I.

SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATEDTOURISM PLANNING

A.

The costs and benefits of tourism

As the largest industry in the world, tourism has the potential tohelp deal with the key issues facing many parts of the globe and thereforecan be seen as a positive and negative force. If the costs and benefitsof tourism are understood from the outset, strengths and opportunitiescan be maximized while weaknesses and threats can be minimized. Eachtourism planning situation will be different in terms of its tourism characteristics.The costs and benefits of tourism will vary in each destination, and thesecan change over time, depending on tourism and other activities in thelocal and regional context.

Tourism can be seen as having the following benefits and costs.

Economic Benefits:

.Tourism generates local employment, both directly in the tourismsector and in various support and resources management sectors.

.Tourism stimulates profitable domestic industries -hotels andother lodging facilities, restaurants and other food services,transportation systems, handicrafts, and guide services.

.Tourism generates foreign exchange for the country and injectscapital and new money into the local economy.

.Tourism diversifies the local economy, particularly in rural areaswhere agricultural employment may be sporadic or insufficient.

.Increased tax revenues from tourists can be reaped if a local salestax is added to the provincial and federal taxes already in place.

.Employment opportunities will be created in the businesscommunities due to the influx of tourists who will need goodsand services.

.Increased entrepreneurial opportunities will provide goods andservices not already available in the community and create newtourist products.

.Improved road systems and infrastructure can be financed throughtourism attractions.

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Economic Costs:

.The jobs created through tourism may be low paying and requirefew skills.

.Inflated prices may result from local businesses attempting toraise profits or cover the cost of extra employees.

.Inflated property values may occur if the community becomesa tourist 'hot spot'. This will result in higher property taxesthat may be unfavourable for local residents.

.If tourism is seasonal at a destination, so too will be the injectionof income into the community.

.Health service provision and police services can increase duringthe tourist season at the expense of the local tax base.

.Affordability and availability of staff housing can be problematic.

Social Benefits:.The

quality of life of a community can be enhanced by economicdiversification through tourism, following the principles of sustainable

development.

.Tourism creates recreational and cultural facilities that can beused by local communities as well as domestic and internationalvisitors..Public

spaces may be developed and enhanced through tourism

activity.

.Tourism enhances local community esteem and provides theopportunity for greater understanding and communication amongpeoples of diverse backgrounds.

Social Costs:

.Rapid tourism growth can result in the inability to meet thecapacities of local amenities and institutions; quality of amenityservices can be diminished by over-use.

.Litter, vandalism, and crime are concerns associated with tourismdevelopment that will be the responsibility of the community.

.Tourism can bring overcrowding and traffic congestion. Congestioncan result in the perception of inconvenience by the residents,which is interpreted as a negative impact on their quality of life.

.Foreigners bring with them material wealth and apparent freedom.Young members of the host community are particularly susceptible

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to these economic expectations that tourists bring. The resultcan be a complete disruption of the traditional way of life in thecommunity.

.

An increase in crime may result from tourism. The communitystructure may change (including community bonds, demographics,and institutions).

The authenticity of the social and cultural environment can be

changed.

Organized events for tourists based on local social behaviourand culture can become distorted in their authenticity, which maynot be a valid representation of the local environment.

Lifestyles may be disrupted beyond levels acceptable to thehost community.

Cultural Benefits:

.Tourism can enhance local cultural awareness, but eventually mightdistort it.

.Tourism can generate income to help pay for preservation ofarchaeological sites, historic buildings, and districts.

.Despite many criticisms about alteration of cultures to unacceptablelevels, the sharing of cultural knowledge and experience can bebeneficial for both the hosts and the guests at tourist destinations,and could result in the revival of local traditions and crafts.

Cultural Costs:

.Youth in the community could begin to emulate the speech andattire of tourists..Loss

and damage to historic sites may occur through tourismdevelopment and pressures.

.Long-term damage to cultural traditions, and erosion of culturalvalues, resulting in cultural contamination beyond the levelacceptable to the host destination.

Environmental Benefits:.Nature

tourism encourages productive use of lands that are marginalfor agriculture, enabling large tracts to remain covered in naturalvegetation..Parks

and nature preserves may be created, and ecologicalpreservation supported as a necessity for nature-based tourism.

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Improved

waste management can be achieved.

Increased awareness and concern for the environment may develop.

Environmental Costs:

.Negative changes in the physical integrity of the area may occur.

.Rapid development, over development, and overcrowding canforever change the physical environment and ecosystem of an area.

.Litter, erosion, overtaxed sewage, and waste management systemsmay occur.

.Sensitive areas and habitat may be lost.

.Degradation of parks and preserves through over-use and poormanagement may result.

.Excessive waste may be generated.

.Water and air pollution may occur.

.Wear and tear on infrastructure is accelerated.

B.

Sustainable tourism defined

With the recent United Nations' directives on sustainable tourism, it isimportant to begin this section on tourism planning with a definition ofsome principles of sustainable tourism. These principles will fonn the basisfor the guidelines and comments in this document.

1. A definition of sustainable tourism

"...

the tourism industry must be profitable and environmentallysustainable if it is to provide long-term benefits, but this will notbe achieved without a new and different approach to industry planning

and development."

PATA, Endemic Tourism: A profitable industry in a sustainableenvironment, Kings Cross, NSW, Australia, 1992.

Clearly, sustainable tourism implies an approach to development aimedat balancing social and economic objectives with environmentally soundmanagement. It is not synonymous with unlimited growth of tourismdevelopment. Although we use the phrase "sustainable tourism development",this terminology can be considered misleading because it emphasizescontinued and increasing growth rather than the long-term viability orsustainability of tourism, environments, and cultures. Tourism development

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implies tradeoffs and, in fact, planning for sustainable tourism requiresidentifying possible constraints or limits for tourism development.

While tourism is welcomed almost universally for the benefits andopportunities it creates, there is a growing recognition of the need to seetourism in its environmental context, to acknowledge that tourism and theenvironment are interdependent, and to work to reinforce the positiverelationship between tourism and the environment.

Maurice Strong stated in the 1993 Report of the World Tourism andTravel Council:

"Protecting the environment is both a moral obligation and a businessimperative for the Travel and Tourism Industry. As the world'slargest industry it can effectively reach millions of customers with acoherent, compelling environmental message. And the leadership ofthe industry can and must persuade its members to adopt ecologicallysound business practices. After all, a healthy environment is the travelindustry's core product. If you can get it right, Travel and Tourismcan truly become environmentally sustainable."

2.

The basis of sustainable tourism

Over the past two decades, the inter-relatedness of all earth systems andhuman systems has become abundantly clear. We have clearly understoodthat no human action ever occurs in total isolation from other natural systems,and we have appreciated the reality that humans are dependent on theearth's limited resources. We have realized the fundamental importanceof somehow finding ways to live within the carrying capacity of the earth.

Over the last twenty years, the global community has been primed forsome fundamental changes, including a search for "sustainable development"that is based on new modes of resource allocation and accounting, newattitudes toward the preservation of environmental integrity, and new waysof making decisions in all sectors.

Among the imperatives that promote and enhance the vision ofsustainable futures, including that of a sustainable future for tourism, are thefollowing:

.

prudent use of the earth's resources within the limits of theplanet's carrying capacity;

devolution of top-down decision-making responsibilities andcapabilities to a broader range of the destination's stakeholders;the

abatement of poverty and gender inequalities, and respect forfundamental human rights;

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.enhancement of the quality of life through improved health care,shelter, nutrition, and access to education and income-generating

skills;

.preservation of biodiversity and life support systems for all naturalhabitats; and

.preservation of indigenous knowledge and ways of living, andrespect for the spiritual and cultural traditions of different people.

In fulfilling these imperatives, governments and other societal agentsmust struggle to find an appropriate balance between different, sometimesapparently conflicting needs and value systems. Sustainable developmentmust meet three fundamental and equal objectives, namely:

.economic: production of goods and services (the overridingcriterion in fulfilling this objective is efficiency);

.environmental: conservation and prudent management of naturalresources (the overriding criterion is the preservation of biodiversityand maintenance of ecological integrity); and

.social: the maintenance and enhancement of the quality of life(equity is the main consideration in meeting this objective) andinter-generational, as well as intra-generational equity in thedistribution of wealth.

Achieving sustainable tourism development requires that the privatesector and the public sector cooperate as partners in working toward asustainable society. Making decisions about sustainable tourism developmentalso requires that governments work within a broader framework than mayhave

been used traditionally, working toward decisions that are:

.longer-term: to better anticipate and prevent problems;

.multi-sectoral: to include the full range of functions of the tourismenvironment;

.ecosystem based: to recognize the cumulative and synergisticeffects of actions;

.wider: to recognize the impacts of their actions on other sectors,regions, and communities;

.deeper: to recognize that the causes and consequences of theproblems they seek to solve may involve others and otherinstitutions; and

.full-cycle: to consider the full context of resource use from initialextraction to end use.

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Individual tourist resource management decisions will have to betaken with increased understanding of all these dimensions if the goal ofsustainable futures is to be attained. Achieving sustainable futuresrequires the development of appropriate tourism on a continuum wheregrowth decisions, development viewpoints and sustainability issues arebalanced with environment and economy. In order to achieve profitabilityand environmental sustainability in the tourism industry, the tourismindustry as a whole must take a different approach to planning and

development.

3.

Relationships

We can examine the interdependent relationships between tourismand the environment in terms of the interaction of the visitor, the place,and the host community, using the framework of the tourism systemdescribed in Section I. These three elements interact with each other andare affected by external influences. The relationships are essentially two-way and can be either positive or negative.

In tenDs of visitors, we are aware of the range of impacts that growingnumbers of visitors and their growing demands have on the places andhost communities where tourism opportunities exist, and we know thatan increasing number of visitors are searching for higher quality andmore satisfying experiences. These trends can bring positive results ifthere is appropriate and sustainable tourism development in order thatthe health and well-being of visitors and local residents is ensured, sothat communication, education, awareness, and understanding grow fromtourism opportunities provided by a community and its location. If tourismis poorly managed, negative results -such as scarred landscapes fromoveruse, crowding, and traffic problems -will reduce the quality of thetourism experience and quite possibly lead to a hostile and/or exploitativehost community.

The concept of sustainability can be interpreted in a number of ways,for example, as a philosophy, as a set of principles and/or values toguide development, or as criteria or tests for determining sustainability.Sustainability is possible only if tourism resources (natural, human-madeor cultural) can be maintained over time. The idea of stewardship/trusteeship -to hold the resources of a country in trust for futuregenerations and the responsibility to pass them on in good condition -isapplicable here. This means that we want to achieve a situation that canbe maintained without depleting the resource, cheating the visitor orexploiting the local population. Achieving sustainability (economic, political,

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social, cultural, and environmental) requires an ability to accept andaccommodate change. It implies, also, that mechanisms are in place tomediate between different interests, which mayor may not be true inany particular setting or situation.

In general, the terminology associated with sustainable tourismis inconsistent and frequently confusing. In spite of this variability interminology, various actors, and interests have attempted to define theirperspectives on goals, practices, effects, and expectations of tourism.

4.

Principles for sustainable tourism

Many destinations are now pursuing strategies that aim to ensure asensitive approach when dealing with tourism. Many of these strategiesare based on a formal expression of principles for sustainable tourism.Planners and others can use these principles as basi~ guidelines whenattempting to incorporate the broad vision of sustainability into localpolicies and practices.

The list of principles provided below are important for destinationsand organizations that wish to be guided by the ethic of sustainable andresponsible tourism.

Residents

of a community must maintain control of tourism developmentby being involved in setting a community tourism vision, identifyingthe

resources to be maintained and enhanced, and developing goalsand strategies for tourism development and management. Equallyimportant, community residents must participate in the implementationof strategies as well as the operation of the tourism infrastructure,services, and facilities.

2 A tourism initiative should be developed with the help of broad-based stakeholder input.

3. Tourism development must provide quality employment. The provisionof fulfilling jobs has to be seen as an integral part of any tourismdevelopment. Part of the process of achieving quality employment isto ensure that, as much as possible, the tourism infrastructure(hotels, restaurants, shops, etc.) is developed and managed by localpeople. Experience has demonstrated that the provision of educationand training for local residents and access to financing for localbusinesses and entrepreneurs are central to this type of policy.

4. Broad-based distribution of the benefits of tourism must occur at thetourism destination. Local linkages and resident participation in

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the planning, development, and operation of tourism resources andservices will help to ensure that a more equitable distribution ofbenefits will occur among residents, visitors, and other service providers.

5. Sustainable tourism development has to provide for intergenerationalequity. Equitable distribution of the costs and benefits of tourismdevelopment must take place among present and future generations.To be fair to future generations of tourists and the travel industry,society should strive to leave a resource base no less than the onewe

have inherited. Sustainable tourism development must, therefore,avoid resource allocation actions that are irreversible.

6.

A long-tenD planning horizon needs to be adopted by businessesand destination tourism organizations to ensure that destinations arenot used for short-tenD gain and then abandoned as visitor tastesand business interests move elsewhere. A longer-tenD horizonencourages the use of proactive strategies to ensure destinationsustainability and the establishment of local linkages over time.

7.

Hannony is required between the needs of a visitor, the place, andthe community. This is facilitated by broad stakeholder support

with a proper balance between economic, social, cultural, and humanobjectives, and a recognition of the importance of cooperation amonggovernment, the host communities, and the tourism industry, and thenon-profit organizations involved in community development andenvironmental protection.

8. Tourism strategies and plans must be linked with a broader set ofinitiatives and economic development plans.

9. A need exists for more coordination at both policy and actionlevels among the various agencies involved and among differentlevels of government. This is particularly relevant to tourism andenvironmental policies. Service provisions such as transportation,parking, and water and sewer capacities must also be considered inconjunction with tourism plans and developments.

10. Cooperation among attractions, businesses, and tourism operators isessential given that one business or operation can be directly affectedby the performance or quality of another.

11.

There is a definite need for impact assessment of tourism developmentproposals. The capacity of sites must be considered, includingphysical, natural, social, and cultural limits and development should be

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compatible with local and environmental limits. Plans and operationsshould be evaluated regularly with adjustments as required.

Guidelines have to be established for tourism operations, includingrequirements for impact assessment. There should be codes ofpractice established for tourism at all levels -national, regional andlocal. There is also a need to develop indicators and threshold limitsfor measuring the impacts and success of local tourism ventures.Protection and monitoring strategies are essential if communities areto protect the resources that form the basis of their tourism product.

12.

Tourism planning must move away from a traditional growth-orientedmodel to one that focuses on opportunities for employment, incomeand improved local well-being while ensuring that developmentdecisions reflect the full value of the natural and cultural environments.The management and use of public goods such as water, air, andcommon lands should include accountability on behalf of the usersto ensure that these resources are not abused.

Sustainable tourism development requires the establishment ofeducation and training programmes to improve public understandingand enhance business, vocational and professional skills.

14.

15.

Sustainable tourism development involves promoting appropriate usesand activities that draw from and reinforce landscape character, senseof place, community identity and site opportunity. These activitiesand uses should aim to provide a quality tourism experience thatsatisfies visitors while adhering to the other principles of sustainabletourism.

The scale and type of tourism facilities must reflect the limits ofacceptable use that resources can tolerate. Small-scale, low impactfacilitie~ and services should be encouraged, for example, throughfinancing and other incentives.

16.

The tourism process must also ensure that heritage and naturalresources are maintained and enhanced using internationally acceptablecriteria and standards.

17.

Sustainable tourism marketing should include the provision of a highquality tourist experience which adheres to the other principlesoutlined above, and whose promotion should be a responsible and anethical reflection of the destination's tourism attractions and services.

18.

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These principles are ambitious, and it is fair to say very difficultto achieve so that tourism developments that will always adhere to all ofthese principles. However, these principles must be seen as targets for alltourism planning.

c. ~rategic integrated sustainabletourism planning

The nature of sustainable tourism development requires a process ofplanning and management that brings together a series of interests and

concerns in a sustainable and strategic form of planning and development.Tourism planning continues to be contentious and somewhat nebulous,because

most government officials and tourism industry practitionersharbour their own definitions and parameters of the task. By its verynature, planning is multi-dimensional and is purposely integrative.

Even in the less complex circumstances of some Asian and Pacificcountries at early phases of tourism development, it is necessary forthose with the responsibility to oversee- or administer tourism planning inthe public interest to be cognizant of two special dimensions: strategicplanning and integrated planning.

1. Need for integrated tourism planning

Although there is evidence that some tourism destinations have beendeveloped without conscious, strategic and integrated planning, many ofthem have experienced unforeseen consequences that have led to theirdeterioration.

The need for planning(a)

Some managers and decision-makers argue that we are overwhelmedwith plans and planning processes. Others argue that we require moreregulation and planning in order to ensure that the goals of sustainabletourism can be met. There are others who maintain that we require lessplanning and possibly less regulation. There is no right answer to thelevel of planning that a particular situation calls for and clearly everysocietal context will determine what is appropriate. Similarly, thoughsustainable tourism calls for a high level of local involvement in planningand developing tourism, the amount and quality of resident participationwill vary depending on the cultural and political factors in the destination.It is obviously useless to develop a sophisticated planning system ifthere is no political or community support for it. In these cases, one

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might first have to create an appropriate setting or structure for aplanning process that avoids the failures of past planning practices.

(b) The failures of traditional planning

Many people are sceptical about the effectiveness of planning. Theysee it as a waste of time since most plans never see the light of day andend up on a shelf. In many cases, planning in the past has tended to bevery much based on developing regulatory procedures as opposed tocreating suitable mechanisms for achieving the goals and objectivesdeveloped within the planning process. The failure of traditional andrational approaches to planning can be attributed to a number of factorsas discussed below.

(i) Lack of flexibility

The logical, rational approach to planning, it has been argued, hasmade plans far too rigorous and unable to adapt to changing conditions.Unless the external environment is perceived to be quite static, a detailedstepwise approach that is rigorously adhered to could make it verydifficult for the organization or destination to create an optimal fit betweenits resources and the forces influencing tourism in its setting. A dynamicapproach as provided through strategic planning principles enables a dynamicplanning process, better able to adapt to changes.

(ii) Lack of strategic thinking and vision

A major criticism has been launched against traditional, rationalplanning approaches by some researchers who argue that such planslack leadership vision in the process of formulating strategies. Theinclusion of "strategic vision" by leaders and decision-makers (not technicalplanning experts) ensures that the plan is not merely an operational plan,but provides direction and concepts for achieving the organizations broadgoals and interests.

(iii) Ineffective top-down planning

Planning by the destination's planning officials or by retainingplanning experts from outside the destination results in a plan which isunable to effectively represent the diverse opinions, needs and attitudesof a range of tourism stakeholders. The chances of successfulimplementation of such a top-down plan is further inhibited by the lackof community support and involvement in the process, particularly inpolitical

systems where residents seek greater participation in the decision-making of their community direction.

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(iv) Poor linking of formulation and implementation

Another major impediment to planning has been the inability to linkformulation of the plan to the outcomes of implementation so as toensure accountability and to measure the success of the planning exercise.The lack of clear, easy to implement actions and responsibilities to ensureaccountability for carrying out the actions, has been a deterrent toeffective implementation. A clearly defmed relationship between theplanning and implementation of action steps must be present to ensureeffective delivery of both the tourism experience and the sustainability ofthe destination's assets and resources.

Strategic tourism planning -an action planning approach(c)

A strategic planning approach is essential for sustainable tourism,wh~reby the disparate planning and development activities related totourism are linked to an overall, broad strategic tourism plan to providean integrated framework for directing tourism.

Strategic planning seeks an optimal fit between the system and itsenvironment. Hence, it:

is long-term;

contains vision;

specifies goals (ends);

specifies major actions (means) to achieve goals;

specifies the major resource allocations to arrive at (ways);

is dynamic, flexible and adaptable;

ensures that formulation and implementation of the strategic planare not discrete, but linked closely through constant monitoring,environmental scanning, evaluation and adjustment; and

is not a linear process (e.g., constant environmental scanningoccurs throughout the process to enable proactive response andadjustment; monitoring can start as soon as target indicators andlevels are established to provide base line information).

A strategic approach to a sustainable community tourism plan alsorequires:

close coordination with local and regional legislative and politicalstructures;

community participation and support;

.

a new role for planners as educators and providers of technicalexpertise, but not solely plan designers; the plan is designedprimarily by those who have a stake in the outcome;

an innovative and inclusive organizational structure for joint

planning;

a learning community that is informed, educated and aware;

applying the principles of sustainable tourism development toensure the long-term sustainability of the ecology, the localeconomy and the socio-cultural values of the host community,while distributing the benefits equitably among the stakeholders.

(i) The nature of strategic tourism plans

Sustainable tourism planning requires a strategic planning approach,which seeks an optimal fit between the system and its environmentthrough the creation of a long-term direction (vision), goals and strategiesfor the allocation of resources and monitoring impacts, and detailed actionplans.

This is achieved through dynamic, flexible and adaptable planning,where:

The fonnulation and implementation are closely linked throughconstant environmental scanning, monitoring, evaluation andadjustment of the strategic plan.

The plan is created by a broad and diverse group of actors(stakeholders) whose needs, attitudes and values are closelyreflected in the plan's philosophy, vision and contents.

There is a clear recognition of the interdependence among thevarious components of the plan, which is considered in thecreation and implementation of goals and strategies.

Planning approaches span a broad spectrum, ranging from a rational,lockstep approach all the way to strategic, broad-based plans. Despite thisproliferation,

a good plan generally contains the following elements andaction steps:

.Vision and/or mission statement

.Situation (issues) analysis

.Strategic goals

.Evaluation of strategic alternatives to achieving these goals

.Strategies

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.

Implementation of strategies (measurable objectives and detailed

action plans)Monitoring and evaluation of implementation strategies and

action plansAdjusting the strategic and operational plans based on informationfeedback from evaluation and constant scanning of the external

environment

(ii) Strategic planning principles

Strategic tourism planning requires careful consideration of the goalsand principles of sustainable tourism. Some of the goals and principlesthat should be considered in tourism planning are:

Economic:.Development which takes into account the full costs and benefits

of the alternatives and decision embarked upon, from an overall

economic and social perspective.

.Broad-based distribution of benefits among all stakeholders.

.Provision of a quality visitor experience that is compatible withthe destination's goals and values.

.Ensure that fiscal costs of infrastructure provision and marketingdo not outweigh the benefits (for example, residents may endup paying higher taxes to subsidize tourism development butmay not benefit from improved income, social services, use of oraccess to the publicly constructed infrastructure, education and

training opportunities, etc.

Socia/:

.Steady employment avoids the underemployment and unemploy-ment associated with seasonal hiring for peak tourism periods.

.Better employment opportunities than the low pay positions typicallyassociated with tourism services.

.Quality jobs that encourage the use of local knowledge, skillsand traditions, and offer a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction to

the residents..Improved standard of living and equitable distribution of benefits

within (and between) generations in the present and future.

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Ecological:

.Maintenance of essential ecological processes, biological diversityand non-renewable resources for future generations (throughpreservation or conservation strategies).

.Planning at a scale and pace that enables effective and ongoingmonitoring and mitigation of long-term impacts.

.Full-cost accounting of environmental resources in cost-benefit

analyses.

.An environmental and cumulative impact that analyses importantprerequisites to development, and environmental managementsystems needs to be implemented by businesses and organizations.

Cultural:

.Tourist activities and behaviours should be respectful of culturalactivities, sites and values.

.Designs should be compatible with national and local heritage andcharacter and should foster the community's identity or sense of

place.

Tourist types and activities should match the needs andexpectations of the local people, with protection of sensitiveand indigenous cultures against any adverse impact.

.

Political:

.Compatibility between overall economic development goals ofregional and community interests and tourism goals.

.Integration of plans and planning with other relevant communityand regional plans and processes.

.Balance top-down planning with resident input and participationin planning and development.

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(d) Strategic tourism planning -an action process

The major steps in a strategic planning process for tourism for acommunity-based destination is outlined in the figure that follows. Notethat while the steps appear sequential, the process is an iterative one,with feedback loops connecting the various stages. It is also important tonote that this is a recommended process -each nation/destination mayneed to tailor this process to suit its own requirements, norms and values.

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Decision to begin a planning process

Detennination of overall policy goals

Develop stakeholder visions

Situational analysis

Develop planning goals and objectives

Analysis

Plan formulation

Implementation

Monitoring

2. Means of achieving strategic actionoriented integrated tourism policy

Tourism planning can operate at many levels:

.The individual site. (Examples include a beach, heritage site, parkor theme park.)

.The destination. (In some cases the site and the destination maybe the same, but usually it refers to the larger geographicalsetting where the site is situated.)

.A region within a country. (This can be a geographic or politicalboundary or it can be based on tourism attraction factors.)

.The nation. (Especially true in the case of smaller island countries.)

.Several countries. (A good example is the area around theMekong River that is being presented as a theme-relateddestination involving several countries.)

There can be little argument that there should be integration withineach of the levels and across all levels, so as to achieve balance, aesthetic

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harmony, cooperation, confidence (for investment), efficiency, identity,sensitivity and most importantly sustainability.

These aspirations of integration can be achieved through preparationof a tourism policy, which is a policy for tourism following a systematic

process.

Developing a Tourism Policy:

Policies can help guide a government and other stakeholders'programmes of action and provide a frame of reference for the tourismindustry's actions. If we are to achieve sustainable tourism, it is alwayspreferable that a set of tourism policies be developed either as a set ofdistinct tourism objectives or better still that all levels and areas ofpolicy formation integrate tourism directives in their decision-making

process.

Such a policy should:

.provide a set of guidelines for the actions of all stakeholders;.specify the broad objectives to be achieved;.specify action plans; and.identify areas of responsibility and power for policy implementation.

Tourism objectives should be the product of stakeholder participationand recognize the complexity of tourism development and management. Itis rare where there will be a classic policy development process. Politicalpriorities, power realities, economic development requirements and industrypressures will very much influence what occurs in the policy developmentprocess. Ideally at least, the role that tourism should play in the overallnational as well as regional development should be clearly articulated andunderstood. Only then can other areas of public and private developmentreflect tourism objectives and priorities. The officials responsible foreconomic development, environmental protection and tourism are justexamples where the policy and decision-making areas of activity meetor should meet.

Each objective should be tested for its general applicability andcontribution to broad objectives related to overall sustainable developmentwith specific attention to:

.energy and water conservation;

.employment;

.economic growth;

.infrastructure plans;

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enviromnental and resource conservation;urban and rural revitalization;

heritage conservation;consumer protection;community welfare;business

creation.

.....

A commitment to the achievement of a satisfactory tourism policyrequires a set of objectives that focus on the following issues:

Economic:

It is necessary to optimize the contribution of tourism and recreation toeconomic prosperity, full employment, regional economic development, andimproved international balance of payments.

Socio-cultural:

It is essential to contribute to the personal growth and education ofthe population and encourage their 'appreciation of the local geography,history,

and ethnic diversity. Social policy should also seek to avoidactivities that have the potential to undennine or denigrate the social andcultural values and resources of the area and its traditions and lifestyles.

Market development oriented:

Policies must encourage the free entry of foreign visitors, whilebalancing this goal with the need to monitor persons and goods enteringthe

country with laws protecting public health.

Resource protection and conservation:

Policies must protect and preserve the historical and culturalfoundations as a living part of community life and development and toensure future generations an opportunity to enjoy the rich heritage of thearea. These policies will also ensure the compatibility of tourism, recreational,and activity policies with other broader interests in energy developmentand conservation, environmental protection, and judicious use of naturalresources.

Hwnan resource development:

It is important to ensure that tourism has an adequate supply ofprofessionally-trained skilled and managerial staff to meet future needs.Hwnan resource policies should also ensure that the education and trainingprogrammes and materials are available to meet the needs of tourism.

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Government operations concerns:

Policies must help to coordinate government activities related totourism while allowing the public sector to take a leadership role bysupporting the needs of tourists, residents and tourism businesses withappropriate legislation and administration.

Most countries will have developed their own style of policy-making.It is important that the policy for tourism be consistent in its general aimand orientation and be readily integrated with other policy areas. Lateral(with other policy areas) and vertical (internal) linkages must be integrated.

A policy process progresses to strategies, plans, programmes, legislationand regulations. It is important that each stage at any level (national/

regional/local) be carefully integrated laterally and vertically.

3. Developing the tourism plan

There is no single model of tourism plan or one process. There are manyvariations in content, style, approach and emphasis, and some possibilitiesare

identified here.

(a) Alternative plan approaches

A master plan is the principal instrwnent of planning for tourism.Such a plan may be comprehensive and wide-ranging, or it may focus onone or a combination of:

.physical/environmental issues;

.economic issues;.promotion and marketing;.conservation (of environment or heritage resources);.socio-cultural issues;.investment;.human resources development.

On a temporal scale, the master plan may focus on a short-termtime scale (five years, perhaps to coincide with the cycles of the nationaleconomic strategy), or it may focus on an indeterminate scale withindications of preferred end-states or achievements, not associated with

particular time periods.

Other differences in approach may cover:

.attitudes to spontaneous development (strict or flexible planning);

.degree of incentives and technical assistance;.apportionment of benefits;

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....

integration with tourism-related activities;certainty of site prescription;supervision;regulation and strategy support.

An important element in any tourism plan is the degree to which itis integrated with the nation-wide or region-wide economic, welfare andphysical

development plan.

Tourism plans prepared in recent years, and those to be prepared,should include specific reference to:

.ecological sustainability;

.environmental conservation;.heritage (built environment) and cultural heritage conservation;.sustainable development of heritage resources.

(b) Content

For any particular nation, the plan could adopt a particular focus,perhaps for only one of the review phases. However, a generalized prospectus

of contents would include:

.the institutional or organizational framework, setting out:.the principal organizations;.the principal responsibilities;.the legislative framework;.the roles and functions of the private and public sectors.

.the principal plan elements, such as:.infrastructure;.facilities and services;.visitor attractions.

.development implications -economic, environmental, and socio-cultural;

.the principal means of securing implementation, including:.financing and investment;.incentives;.marketing;.promotion;.tourism infonnation systems;.tourism awareness programmes;.human resources development.

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The plan of any nation may refer to regional cooperation in thevarious aspects of tourism planning and development, and the contributionwhich can be made to the regional circumstances.

In some cases, the emphasis of the plan may direct the considerationsaway from the physical dimensions of the tourism development. Thiswould be unfortunate, because no matter what form the developmenttakes, the tourism experience of the visitor will take place in a region, ina destination, at a site. Therefore, it is important that these particularaspects of tourism planning are given due attention.

The form and structure of physical plan elements(c)

Tourism planning may focus on the nation, the region, a destination,or a site. Integration of all these will achieve the most satisfactoryoutcome. In the context of physical development, tourism planning atany level can be conducted with attention to spatial form and structure.

Regional(i)

There are various operational issues linked to the principal detenninantsof regional fom and structure. Experimentation is ongoing, but there aresome constant principles. The basic options include:

.using existing developments as magnets and regional control

factors;

.creating new developments;

.creating a hierarchical network of tourism destinations by devisinga balanced strategy;

.developing a region-wide strategy, eliminating those areas thathave little tourism potential, devising a destination-focusedstrategy, devising a tour or circuit strategy; and

.developing a strategy of complementary tourism destinations,with each destination specializing in focus or market segment.

The

basic fonD and structural patterns include:

.concentration of tourism development and cotTidors linking:

.major resorts;

.tourism destination areas; and.base camps on the threshold of a tourism region.

gateways or points of entry into the destination areas.

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Variants on this basic spatial formula exist in tourism planningliterature and in many case studies worldwide. The dilemma for the Asianand Pacific region is to re-interpret the land-based concepts of regionalform and structure into a region specific idiom.

(ii) Destination area

The destination area contains the critical mass of resources, facilitiesand amenities that contribute to the satisfaction of tourists.

The basic elements of a tourism destination area or zone are:

.one or more communities to supply the utilities, services andfacilities;

one or more attraction complexes;

transportation linkages between the communities and the attractions;and

.an entrance or gateway at the destination.

An important principle in the planning and design of tourism destinationsis that they be distinctive places with unique internal relationships betweenthe various parts (other places and the various facilities and services).

The destination is what attracts the tourist. To be successful, thetourism destination should be planned to maximize:

.the locational advantage;

.the product advantage (in comparison with competitor destinations);

.the advantage of proximate cultural resources and naturalresources;

transport linkages; and

hospitable host attitudes.

.

There is no single formula for successful destination tourism, but thereare planning and design principles appropriate to the destination scale.These include:

.the destination should be integrated into a region-wide strategy;

.the destination should attract (or create) a distinctive image;

.successful destination planning will involve:

.public-private partnership;

.integration; and

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.

progressive accumulation of the critical mass of attractions,services, facilities, amenities, and transport linkages -allwithin carrying capacity limits.

(iii) Site scale

The scale of this tourism planning is a particular challenge, because atthis scale a single, functional or aesthetic problem can seriously disruptthe image of a tourism destination. If the tourism business on any site fails,it becomes a monwnent to bad decision-making that may affect an entiredestination by association.

At this level, "place" takes on a particular important meaning. It isnot only the contribution each place makes to the entire destination, butalso a geographical reference point and landmark.

It is at the site scale that regional and destination tourism planningyield concrete outcomes, and at this level the projections and predictionsof demand for facilities, services and experiences materialize. Therefore,a special understanding of the site characteristics, their potential andconstraints, and the contribution of the site to the wider destinationarea become crucial. It is also critical that the planning, management andmonitoring processes be efficient at this scale. In order to avoid the repetitionof inappropriate design and development, post-development evaluationshould become an integral part of the planning process, especially todetermine the validity of the predevelopment design decisions.

4. Physical development strategy

In order to implement the tourism development proposals examined atthe various levels (national, regional, destination and site), it is necessaryto provide a suitable physical development planning strategy. Animportant element of any physical development strategy is land useplanning. It is important to recognize that many countries may have landuse strategies but they are unevenly enforced and lack support at locallevels. In some cases, there may not yet be a policy.

There are four different approaches to land use planning:

.Blueprint planning, which is based on the expectation that thefull plan as prepared will be implemented exactly and in itsentirety. Such an expectation is unrealistic, because no planever starts with complete information and functions within acompletely controlled operational environment. Such a plan type istoo inflexible.

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.Regulatory planning, which relies upon the application ofdevelopment perfonnance standards with the possibility of alldevelopment eventually conforming to previously set model codesand standards. While easy to implement, the built environmentmay become monotonous and repetitive. Even so, some fonD ofregulatory planning is inevitable.

.Market-driven planning, which is best suited to individualprojects, rather than to planning strategies for entire communitiesor regions.

.A systems-driven approach to planning which is becomingmore common, especially as planning functions are needed toaddress increasingly complex situations involving threats tothe environment and as development is increasingly scrutinizedaccording to ecologically-sustainable principles. This approachprovides for review, monitoring and adjustment as circumstanceschange in the plan.

The land use planning system most likely will combine the compatibleelements of the systems-driven methodology and the regulatory approachto planning.

In many cases, the system of land use planning control is derivedfrom standard European or North American codes of planning practiceand then modified to meet the needs of national governments andadministrative systems. Usually, a land use planning control system inforce for the planning system is backed by appropriate legislation whichprovides

for control over land use and development, specified administrativeprocedures, and necessary infrastructure development.

F or tourism development, the most important issues in land useplanning and development will include:

.location of tourism uses;

.accessibility to and travel within tourism districts/zones;

.development standards;

.design standards;

.traffic problems;

.quality of the built environment;

.landscaping of tourism developments;

.free-standing major developments;

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.tourism attractions in rural environments;

.location of the major transport interchanges such as airports,and bus/coach terminals; and

.impact of tourism development on local architectural styles and

important areas of heritage.

To achieve a good standard of land use development, the planning

system should:

.

coordinate development-related infrastructure requirements;

implement appropriate concepts and ideas in order to achieveacceptable, conventional standards of aesthetics, health, convenienceand diversity (of interest, experience, and culture);

promote development where and when appropriate;

provide the developer with prior knowledge of the developmentrequirements (in the form of performance standards);

prevent prejudicial development (by type, location, timing, or

quality);reflect acceptable changes in standards and fashions; and

facilitate innovation.

It may be claimed that the best plans and developments have beenthe outcome of deliberate planning using a systematic planning anddecision-making process, but there are examples of successful plans anddevelopments which have not emerged from the application of asystematic process. Such development may be considered to have beenfortuitous, fragile, or both. In any case, the pursuit of a systematicprocess should offer the best chance of successful and harmonious

tourism development.

5.

Implementation of a tourism plan

It is preferable to consider the planning process as a continuumthat integrates the steps of plan creation with its implementation.

Stages of implementation can include the following:

.preparing and putting into practice guidelines, regulations andpolicies necessary to bring the plan to fruition;

.undertaking development in accordance with the plan;

.supervising that development;

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.

preparing the community for the impact of tourism development;

preparing and providing training facilities for those intending towork in the tourism/travel/hospitality industry;

.collecting infonnation to monitor the progress of the plan as itis put into practice;

.undertaking marketing and promotion to ensure that the tourismdestination is known and appreciated for what it has to offer.

A tourism plan is a tool to guide development. Little, if anything, willhappen without:

.....

a suitable legislative and administrative structure;suitable sources of finance;suitable entrepreneurial interest;evidence of demand for the tourism product at the destination; andcertainty of access by visitors.

In addition, a tourism plan At any level, especially at nationaland regional levels, will need desegregation so that the various resourceneeds -land/water, labour and capital -are seen in their spatial, temporal,financial, infrastructure, and social inter-relationships. An additionalconsideration is the likely impact of forces external to the destinationarea, especially the impact of decisions, international airlines that servicethe region, and the international tour operators who facilitate the arrivalof tourists.

D.

Institutional framework

There is considerable evidence of the need for an effective institutionalframework if tourism development is to be coordinated, efficiently supervised,monitored and integrated into the overall scope of national economic,environmental and social planning. It is important that the institutionalframework encompasses organizations from both the public and theprivate sector. A coordinated framework is necessary because of thefragmented nature of the tourism industry.

The tourism plalUling process provides the catalyst for inputs fromthe various stakeholders with the outcome of decisions affecting tourismdevelopment. Even after the preparation of a tourism development plan, thefinal outcome is dependent upon the integrated realization of a series ofindependent development decisions based upon the pursuit of individualopportunities.

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The public ~ector, the private sector, non-profit organizations, thecommunity, and tourists play important roles in tourism planning and

development.

In each case, there will be particular perspectives on tourismdevelopment, the need for tourism planning, and the shape of thatplanning. The principal perspective of the public sector is to managedevelopment to achieve community goals in the public interest. For theprivate sector, the principal function is to provide facilities and servicesto tourists while maximizing returns on investment. The private sector hasalso come to accept that it has social and environmental responsibilities.It is recognized that entrepreneurial flair may create tourism developmentopportunities beyond those identified in the prepared tourism plan. Theformal plan should be composed with sufficient flexibility to accommodatesuch initiatives, especially if it is responding to shifts in touristpreferences. Some changes in preferences may be identified through theconstant monitoring and evaluation of tourism activity by consultants,market research investigators, design professionals and project managers.Financial institutions and corporate lending agencies will have a particularinterest in the changes of fashion and the dicates of the tourism market.

The World Tourism Organization (WTO) has described the distinctroles of the public and private sector by the principle that governmentsshould not seek to do what the private sector is able and willing to do.However, in many cases of large-scale development, the private sector andgovernment may work in a partnership. Other partnerships may developwhere governments assist indigenous landowners to start an enterprisethat will be managed eventually by indigenous communities.

The perspective of the tourist on tourism planning is different fromthe other stakeholders. The interests of every tourist cut across the

various independent decisions made by governments and the privatesector, and the tourist is concerned with the experience that can be gained.

One of the main purposes of tourism planning is to create a harmoniousbalance between the different interests of the various stakeholders. Thisbalance may be achieved through the establishment of an appropriatemulti-faceted institutional framework.

In some tourism development plans, an effective institutional frameworkis considered to be one of the principal determinants of successful tourism

development.

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