

LEDs: Medium brightness point sources

Induction lamps have a lamp life of up to 100,000 hours. Most lamps have a lamp life of 10,000 to 20,000 hours.



Tens of thousands of companies nationwide have proven that lighting upgrades can reduce lighting costs by as much as 30 to 50 percent, reducing to¬tal facility costs by up to 25 percent. For exam-¬ple, a 200,000 square foot (18,600 square meter) building that has a 30 percent energy reduction could save about US$54,000 annually. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has con�rmed that lighting products provide the quickest return on investment in terms of energy savings.

Lighting accounts for about 20 percent of all electricity used in the United States and up to 40 percent of electricity used in commercial build-ings. In a commercial building of approximate-ly 200,000 square feet (18,600 square meters), about US$180,000 is spent on lighting each year, approximately US$0.90 a square foot (US$9.70 per square meter). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, lighting also af-fects other building systems through its electrical requirements and waste heat produced.

Increasing the energy ef�ciency of the lighting system has an impact on reducing the overall environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas emissions, and the reducing energy bills. The re-duc¬tion of greenhouse gas emissions and an en-ergy- ef�ciency focus will be critical to businesses if legislation similar or comparable to the United States Federal Climate Change (Waxman-Markey) ever passes (see section 4.2 on Legislation) since, under this bill, businesses will be taxed on green-house gas emissions.

A lighting upgrade �ts neatly in the box de�ned by the triple bottom line. Economic bene�ts would be derived through energy conservation and the related cost savings; the environment would be improved through the lesser generation of GHG emissions and less demand on the grid; and the community would be served by better workplace quality, care for the health and safety of employees and less light trespass infringing on the night sky and neighboring business or households.

4.1 Retrofit

A commercial building of 1 million square feet

(92,900 square meters) that uses T12 �uorescent �xtures would require about 18,000 lamps, or about 4,500 �xtures. Based on a cost of US$0.10 per kilowatt hour, the cost of electricity would be approximately US$348,300 annually. Upgrading to T8 lamps with electronic ballasts could reduce these costs by 50 percent. Further analysis of ret-ro�t alternatives is shown in Table 8.

4.2 LegislationWaxman-Markey Bill

The Waxman-Markey Bill did not pass into law as was hoped. However, Title II of the bill outlined mandates for new energy ef�ciency standards for lighting which are still being discussed. This Bill was a cautionary tale that such legislation is on the horizon and facility managers should be aware of imminent actions by the government. The bill was to require state governments to update building codes, requiring new buildings to be 30 percent more energy ef�cient by the year 2012 and 50 per-cent more ef�cient by 2016. The bill also included new standards for lighting products. These new requirements would support the business case for lighting ef�ciency and new buildings and some of the measures have been adopted in ASHRAE Standard 90.1 2010 and the 2013 Standard

Shaheen-Portman Act

The Energy Savings and Industrial Competitive-ness (ESIC) Act of 2011, introduced by Senators Portman (R-Oh.) and Shaheen (D-N.H.), was a na-tional strategy to increase the use of energy ef�-ciency technologies in the residential, commercial and industrial sectors of our economy.

This bipartisan bill recommended options of avail-able low-cost tools to reduce barriers for private sector energy users and drive adoption of off-the-shelf ef�ciency technologies that will save businesses and consumers money, make orga-nizations more energy independent, and reduce emissions. Ef�ciency technologies are commer-cially available today and will pay for themselves through energy savings relatively quickly.

Part 4: Making the Business Case



The Shaheen-Portman bill further espoused the transition to a more energy-ef�cient economy, increasing both economic competitiveness and energy security for the coming decades, while stimulating the economy and encouraging private sector job creation.

In the year 2015, these concepts were amend-ed and enhanced to create Senate Bill 720- The Energy Savings and Industrial Competitive Act, also known as “Portman-Shaheen,” . It contains provisions that will create a national strategy to in-crease the use of energy ef�ciency through a mod-el building energy code; promote development of energy ef�cient supply-chains for companies; encourage the federal government to adopt and implement energy saving policies and programs; improve federal data center ef�ciency; support the deployment of energy-ef�cient technologies in schools; improve commercial building ef�ciency; and promote the benchmarking and disclosure of buildings’ energy use, among a number of other initiatives

4.3 Cost of Lighting

Lighting accounts for 35 to 50 percent of building energy consumption, averaging about 37 percent of the operational cost of a commercial building. Of the 37 percent, about 31 percent of the cost is for interior lighting and 6 percent is for exterior lighting.

Eighty-six to 88 percent of the cost of lighting is for electricity, 8 to 10 percent is for labor (install/replacement), 3 to 4 percent of the cost is for lamp replacement and 1 percent of the cost is for lamp recycling.

4.4 Energy Policy Act (EPAct) 2005

The Energy Policy Act (EPAct) 2005 contains a number of provisions that directly affect lighting in the United States. These include new lighting products subject to federal ef�ciency standards, a new tax deduction provision for energy-ef�cient lighting in commer¬cial buildings, the establish-ment of a solid state lighting program at the DOE and promotion of the American Society of Heat-ing, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) and International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) standards.

Tax incentives and loan guarantees available un-der EPAct 2005 pro¬vide a tax deduction of up to US$1.80 per square foot (US$19.40 per square meter) for building investments that achieve speci-�ed energy cost reductions beyond ASHRAE 90.1-2001. Of the US$1.80 per square foot, US$0.60 per square foot can be used for lighting, US$0.60 per square foot for HVAC and US$0.60 per square foot for the building envelope. Building envelope investments can include roofs, walls, windows, doors, �oors and foundations. To achieve the maximum deduction for lighting, US$0.60 per square foot, a 40 percent reduction from ASHRAE 90.1-2001 is required. A US$0.30 per square foot (US$0.03 per square meter) savings can be achieved for lighting when the 25 percent reduc-tion of ASHRAE 90.1-2001 is met.

To document how the lighting reductions will be made to meet EPAct requirements, a spreadsheet should be used, noting how the project meets the EPAct watts-per-square-foot requirements and meets seven other procedural requirements.

4.5 Local Utilities

Many utility companies now offer rebates for en-ergy-ef�cient improvements, especially lighting. A helpful resource for �nding information about energy-related �nancial incentives is DSIRE: Da-tabase of State Incentives for Renewables & Ef-�ciency, www.dsireusa.org. DSIRE is a com-pre-hensive source of information on state, local, utility and federal incentives and policies that promote renewable energy and energy ef�ciency. DSIRE is an ongoing project of the North Carolina So-lar Center and the Interstate Renewable Energy Council funded by the United States Department of Energy.

The site can be searched by state and lists can be �ltered by renewable type or energy-ef�cient strat-egy. Additionally, links to speci�c rules and neces-sary criteria to receive the funding are provided.

4.6 Summary

A lighting retro�t has the best return on invest-ment (ROI) of any energy-ef�cient technology with typical paybacks of 14 to 18 months. Depending upon the technology being replaced, potential energy savings, rebates and incentives, a lighting



retro�t could be a low-cost or no-cost implemen-tation. It all comes down to common sense; low-ering watts per �xture lowers kilowatt hours used, which lowers a utility bill. It is an easy concept to grasp and to implement.

Table 7: Retrofit scenarios

Notes:

• All scenarios are four lamp �xtures

• Hours of operation: 4,500 hours peryear

• Cost: US$0.10 per kilowatt hour



To further demonstrate the bene�ts of lighting retro�ts, the following case studies are provided. They range from a case study that replaces T12 lamps with T8 lamps as a retro�t, including the in-stallation of occupancy sensors for an of�ce and warehouse, to one comparing workstation lumi-naires to traditional overhead of�ce lighting com-pleted by the Lawrence Berkeley National Labo-ratory. There are also studies revolving around the use of LED lighting.

5.1 Pacific Building Care: T12 to T8 Retrofit and Addition of Occupancy Sensors

Paci�c Building Care, located in Southern Cali-fornia, recently underwent a lighting retro�t for its headquarters space. PBC specializes in green cleaning and also offers sustainable workplace consulting services, including ENERGY STAR guidance, waste stream management and lighting retro�ts. The decision to upgrade the lighting in the PBC of�ces was derived from a couple of drivers:

• Leading by example by practicing what the com¬pany preaches

• Economics

The of�ce and warehouse are about 13,000 square feet (1,200 square meters). A total of 207 �xtures with T12 lamps and magnetic ballasts were replaced with 28 watt T8 lamps with high-ef-�ciency electronic ballasts. Additionally 42 occu-pancy sensors were installed within of�ces and common areas.

After the retro�t was complete, the improvement in lighting quality was immediately evident: The yellowish light of the T12 lamps was replaced by a much whiter light produced by the T8 lamps. Lights that had stayed on during all the hours the premises were occupied were turned off by the oc-cupancy sensors when spaces were unoccupied. The total cost of the investment was US$19,301. After a rebate of US$3,300 from Southern Cali-fornia Edison, the cost of the retro�t was about US$16,000. The estimated electrical cost savings is US$15,253 annually, or about US$1,270 per month. Therefore, the payback of the project is about 12 months. After the payback pe¬riod, PBC will realize about a US$15,000 savings annually.

Figure 13: Pacific Building Care building: exterior and interior

5.2 Workstation Luminaires at the Phillip Burton Federal Building

In the summer of 2007, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) conducted a pilot study of workstation lighting for the Phillip Burton Federal Building. Two different workstation lumi-naires were installed and tested in 15 cubicles. As de�ned by the study, a workstation luminaire is an indirect/direct pendant-hung luminaire (see Fig-ure 14) that has separate control of ambient and task lighting. A dimmable lamp was used to meet ambient lighting needs and a dimmable lamp was used to provide task lighting. Ambient light was provided by uplight¬ing and task lighting by downlighting. An occupancy sensor within each luminaire was used to control both the task and ambient lighting (Rubinstein 2009a, 2009b).

Figure 14: Phillip Burton Federal Build-ing with workstation cubicle lighting

(photo provided by F. Rubinstein)

Part 5: Case Studies



Figure 15 : Workstation cubicle lighting (Rubinstein 2009a)

LBNL researchers compared the energy con-sump¬tion and lighting levels for the two types of worksta¬tion luminaires to open-plan luminaires placed over the cubicles within the building. The researchers found that the use of workstation lu-minaires re¬sulted in up to a 78 percent energy savings, when compared to U.S. national of�ce building energy use (Rubinstein 2009), see Table 9. Such a signi�cant savings can result from the use of workstation lumi¬naires because:

• Luminaires, both uplight and downlight com¬ponents, are operated based on cubicle occu-pancy/vacancy, as determined by the occupancy sensor

• Occupants select the desired lighting level whenever the cubicle is occupied

Although energy savings can be signi�cant, work¬station luminaires have a high capital cost because two dimming ballasts and an integrated control sen¬sor are required. However, in the case of the Phillip Burton Federal Building, with care-ful selection of components from several sources and the selec¬tion of Digital Addressable Light-ing Interface (DALI) capable lighting controls, the workstation luminaires were installed for about US$400 per lu¬minaire. Given an installation den-sity of about one luminaire per 100 square feet, the cost per luminaire translates to about US$4 per square foot (US$43 per square meter). If this lighting solution was considered during an invest-ment-grade lighting ret¬ro�t, the workstation lu-minaires would cost about US$2 per square foot (US$22 per square meter) more than the Govern-ment Services Administration (GSA) base lighting system (Rubinstein 2009a, 2009b).

The simple payback to compare the GSA base lighting system and the U.S. national average to the workstation luminaires was also calculated. An electrical cost, typical for a large of�ce building in San Francisco, California, of US$0.15 per kilowatt hour, including demand, was used to calculate the simple payback. It was found that the workstation luminaires would save about US$0.33 per square foot per year (US$3.60 per square meter) in light-ing energy compared to the GSA base lighting

Table 8: Workstation luminaire energy consumption compared to GSA base case and US national average

(Rubinstein 2009a, 2009b)



system, equal to about a six-year payback (Rubin-stein 2009a, 2009b).

5.3 Maines Paper and Food Service, Inc.: HID to LED-based Intelligent Lighting Sys-tem

One of the leading broad-line distributors with US$3 billion in sales and serving more than 30 states, Maines Paper and Food Service, Inc., recently upgraded its aging HID �xtures to the Digital Lumens Intelligent Lighting System in its Conklin, New York, USA headquarters. In the 460,000-square-foot facility, Maines replaced more than 480 legacy �xtures with Digital Lumens Intelligent Light Engines in both dry and refriger-ated environments (as cold as minus 20 degrees) and saved 87 percent in direct lighting energy — an annual reduction of 1,726,108 kilowatt hours per year (enough electricity to power 200 homes for a year).

The New York State Energy Research and Devel-opment Authority (NYSERDA) provided the project incentive and Maines was able to use standardized reports from the Digital Lumens LightRules man-agement software to create detailed operational reports required for measurement and veri�cation. Note: The 87 percent savings does not re�ect the savings from reducing the chiller load.

5.4 SAP Utilizes LED Lamps with Controls

SAP, is a recognized leader in corporate sustain-ability. As part of a comprehensive energy retro�t, they replaced 600 �uorescent lights with 337 LED �xtures powered and controlled by Redwood Sys-tems. SAP saw instant and ongoing energy sav-ings, reduced operational costs, and an improved workplace environment that they use as a show-case to highlight energy-ef�ciency measures with their customers.

Between their investment in LEDs and light controls, they expect to achieve approximately US$80,000 in annual operational saving and save 70 tons in carbon footprint each year.

With its unique network-based LED lighting plat-form, SAP can program its LED lights to operate according to speci�c schedules, to dim accord-

ing to individual preference, or at certain times of high-natural daylight, and to switch on and off in response to motion and occupancy. Sensors at-tached to each �xture allow for �exibility in light levels depending on the amount of light needed for the task at hand. The smooth dimming capa-bilities of the power platform also helps SAP pre-serve and extend lifetimes for the LED �xtures by reducing their operating temperatures.

SAP’s decision to switch from a traditional analog lighting system to a digital platform lets them gath-er previously inaccessible data on their power us-age. Now, facility managers can go to a dedicated website on which they can �nd up-to-the-minute detailed breakdowns of lighting usage, energy consumption, weekly light use, and see detailed, metered energy usage for demand-response pro-grams.

By making the workspace better lit, and more customizable to each individual’s preferred levels, employees have noticed improvements in light quality, which include more full-spectrum light and better color in the of�ce.

SUMMARY OF BENEFITS

• Signi�cant savings: Lighting energy usage measured by SAP has been cut by more than half, yielding more than 80,000 kilowatt hours saved annually.

• Comprehensive data on lighting related en-ergy use, readily available at any time via the Web.

• A warm, well-lit workplace that fosters pro-ductivity and comfort.

5.5 LED Retrofit at USB Data Center

LED tubes are becoming more prevalent in com-mercial space as the energy savings and light equivalencies become known and evaluated. Smart Start Lighting, a distributor of LED tubes, has put together a projected case study on the positive effects of replacing �uorescent lamps with LED lamps. DOE has stated that no other lighting technology offers as much potential to save ener-gy and enhance the quality of our building environ-ments; contributing to energy and climate change



solutions.

The study is based on the USB Data Center in Southern California. The center operates on a 24/7 basis and their goal is to reduce lighting and climate-control costs while maintaining safe and compliant light levels and thermal comfort.

The facility utilizes a combination of �xtures that contain 11,099 �uorescent lamps and 5,530 bal-lasts, consuming 2,494,876 kilowatt hours per year. At a blended kilowatt hours rate of US$0.15 the existing lighting systems cost US$374,231.40 per year for energy.

USB Data Center had explored several options to reduce energy costs, mostly exchanging �uores-cent lamps with newer, more ef�cient types. They also experimented with occupancy sensors, but in an around-the-clock operation, staf�ng precluded the effectiveness of some of these measures.

They found the challenge with staying with �uores-cent lamps and the ballasts needed to run them was the life span of the components and the con-tinual need to replace them. A retro�t with LED lamps would eliminate all existing ballasts and mit-igate the unforeseen expenses and maintenance costs related to these type �xtures.

LED replacement tubes require 60 percent less electricity than their �uorescent counterparts and operate without ballasts. They maintain ex-isting light levels, are well suited to the frequent switching associated with occupancy sensors and daylight harvesting and have a life expectancy of 50,000 hours.

The project cost to replace all �uorescent lamps with comparable LEDs in this facility would be US$470,030. It would provide a 59.72 percent reduction in energy use and carbon footprint, re-ducing energy usage by 1,489,964 kilowatt hours, and leading to a savings of US$223,494.58 per year. In energy savings alone, the ROI would be realized in about 25 months. However, after that time period, the savings would continue for the lifetime of the LEDs (about 50,000 hours).

Other savings that would be realized, not included in this study, would be utility rebates, Federal EP-ACT tax credits, Federal 50 percent Bonus Depre-ciation and the elimination of replacement lamps and ballasts.



Appendix A: Additional ResourcesAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers: www.ashrae.org

Association of Lighting and Mercury Recyclers: www.almr.org

Consortium for Energy Ef�ciency (CEE): www.cee1.org

DesignLights Consortium: www.designlights.org

ENERGY STAR: www.energystar.gov

Interior Lighting Campaign (ILC): www.interiorlightingcampaign.org

International Association of Lighting Designers: www.iald.org

International Astronomy Union: www.iau.org

The International Dark Sky Association: www.darksky.org

The International Solid State Lighting Alliance: www.isa.org

Lighting Controls Association: www. lightingcontrolassociation.org

Light Right Consortium: www.lightright.org

Light Search: www.lightsearch.com

National Lighting Bureau: www.nlb.org

Illuminating Engineering Society: www.IESNA.org

Solid-State Lighting: www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/ssl

United States Department of Energy: www.eere.energy.gov

United States Environmental Protection Agency: www.epa.gov

Utility Rebates: www.dsireusa.org

Appendix B: GlossaryBallast: An auxiliary piece of equipment required to start and to properly control the �ow of current to gas discharge light sources such as �uorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps. Magnetic bal-lasts, also called electromagnetic ballasts, contain copper windings on an iron core. Electronic ballasts are smaller and more ef�cient than magnetic ballasts and contain electronic components.

Ballast Factor (BF): The percentage of a lamp’s rated lumen output that can be expected when op-erated on a speci�c, commercially available ballast. Note that rated output is measured on a reference ballast, unlike those actually operated in the �eld. A ballast with a ballast factor of 0.93 will result in the lamp’s emitting 93 percent of its rated lumen output. A ballast with a lower BF results in less light output, and also generally consumes less power.

Bortle Class: A qualitative method of rating night skies based on visual observation. The scale ranges from pristine (Class 1) to strongly polluted (Class 9)

Bulb: Another term for lamp. A bulb refers to the outer glass containing the light source.

Candela (cd): The measure of luminous intensity of a source in a given direction for both English and metric units. The term has been retained from the early days of lighting when a standard candle of a �xed size and composition was de�ned as producing one candela in every direction; once referred to as candlepower.

Part 6: Appendices



Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL): The general term applied to �uorescent lamps that are sin-gle-end¬ed, have smaller diameter tubes compared to traditional �uorescent tubes, and are bent to form a com¬pact shape. Some CFLs have integral ballasts and medium or candelabra screw bases for easy replace¬ment of incandescent lamps.

Color Rendering Index (CRI): An international system, based on a 0 to 100 scale used to rate the ability of a lamp to render the true color of an object. The higher the CRI, the richer the color generally appears. CRI ratings of various lamps may be compared, but a numerical comparison is only valid if the lamps are close in color temperature. A CRI may be visually different when the CRI values differ by a value of at least three to �ve.

Cost of Light: Usually refers to the cost of operating and maintaining a lighting system on an ongoing basis. The 88-8-4 rule states that typically 88 percent is the cost of electricity, 8 percent is labor and 4 percent is the cost of the lamps.

Ef ciency: The fraction of electrical energy converted to light for each watt of electrical power con-sumed, without concern for the wavelength the energy is radiated.

Energy Policy Act (EPAct): Comprehensive energy legislation passed by the US Congress in 1992 and 2005. The lighting portion includes lamp labeling and minimum energy ef�cacy (lumens/watt) re-quire¬ments for many commonly used incandescent and �uorescent lamps. Canadian federal legisla-tion sets similar minimum energy ef�cacy requirements for incandescent re�ector lamps and common linear �uo¬rescent lamps.

Fluorescent lamp: A high-ef�ciency lamp utilizing electric discharge through inert gas and low pres-sure mercury vapor to produce ultraviolet (UV) energy. The UV excites phosphor materials to create visible light. The phosphor is applied as a thin layer on the inside of a glass tube (Kaufman, Christensen 1989).

Foot-candle: A unit of measure used by the English system to measure illuminance or light falling onto a surface. A foot-candle is the light level on a surface one square foot (0.1 square meters) in area with a uniformly distributed �ux of one lumen (Kaufman, Christensen 1989). One foot-candle is equal to one lu-men per square foot. For metric equivalent, see de�nition of lux.

Fully shielded: A lighting �xture that directs all light downward (below the horizontal).

Glare: A common condition caused by excessive contrast between a bright source or brightly lit area and a dark surrounding area.

Illumination: The amount of light falling onto a surface measured in lumens per unit area.

Incandescent lamp: A light source that heats a thin �lament wire, usually made of tungsten, using an electric current to generate light.

Induction lighting: A light source where light is generated by gases excited by radio frequency or micro-waves passing over a coil, inducing electromagnetic �elds. Unlike conventional discharge lamps, induc¬tion lamps do not have electrodes inside the lamp.

Kelvin (K): A unit of temperature starting from absolute zero, parallel to the Celsius temperature scale. 0°C is equal to 273K.

Kilowatt (kW): The measure of electrical power equal to 1000 watts.

Kilowatt hour (kWh): The standard measure of electrical energy and the typical billing unit used for elec-tricity use. A 100 watt lamp operated for 10 hours consumes 1,000 watt-hours (100 x 10) or one kilowatt hour.

Lamp: A generic term for a man-made light source (Kaufman, Christensen 1989). A lamp includes the complete light source, including the base, �lament, bulb and other internal parts.

Light: Radiant energy that can be sensed or seen by the human eye. Visible light is measured in lumens



(Kaufman, Christensen 1989).

Light pollution: Incidental or obtrusive aspects of outdoor lighting.

Lumens: A measure of the luminous �ux or quantity of light emitted by a source. A dinner candle pro-vides about 12 lumens. A 60 watt soft white incandescent lamp provides about 840 lumens. Lumens are used to measure luminous �ux in both the English and metric systems.

Luminaire: A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp(s), ballast(s) and the parts necessary to distrib-ute light, position the lamp, protect the lamps and connect to the power supply (Kaufman, Christensen 1989). A luminaire is often referred to as a �xture.

Lux (lx): A metric (SI) unit of measure for illuminance or light falling onto a surface. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter. Ten lux approximately equals one foot-candle. For the English equivalent, see foot-candle.

Programmed rapid start: A lamp starting method that preheats the lamp �lament and uses open circuit voltage to start the lamp. A half- to one-second delay after turning on the lamp may occur while the pre-heating process takes place.

Rapid start: A lamp starting method in which lamp �laments are heated while open circuit voltage is ap-plied to start the lamp.

T12, T8, T5: A designation for the diameter of a tubular bulb in eighths of an inch. For example, a T12 is 12/8 of an inch (38 mm) in diameter, or 1.5 inches. A T8 is 1 inch (25 mm) in diameter.

Troffer: A rectangular light �xture that �ts into a modular dropped ceiling grid (e.g., 2’ by 2’ or 2’ by 4’). Troffer �xtures have typically been designed to accommodate standard �uorescent lamps (T12, T8 or T5), but are now often designed with integral LED sources. Troffers are typically recessed sitting above the ceiling grid, but are also available in surface-mounted boxes.

Voltage: A measurement of the electromotive force in an electrical circuit or device expressed in volts. Voltage is analogous to the pressure in a waterline.

Watts: A unit of electrical power. Lamps are rated in watts to indicate the rate of energy consumption.

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