Sustainable Use of Quarry Dust

Research funded through Defra’s Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund

SUSTAINABLE UTILISATION OF QUARRY BY-PRODUCTS

THEME 2 - SUSTAINABLE PROVISION OF AGGREGATES

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SUSTAINABLE AGGREGATES

Written by: Evaggelia Petavratzi, Scott Wilson

Edited by: Abbie Drew, MIRO; Neil Roberts

Designed by: Sadie Ferriday, MIRO

Sustainable Aggregates:

Aggregate resources produced from sand and gravel deposits, crushed rock or dredged from the sea contribute to the

economic and social well being of the UK. Their production and supply has environmental effects.

The Aggregate Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) has provided funding to undertake work to minimise and mitigate these

effects. This report is part of a portfolio of work that reviews ALSF and other work undertaken between 2002-2007 on

‘promoting environmentally-friendly extraction and transport’ of land-won aggregates to provide a state of knowledge

account and to highlight the gaps in our understanding and practices.

This publication and references within it to any

methodology, process, service, manufacturer, or company

do not constitute its endorsement or recommendation

by the Minerals Industry Research Organisation, English

Heritage or The Department for Environment, Food and

Rural Affairs

Sustainable Aggregates Sustainable U

tilisation of Quarry By-Products

3

Executive Summary 5

1. Introduction 7

1.1 Scope of study 7

2 Quarry fines – definition and general description 9

2.1 Overview of Quarry Fines Production 9

2.2 Quarry scalpings 9

2.3 Quarry fines 10

2.4 The legislative framework Affecting quarry product 11

2.4.1 Minerals Planning 11

2.4.2 The Aggregates Levy 12

2.4.3 Mining Waste Directive 13

2.4.4 Interpretive Communication on waste and by-products 14

2.5 A fit-for-purpose Criteria For quarry fines (and dust) 15

2.5.1 Generation of quarry fines and dust – parameters of influence 16

2.5.2 European Standards 16

2.5.3 Highways Agency specifications 17

2.6 Summary 18

3 Production of quarry fines and mitigation practices 21

3.1 Production of quarry fines in the U.K. 21

3. 2 Minimising the generation of quarry Fines 27

4 Utilisation opportunities for quarry fines 31

4.1 The use of quarry fines in unbound applications 32

4.1.1 Bulk filling applications 32

4.1.2 Road pavement construction 33

4.1.3 Soil enhancement 34

4.1.4 Composting 35

4.1.5 Artificial soils 36

4.1.6 Filler applications 37

4.1.7 Other applications 37

4.2 The use of quarry fines in bound applications 38

CONTENTS

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4.2.1 Controlled low strength materials 38

4.2.2 Construction products – Manufactured Concrete 40

4.2.3 Construction products – Heavy ceramics 42

4.2.4 Construction products – Manufactured aggregates 44

4.2.5 Hydraulically Bound Mixtures 46

4.2.6 Asphalt applications 48

4.3 Summary of potential utilisation routes for quarry by-products 50

5 Barriers to utilisation 53

6 Conclusions 57

7 Recommendations for future work 59

References 61

Appendix 75

Appendix I: Past research MIST projects 75

Appendix ii: The interpretative communication on waste and by-products (com (2007) 59 final) 75

Appendix III: Fit- for- purpose requirements 78

Appendix iv: Technical specifications for manufactured concrete products 79



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Quarry dusts can include material from aggregate

washing or from filtration systems.

Quarry fines below 6 mm are an integral part

of many aggregate products, but are sometimes

produced in excess quantities that do not match

market demand. Where a production/market

imbalance exists, aggregate producers need to

identify alternative utilisation routes. Often the

inclusion of high quantities of dust (particles below

75 µm) requires further processing to remove the

unwanted fractions.

There is no consistent definition for quarry

fines used throughout the quarrying sector or

construction industry. This leads to confusion

of definitions in the published literature. The

phrases quarry fines, dusts and wastes are used

interchangeably, and are used to refer to materials

which are of different particle size ranges, may, or

may not be produced intentionally, and which may

not be waste materials at all. In order to clarify

future reporting, consistent definitions for quarry

fines (and dusts and scalpings) should be developed

and applied.

One of the major obstacles to utilisation is the

absence of specifications by the industry that

describe the different types of quarry fines

according to their physical properties (such

as composition, particle size) and potential

end uses. The current European standards for

aggregates provide some fit-for-use criteria

applicable to quarry fines, primarily related to

grading specifications. Fine aggregate is defined

as the fraction of material below 4 mm for use

in concrete, mortar, unbound and hydraulically

bound mixtures, and below 2 mm for inclusion in

asphalt products. Figures on available resources and

quantities of quarry fines are based on estimates

rather than real data and this is considered as a

substantial barrier towards utilisation.

This study investigated the potential use of quarry

fines in unbound and bound applications. Quarry

fines may find their most economically viable use

in quarry restoration. Certain types of quarry

fines may be suitable for a variety of end uses with

an associated profit for the aggregate producer.

Literature review has shown that quarry fines are

suitable for use in bulk fill applications (for example,

backfilling, infilling, general fill), in road pavement

construction, in remediation and for the production

of artificial soils and compost. To some extent,

quarry fines are currently supplied into these end

uses depending on the availability of aggregate

resources within geographical proximity in the

This report provides a desk study on the sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products, focussing on quarry fines. In this report, the term quarry fines refers namely material below 6 mm from aggregate and sand and gravel production, and includes quarry dusts (material below 75 µm). Quarry fines are considered to be deliberately produced to fulfil the grading requirements of specifications. That is, the definition of quarry fines in this report does not restrict itself to material below 6 mm which is excess to market requirements.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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market. Other end uses such as fillers in paper

and paint or the use of quarry fines in Portland

cement have been trialled or have been used on

single occasions. The inclusion of quarry fines in

innovative products (such as, green roofs, cob

building) have not been implemented as yet. Bound

applications reviewed in this report include various

construction products such as concrete, heavy

ceramics, and manufactured aggregates, in flowable

fills, hydraulic mixtures and asphalt. Trials have been

undertaken for all these applications and some of

them are in use in individual cases.

Some of the barriers to utilisation identified

through this desk study are related to the location

of quarry fines, the limited awareness of potential

markets by aggregate producers, the limited

knowledge about quarry fines arisings and their

characteristics, and the absence of fully developed

fit-for-use specifications for a wide range of end

products. Future projects should investigate such

barriers, and this report proposes four possible

areas for future work:

n Mapping quarry fines: Quantities of excess

quarry fines should be determined in order

to promote sustainable utilisation. This project

proposes the classification of quarry fines arisings

into produced, stockpiled and marketed.

n Feasibility studies for quarry fines. Studies on

specific material streams will provide an insight to

the technical and economic viability of different

utilisation routes.

n Characterisation of quarry fines. To address

the principal characteristics of quarry fines such as

mineralogy, particle size, compositional consistency,

temporal variability and storage and handling

properties.

n Development of ‘good practice guides’ for

the utilisation of quarry fines into different

applications. These should include examples

from current utilisation practices and refer to

critical requirements that should be met for the

incorporation of quarry fines into different end

products.



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Quarry by-products include overburden, quarry fines, and dusts, and are produced during the extraction

and processing of aggregates. This report focuses on quarry fines, namely particles below 6 mm including

quarry dusts (below 75 µm). Quarry fines that are not being used in aggregate or other products commonly

find application in quarry restoration (Manning, 2004). However, this end use may not always be the most

desirable one as certain quarry fines may have potential higher value end uses than restoration, or quarry

space constraints may require the imminent identification of an end application, rather than long-term

planned use in quarry restoration. Past research funded through the Mineral Industry Sustainable Technology

Programme (MIST) has studied the utilisation of quarry by-products (listed in Table 19 in Appendix I), and

this report has been commissioned to summarise the findings from these previous projects and broader

literature sources into one report.

1.1 SCOPE OF STUDY

The scope of this study is to enhance the industry understanding of the sustainable utilisation of quarry fines,

and to identify any gaps in current knowledge. The term sustainable utilisation implies the use of quarry fines

to their full potential to meet the needs of the present, while at the same time conserving natural resources

and finding ways to minimise the environmental impacts associated both with quarry fines production and

use. The main issues addressed by this project are:

n Defining quarry fines. Over the years various definitions have been used to describe quarry fines. This

study reviews various definitions in use and seeks to clarify the terminology in use across the industry.

n Providing an overview of production figures for quarry fines and mitigation practices. The purpose

of this overview is to describe the availability of quarry fines in the UK and to report on steps that the

industry can follow to minimise the environmental impact associated with their production. Issues regarding

the generation of quarry by-products are addressed by sub-theme ‘Optimising the Efficiency of Aggregate

Production’ of the MIRO-ALSF Dissemination Project.

The work described in this report was carried out on behalf of the Mineral Industry Research Organisation (MIRO) by Scott Wilson; it was financially supported by the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF). This project is part of Theme ‘Sustainable Provision of Aggregates’ of the MIRO-ALSF Dissemination Project 2007/8 and focuses in Planning for the sustainable provision of aggregates with a particular view at Sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products.

1 INTRODUCTION

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n Reviewing and reporting past and present research and development practices that demonstrate the

utilisation potential of quarry by-products, including quarry fines. Two generic application approaches are

discussed (a) unbound applications and (b) bound applications.

n Assessing the obstacles faced by the quarrying sector and the end users when utilising quarry fines. The

market, competition with other types of materials, and the end uses currently available are some of the areas

where barriers may arise.

n Identifying the steps necessary to increase the sustainable utilisation of quarry fines, outlining the gaps in

knowledge and providing recommendations for future work.



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2.1 OVERVIEW OF QUARRY FINES PRODUCTION

Quarry fines are produced from the full range of quarrying activities including:

n Extraction (overburden removal, drilling and blasting, loading and hauling).

n Rock preparation (such as pre-screening and primary crushing and screening).

n Further processing (secondary, tertiary comminution stages, screening and treatment).

Quarry fines comprise material less than (about) 6 mm generated from any of these activities. Quarry fines

may be used as specific products (for example, as fine aggregate below 4 mm) or within other aggregate

products (for example, as part of the overall grading for a Type 1 subbase). Quarry fines (that is material

less than 6 mm) are an essential part of many aggregate products and are intentionally produced by

quarrying activities in order to provide the required product

gradings. Quarry dusts are materials less than 75 µm and

are included within the scope of quarry fines. The flow of a

production process, and the need for quarry fines and dusts

to be produced in order to meet specific product gradings, is

exemplified in Figure 1, Figure 1 also shows schematically that

the fines from early production processes (such as primary

crushing and screening) may be useful in final aggregate

products and are not necessarily excess to requirements.

2.2 QUARRY SCALPINGS

Quarry scalpings are considered to be the coarse, clay

contaminated material produced from pre-screening extracted

rock before it is sent to the primary crusher (WRAP, 2006).

Anecdotal evidence suggests that the application of the

Aggregates Levy and the use of recycled and secondary

aggregates instead, has inhibited sales of scalpings in low grade

fill applications (WRAP, 2006). However, a model of sustainable

aggregate sourcing indicates that if recycled and secondary

aggregates are promoted to fulfil their potential (that is, instead

of being used as low specification fills), and if (where there is

regional demand) increased processing is applied to scalpings, a

balance between scalpings production and the market for low

grade fills can be achieved in most areas (WRAP, 2006)

2 QUARRY FINES - DEFINITION & GENERAL DESCRIPTION

<75

Production process Grading of aggregate product

m <6 mm

Quarry fines

Quarry dusts

Grading requirement for aggregate product

Primary crushing & screening

Secondary crushing & screening

Tertiary/Quaternary crushing & screening

Excess quarry fines, including quarry dusts

Figure 1: Schematic diagram showing the production and use of quarry fines to meet grading requirements

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2.3 QUARRY FINES

This report focuses on examining potential markets for excess quarry fines and dusts that may result from

an imbalance between the production process and market demand. This includes the production of excess

quarry dusts produced from crushing and screening and collected through filtering systems (such as bag

house filters). Dusts collected through filtering systems may currently be sent to landfill as waste.

Some aggregate producers use the term quarry dust when referring to quarry fines, or may only mean

material produced in excess of market demand when referring to quarry fines or dusts (WRAP, 2006). The

term ‘quarry wastes’ is also used by some authors to refer to quarry fines and dusts even when these may

not be wastes.

Different quarries, or activities within the same quarry, may generate a range of quarry fines in relation to

their particle size and composition. For instance, fines produced from primary screening may have higher or

lower clay content than those produced through tertiary crushing and screening. Quarry fines are composed

of the same mineral substances as the soil and solid rock from which they are derived, even though changes

to their physical and chemical characteristics may have occurred. Quarry fines by their nature, are usually

inert or non-hazardous. Disaggregation, mixing and moving to different locations, exposure to atmospheric

conditions and to surface or groundwater, as well as segregation and the increase of surface area due to

particle size reduction, may cause physical and chemical transformations with detrimental effects to the

environment (BGS, 2003).

According to past research, quarrying of limestone and dolomite typically produces 20-25% fines and

sandstone/gritstone up to 35% fines (University of Leeds, 2007a). A schematic diagram of the various steps

involved in the quarrying process, together with approximate estimates of quarry fines generated, is given

in Figure 2. Quarry fines are commonly used by consumers as fine aggregates, when they comply with

appropriate standards for the project. For instance, quarry fines below 4 mm may find application as fine

aggregate in concrete (BSI, 2002a). This is a common market for limestone fines, but the levels of dust (<75

µm) may limit usefulness, and in such cases, aggregate washing may be required (WRAP, 2006). Igneous rock

quarry fines may be unsuitable for use in concrete as they increase demand for cement and water demand

(impacting on the strength and cost of concrete) (WRAP, 2006).

The scope of the legislation in force does not provide a definition of quarry fines, but sets the boundaries on

when such materials comprise a product, a by-product or a waste. According to anecdotal evidence, the fact

that quarry fines attract the Aggregates Levy is believed to reduce their attractiveness and competitiveness in

the market place (Manning, 2004; University of Leeds, 2007d).

A simple classification scheme for quarry production residues based on the readiness of a material for

use has been proposed several authors (Harrison et al, 2001; Harrison et al, 2002; Mitchell, et al, 2004),

shown in Table 1. Quarry fines could be described as Type 1 materials (for example, limestone fines used

without further processing) and Type 2 materials (for example, quarry fines used following washing). Generic

classification systems, such as the one in Table 1, can be used to characterise mineral waste and identify

potential end uses.

This report focuses on quarry fines generated from the production of aggregates, although it is anticipated

that part of its content may be applicable to other quarry operations.



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Group Description Example Potential end usesType 1 Unprocessed waste: large volume, low value industrial

minerals; commonly used in construction applications; market would be located in close proximity

quarry scalpings; quarry blocks; colliery spoil

Fill, low grade road stone, armour stone, brick clay

Type 2 Processed waste – reclaimed minerals: only a small amount of processing is required; market largely local; a small amount of secondary waste will be produced

silica sand waste; limestone waste; building stone waste

Silica sand, kaolin, brick clay, mineral filler, aglime, aggregate

Type 3 Processed waste – added-value products: contain small amounts of valuable minerals; potentially complex processing is required; major capital investment; international market; large volumes of secondary waste

Lead/zinc waste; pegmatite waste; silica sand waste

Fluorite, barite, feldspar, rare earths, mica, heavy minerals

Type 4 Beneficiated wastes: contain small quantities of highly valuable minerals; complex processing requirements; large volumes of secondary waste; international market

Specific mine wastes Gemstones, other high value metals

As shown in Figure 2, excess materials from quarrying processes are produced either through the initial

stripping stages (overburden material) or during the extraction and processing phases (scalpings and quarry

fines). It is common practice for quarries to reuse overburden material in restoration, as well as other excess

materials (Manning, 2004). However, there is still an amount of material that remains unused, as a specified

market that could absorb it does not exist, or is unaware of the potential use of the excess, including quarry

fines (WRAP, 2006). Very often, dry quarry fines are stockpiled on site until a utilisation route has been

identified, whereas wet material is deposited in tailing lagoons.

2.4 THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AFFECTING QUARRY PRODUCT

The various regulations discussed in this section may have an impact on potential utilisation approaches of

quarry waste and therefore should be taken under consideration when planning quarry operations.

2.4.1 MINERALS PLANNING

The UK Government has set specific objectives in England for Mineral Planning (DCLG, 2006a), referring also

to “quarry waste” and “utilisation practices”, with the aim for contributing to sustainable development. The

focal point of these objectives is summarised in the bullet points below (DCLG, 2006a):

n Sustainability: efficient and sustainable use of minerals and recycling of suitable materials; conservation of

mineral resources; sustainable transport; integration of mineral planning policy with legislation on sustainable

construction and waste management

n Environmental protection: prevention and minimisation of mineral waste production; nature conservation;

prevention and reduction of impacts on the environment and human health; environmental protection during

restoration and after extraction has ceased

n Production: securing adequate and steady supplies of minerals; maximising the benefits and minimising the

impacts of mineral operations over their full life cycle; fit-for purpose use of high quality materials

The Mineral Policy Statement (MPS1) sets also out Government planning policy on the provision of

aggregates in England. The scope of this policy is (DCLG, 2006a):

n To encourage the use of alternative aggregates where possible in preference to primary aggregates

Table 1: Mineral waste classification (Harrison et al, 2001; Harrison et al, 2002; Mitchell, et al, 2004)

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n To encourage the production of marine – dredged sand where environmentally acceptable sources are

available, adopting the principles of sustainability

n To ensure that the remainder of supply is provided by primary sources (that is, sand and gravel, crushed

rock)

In line with these national objectives (DCLG, 2006a), the full utilisation of quarry fines can contribute

to Government’s aim for sustainable development and environmental protection through the efficient

use of minerals, the conservation of mineral resources (by using all quarry products, including fines), the

minimisation of mineral waste production and also by ensuring that the supply of materials required for

specific end uses is satisfied.

2.4.2 THE AGGREGATES LEVY

The Aggregates Levy is applied to primary sales of aggregates (Statutory Instrument, 2003). The purpose of

Aggregates Levy is to create a viable market for recycled and secondary aggregates by increasing the cost of

primary materials (DEFRA, 2007a). In addition to reducing the demand for primary aggregates, the Levy is

expected to:

Figure 2: Quarrying activities and estimates of fines generation per stage (source of data: (The University of Leeds, 2007c)

(Feed size)

(700-1000mm)

(700-1000mm)

(300-100mm)

(100-20mm)

(20-10mm)

Extraction

Pre-screening

* *Primary crushing &

Screening

* *Secondary crushing &

Screening

* *Tertiary/Quaternary

crushing & Screening

End products

Up to 20% fines (*1)



[Overburden removal] * *

[Drilling & blasting] *

[Loading & haauling] *

[Oversize rock]

[Scalpings]

* quarry fines (<6mm); consists of coarse, medium, fine particles (clay/silt <75µm)

* particulate matter (that is, collected from cyclones and bag house filters)

(*1 depending on rock type and comminution practices)

Figure 2: Quarrying activities and estimates of fines generation per stage (source of data: (The University of Leeds, 2007c)



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n promote environmentally friendly extraction and transport

n address the environmental impacts of past aggregates extraction

n compensate local communities for the impact of aggregates extraction

The Aggregates Levy also applies to quarry fines and is often seen as a barrier to utilisation, because recycled

and secondary aggregates do not attract the Levy (Manning, 2004; University of Leeds, 2007d). However, not

all natural aggregates (as defined in European Standards - see Table 3 are subject to the Aggregates Levy;

certain materials are exempt, as summarised in Table 2. The Aggregates Levy is currently set at £1.60 per

tonne. In the final Budget 2007 report, the Government announced that this will increase to £1.95 per tonne

from 1 April 2008 (HM Treasury, 2007). The Government also announced the introduction of an exemption

from the Levy for aggregate arising from the construction and maintenance of railways, tramways and

monorails.

The exemption of certain materials such as china clay waste and slate waste might be expected to promote

utilisation of these materials as aggregates. However, the distant geographical location of china clay and slate

quarries and the cost of haulage of waste material to appropriate markets are the principal barriers that

discourage their use (Smith et al, 2005 – see Figure 8).

The benefits seen from the implementation of the Levy have been the reduction in sales of primary

aggregates (by 8% between 2001 to 2005) and the reduction of pollution caused by noise, particulate matter

and other emissions to air, visual intrusion, loss of amenity and damage to wildlife habitats (HM Treasury,

2007). In addition, the Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund (ALSF) has (and continues to) supported research

to assist the quarrying sector to move towards sustainability and improved environmental stewardship. In the

case of china clay waste, the exemption from the Levy initiated research, which looked at potential utilisation

routes and ways to overcome the barrier of transport through detailed feasibility studies (Smith et al, 2005).

The focus on sustainable utilisation of quarry fines is sufficiently recent that there are no statistical data that

provide a proof of progress made regarding quantities used, applications, substitution of primary materials

and sales figures.

2.4.3 MINING WASTE DIRECTIVE

The Mining Waste Directive (EU Directive 2006/21/EC) on the management of waste from the extractive

industries aims to prevent any adverse impacts associated with waste produced from mining activities as well

as promoting their minimisation, treatment, recovery and reuse (The European Parliament and the Council,

2006a). The Directive will require the implementation of a waste management plan and all non-inert waste

producers will require a permit to operate. Quarry operations will have to manage their waste in more

efficient ways, to investigate further mitigation practices where feasible (such as optimisation of processing

plans, greater levels of equipment maintenance), and to look at potential waste utilisation routes (The

European Parliament and the Council, 2006a). The Mining Waste Directive will be transposed into national

law by 1 May 2008 and mine waste facilities would be subject to the new provisions by 2012 (DEFRA, 2007b).

Table 2: Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy (Finance Act, 2001)

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Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy Commentsclay, soil, organic matter, vegetable that is, clay quarries currently utilised by brick manufacturers coal ligniteslate that is, slate waste, off-cuts Shalechina clay and ball clay waste that is, china clay sandcolliery spoil spoil from any process by which coal has been separated from

other rock after being extractedspoil or waste from any industrial combustion

process or the smelting or refining of metals

for example, industrial slag, pulverised fuel ash, foundry sand

drill cuttings from the seabed that is, beyond the water mark material arising from utility works for example from laying gas, water pipesaggregate arising from building sites material consisting wholly of aggregate arising from the site of any

building or proposed buildingaggregate extracted as a result of navigation

dredging

aggregate removed from inland waterways and harbours by

dredgingaggregate arising from highway construction,

construction and maintenance of railways,

tramways and monorails

excluding borrow pits; material that consists wholly of aggregate

arising from the ground in the course of excavation to improve,

maintain or construct highway or a proposed highway

2.4.4 INTERPRETIVE COMMUNICATION ON WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS

The Waste Framework Directive (2006/12/EC) gives the definition of waste and accordingly materials can be

either waste or not (The European Parliament and the Council, 2006b). The terms by-product and secondary

materials, although commonly used by the quarrying and construction industry, do not have any legal

meaning. Quarry fines which have a defined end market are not a waste.

The Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 final) aims to clarify when a

material is waste or not in a production process context and to do so three new illustrative terms have been

introduced in addition to waste (Commission of the European Communities, 2007). These terms do not

represent a legal interpretation and they are used for clarification purposes only in this document.

n Product – the term is used to characterise materials that are deliberately created in the production

process (for example, aggregates and most quarry fines)

n Production residue - a material not deliberately produced, which may or may not be a waste (for

example, quarry dusts collected in bag house filters)

n By-product – a production residue that is not waste

The Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 final) facilitates the

distinction between product, by-products and waste by introducing a cumulative test comprised of three

primary criteria that set the definition of the material in question. Hence, a material is a by-product if

(Commission of the European Communities, 2007):

1. further use of the material is a certainty and not a mere possibility

2. no further processing prior to reuse is required

3. it is produced as part of a continues process of production

Table 2: Materials exempt from the Aggregates Levy (Finance Act, 2001)



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The decision tree in Figure 9 (Appendix II) displays all the different steps that have to be satisfied in order to

define a material as a by-product. Criteria 1, 2 and 3 are examined in greater detail in Figure 10 (Appendix

II) and Figure 11 (Appendix II), where three additional decision flow diagrams have been compiled for this

report, based on the information in the Communication document. The decision tree in Figure 9 (Appendix

II), suggests that if the material is deliberately produced, then this material should be considered a product,

not a production residue. Quarry fines may be considered to be deliberately produced to satisfy the

market’s demand for graded and fine aggregates; hence quarry fines represent a product. In other words,

the production of quarry fines cannot be eliminated from quarrying processes as the fines are a required

component of aggregate products. However, when excess quarry fines are generated and the market cannot

absorb them, or there is no planned use in restoration, then they may become a waste.

Similar arguments can be applied to quarry dusts. Dusts collected in bag houses, or removed by washing to

produce aggregates without dust, may currently be sent to landfill as waste but could be considered a by-

product if a satisfactory market can be found and the conditions of Criteria 1 to 3 are met. That is, the ideal

quarrying process would eliminate the production of these dusts if possible.

According to the Criteria 1 (Figure 10 – Appendix II) if a materials is not useable, does not meet the

technical specifications required for its use or there is no specified market for it, then it should continue

to comprise a waste until a useful output has been identified. When only a certain proportion of the

material can potentially be used then such a material should initially be characterised as waste until future

circumstances change its status (for example, long term contracts between waste producer and user). For

materials stored for an indefinite amount of time prior to potential reuse, they should be considered as

waste.

Often materials may undergo several processing stages prior to reuse, such as washing, drying, mixing

and comminution. Under these circumstances, additional clarification must be provided that explains

whether materials are made ready for use as an integral part of the continuing process of production. In

case that additional recovery processes are required prior to use, even if the subsequent use is a certainty,

then Criteria 2 suggests that the material is a waste until the completion of this process. The decision

flow diagram in Figure 11 (Appendix II) presents in more detail some of the sub-criteria that need to be

considered. The case of Avesta Polarit (AvestaPolarit Chrome Oy, 2003) also provides some evidence on the

application of Criteria 1-3 (Figure 12 – Appendix II).

Industry, legislative parties and research bodies often refer to quarry fines by giving different meanings to

this term. As discussed earlier in this section, quarry fines may represent a product, or a surplus material

when produced in excess quantities, and certain fractions such as the dust and filler material comprise a

production residue. It is considered essential that quarry fines will be defined properly in order to avoid

confusion and to enable their sustainable utilisation.

2.5 A FIT-FOR-PURPOSE CRITERIA FOR QUARRY FINES (AND DUST)

Quarry fines can comprise valuable alternative materials for use in a variety of end products and applications.

Commonly, the decision making criteria upon which the suitability of quarry fines is determined, are based

on technical specifications and standards or on characterisation procedures developed by end users, such as

construction product manufacturers. Therefore, it is end users that define whether quarry fines comprise a

valuable material.

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Technical specifications cover a large variety of end products, but commonly they correspond to

conventional primary aggregates. Quarry fines as well as other production residues do not necessarily behave

in a way similar to conventional primary aggregates. For instance, parameters such as the compositional

variability of quarry fines may be larger than that of conventional primary resources. Therefore, there is

a need to develop fit-for-purpose specifications that will be applicable not just for conventional primary

materials, but to other materials as well.

2.5.1 GENERATION OF QUARRY FINES AND DUST – PARAMETERS OF INFLUENCE

Parameters such as rock type, extraction technique and processing route, affect the generation of quarry

fines as well as their end properties, (for example, composition, particle size and shape). Although quarry

fines are expected to consist of similar minerals to the rocks they are derived from, the exact composition

by quantitative means may be different.

The fragmentation patterns will also vary for different rock types. Research work on assessing the dust

(fraction below 75 µm, particulate matter included) generation from various ores has found that different

rock types tested under specific mechanisms (such as abrasion), which simulate common processes such as

conveyor belts, produced different amounts of fines with different physical properties (Petavratzi, 2006). A

variety of parameters have been identified to influence the generation of fines and dust from different ores

(Petavratzi, 2006; Petavratzi et al, 2007):

n Feed: mass/bulk volume, particle size, grain/particle shape, concentration of fines in the feed (<75 µm),

mechanical properties (strength, elasticity, brittle behaviour), fragmentation.

n Mechanisms in involved industrial processes: Abrasion and impact represent the two primary mechanisms

associated with operations, such as conveyor belts, milling and mixing, haulage roads, stockpiling and tipping.

n Operational parameters: Blasting design, velocity of conveyor belts, mill type, haulage roads, time-scales of

operations, drop heights during tipping and stockpiling.

The properties of quarry fines and dust change in accordance with any of the above parameters. For

instance, fines produced during primary comminution stages may have a different particle size distribution

and composition (mineral weight %) to fines produced during secondary or tertiary crushing. Different types

of fines may find application in different end uses.

In order to facilitate the wider utilisation of quarry fines, the properties of these materials should be

determined to a level adequate to identify potential matches with end applications. Characterisation

requirements for quarry fines will vary for different end uses. For example, using X-ray diffraction analysis

(XRD) may not be the best method to determine the composition of quarry fines intended to be used in

cement because this technique does not characterise the material by quantitative means. In this instance,

the qualitative analysis (XRD) determines the mineralogy of cement and it needs to be combined with some

form of quantitative analysis, such as chemical testing.

2.5.2 EUROPEAN STANDARDS

The introduction of European Standards for aggregates during 2004 satisfied the need for specifications

for a broad variety of end applications and enabled the use of a wider range of aggregate resources. The

European Standards do not discriminate between different resources and they refer to natural, recycled and



17

manufactured materials (WRAP, 2007b). Materials that could potential be used as aggregates fall within the

following categories (Quarry Products Association, 2007):

n Coarse and fine aggregates are now split at 2 mm for asphalt and 4 mm for all other uses

n Fines are defined as the inherent fraction of an aggregate passing 63 µm

n Filler is a material passing 63 µm that may be added to influence the properties of a mixture

The British Standards Institution developed a series of national guidance documents (referred to as Published

Document – PD) to support the European Standards and to provide further clarifications that fit the UK

market, and the production and nature of aggregates in the UK.

A summary of the different European Standards and Published Documents is given in Table 3. The European

Standards considered, are presented in more detail in following Sections of this report, where potential

utilisation practices are discussed. The inclusion of recycled and manufactured aggregates within the scope

of European Standards is considered a step forward. Nevertheless, specifications are still based on an ideal

grading. Research findings from an industry scoping exercise have shown that the industry finds current

specifications stringent, and that they do not specify fit-for-purpose aggregates (Mitchell, 2007a) (Project

code: MA 4/5/003).

Standard Category European Standard Number European Standard TitleProduct Standards BS EN 12620 Aggregates for concrete

BS EN 13043 Aggregates for bituminous mixtures and surface treatmentsBS EN 13139 Aggregates for mortar BS EN 13055 Part 1: Lightweight aggregate for concrete, mortar and grout

Part 2: Lightweight aggregate for bound and unbound materials

BS EN 13242 Aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures BS EN 13383 ArmourstoneBS EN 13450 Railway ballast

National Guidance Documents

PD 6682-1 Aggregates for concretePD 6682-2 Aggregates for asphalt and chippingPD 6682-3 Aggregates for mortarPD 6682-4 Lightweight aggregates for concrete and mortarPD 6682-5 Lightweight aggregates for other usesPD 6682-6 Aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound mixturesPD 6682-7 Aggregates for ArmourstonePD 6682-8 Aggregates for railway ballastPD 6682-9 Test method for aggregates

Test methods BS EN 932 part 1-6 General test methods (i.e sampling, petrography, repeatability –reproducibility etc)

BS EN 933 part 1-10 Test methods- geometrical propertiesBS EN 1097 part 1-9 Test methods – physical and mechanical properties BS EN 1367 part 1-5 Test methods – thermal and weathering properties BS EN 1744 Test methods – chemical properties

Table 3: European Standards for aggregates and associated documents

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2.5.3 HIGHWAYS AGENCY SPECIFICATIONS

The Highways Agency has developed a series of specifications for road pavement construction (Series 500

to 1000) that permit the use of a wide variety of natural, recycled and manufactured aggregates (Highways

Agency, 2004; Highways Agency, 2007a). Waste natural aggregates, such as china clay sand/stent and slate

waste, are included in the list of secondary and recycled materials and quarry fines may be considered for

use on a site specific basis (Highways Agency, 2004; Highways Agency, 2007a).

According to a recent DEFRA funded project, alternative materials should clearly demonstrate what their

contribution to an end use is. However, to do so, the principal elements and requirements of the end user

should be understood and presented in a way that will assist both parties (material producers and end users)

to identify potential matches of alternative materials DEFRA research states that characterisation should be

undertaken both for the alternative material (for example, mineralogy, chemistry, particle size), and the end

product (as set by technical standards).

Hence, producers of valuable materials such as quarry fines should be able to supply appropriate information

to end users which demonstrates that their materials are fit-for-purpose. One of the outcomes of this

previous research was the production of a characterisation framework that illustrates what the involvement

of various alternative materials will be, if used in five different construction products (Petavratzi and Barton,

2006; Petavratzi and Barton, 2007; Dunster, 2007). The characterisation framework covers the ceramic,

cement, concrete, insulation and manufactured aggregates sectors (shown in Table 20 in Appendix III).

Characterisation frameworks are able to promote the use of alternative materials and to assist during the

initial identification stages of identifying utilisation practices.

Relevant investigations undertaken for quarry fines have been extracted from the Waste – Products Pairings

(WPP) database developed through previous research (MIRO, 2007) and shown in Table 4. Several other

end uses for quarry fines are identified in following Sections of this report and relevant specifications are

presented there.

Development of specifications that combine the nature of different materials with the particular

requirements set by end users and technical standards is considered essential. Market trends (that is, demand,

product preferences, and product trends) and economic factors (such as cost savings associated with the use

of quarry fines, manufacturing costs) should also be considered in the development process of new fit-for-

purpose criteria. Work undertaken by the Highways Agency on the use of secondary and recycled materials

is a good example of fit-for-use specifications (Highways Agency, 2004).

2.6 SUMMARY

There is no consistent definition for quarry fines used throughout the quarrying sector or construction

industry. This leads to confusion of definitions in the published literature. The phrases quarry fines, dusts and

wastes are used interchangeably, and are used to refer to materials which are of different particle size ranges,

may, or may not be produced intentionally, and which may not be waste materials at all.

In order to clarify future reporting, consistent definitions for quarry fines (and dusts and scalpings) should be

developed and applied.



19

Quarry production residues

End use Progress (1) Ingredient (2) AnalysisOf alternative Of manufacturing process

Quarry washings (fine grained silts and clay from sand and gravel operations; more rarely from crushed rock operations

Manufactured aggregates

Pilot scale trials Filler or base material

Mineralogy, chemistry, LOI(%), moisture content, particle size, cumulative % passing 300 µm-150 µm and 75 µm

According to BS EN 13055

Quarry washings Dense and lightweight concrete walling/ masonry blocks

Used in production

Coarse/ fine aggregate

Chemistry, bulk density, particle size, water absorption

Feedstock properties: grading, chloride content, sulfate content, effect on setting cement, Alkali/silica reactivity

Handling properties: particle size, moisture content, ease of flow, workability

End product properties: according to BS EN standards on various concrete products (for example, BS EN 206)

Quarry fines and dust (a wide variety of compositions)

Portland cement (CEM I)

Trials Source of silica, aluminium and iron

Particle size, mineralogy, chemistry, other constituents, total sulfur, chlorine content, heavy metals, loss on ignition

Testing on kiln feed: SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO

End product: according to BS EN 197

Quarry fines, and washings)

Facing brick

Work trials

Filler (primary contribution), clay substitute (secondary contribution), colourant (third contribution)

Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, bulk density

According to BS EN 771-1:2003 for clay bricks(1) Progress made from the industry in using quarry production residues (2) The title Ingredient refers to the contribution of an alternative material to an end product

Table 4: Examples of utilisation of quarry production residues in various construction products as found in the Waste-Product Pairings (WPP) database (MIRO, 2007)

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21

Saleable aggregates in the UK mainly comprise sand and gravel and crushed rock and according to British

Geological Survey (BGS), there are currently 1723 active mines and quarries that produce primary aggregates

(Table 5) (BGS, 2003). The section of this report gives an overview of the information that is currently

available to describe production of quarry fines and mitigation practices. It is anticipated that sub-theme

‘Optimising the Efficiency of Aggregate Production’ of the ALSF Review Research Programme 2007-2008, will

refer to these areas in more detail.

Mineral worked Number of active sites England Wales Scotland Northern Ireland

Sand and Gravel 801 578 26 119 78Limestone 347 264 51 13 19Sandstone 305 200 29 41 35Igneous and metamorphic rock

205 50 12 97 46

Chalk 65 61 0 0 4

3.1 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES IN THE U.K.

The 2004 UK survey of waste arisings by sector has revealed that 29% of total annual waste arisings are

generated by the mining and quarrying sector, which equal to approximately 100 million tonnes of mineral

residues - Figure 3 (DEFRA, 2007c). Waste from mining and quarrying does not fall within the scope of

controlled waste legislation therefore relevant regulations are not applicable.

3 PRODUCTION OF QUARRY FINES & MITIGATION PRACTICES

Table 5: Summary of active aggregate quarries in the UK (BGS, 2003)

Agriculture (inc. fishing)

Mining and Quarrying

Sewage sludge

Dredged materials

Household

Commercial

Industrial

Construction and Demolition

<1

21

<1

5

9

12

13

32

Total = 335 million tonnes

Source: Defra, ODPM, Environment Agency, Water UK

Figure 3: Estimated total UK annual waste arisings by sector: 2004, U.K (DEFRA, 2007c)

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Ratios of waste to product are used to estimate arisings of mineral waste by DEFRA. Quarry waste is

estimated using a waste to saleable product ratio equal to 1 to 9, that is one tonne of quarry waste is

generated for every nine tonnes of quarry products The overall trend shows a decrease in waste arisings,

which reflects the decline in production. There are many uncertainties associated with such published

statistics of mine and quarry waste, such as the consistency and reliability of the employed ratios.

According to the British Geological Survey research, the data in Table 6 and Figure 4, are only estimates

derived from an assumed ratio of waste to mineral that may be considerably different to the actual amounts.

The term ‘waste’ does not provide any indication of the nature of the material, any potential hazard to

the environment or appropriate utilisation routes, and whether part of this material is already in use.

Also, material generated at one site where it is regarded as waste, may be saleable at another because of

proximity to a potential market (BGS, 2003). Research undertaken by Arup on behalf of Office of the Deputy

Prime Minister (OPDM – now the Department for Communities and Local Government – DCLG) on land

for mineral workings in England, investigated the areas of land permitted for the disposal of mine waste.

However, this work makes no reference to the type or amount of waste permitted to disposed of in specific

areas (Arup, 2000).

Currently, the most definite source of information on mineral workings is considered to be the BGS BritPits

database, which holds information for the majority of mineral sites in the UK (active, inactive, closed, and

abandoned sites) (BGS, 2003; BGS, 2007). However, information on the quantities of mineral waste is limited

except for materials on which extended research has been undertaken, such as china clay and slate (BGS,

2003; BGS, 2007; Smith, 2005). The reasons behind the limited data are (BGS, 2003; Mitchell, 2007a; University

of Leeds, 2007c):

n The statistical and planning community has shown small interest due to no direct commercial value of

such materials

n Commercial sensitivity issues

n Having mine and quarry waste classed as non-controlled waste

160,000

140,000

120,000

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000

20,000

0

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Source: UK Minerals Year Book, BGS

Tonn

es (

000s

)

Figure 4: Estimated total quantities of mining and quarrying by-products in the UK (1990 – 2004) (BGS, 2007)



23

n Historically there has been no need to make estimates and the associated time and costs have meant data

were not collected

UK Category Waste arisings (Thousand tonnes) (1), (8)

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

2 Colliery(2) 36,450 36,679 32,900 25,229 15,927 17,575 16,112 15,141 12,543 10,444 8,594 8,674 8,196 7,818

3 Coal(3) 9,932 10,423 9,347 8,871 8,559 8,944 9,292 9,107 8,094 8,095 7,005 7,292 6,799 6,300

4 China Clay(4) 27,339 26,205 22,526 22,156 22,778 23,283 20,537 26,648 21,608 20,738 21,388 19,839 19,469 18,875

5 Clay5) 19,756 16,335 15,172 13,799 15,174 16,725 14,507 13,791 14,110 13,560 13,096 12,352 12,114 12,041

6 Slate(6) 7,180 7,200 6,520 9,240 8,040 5,500 8,180 6,940 9,000 7,220 9,580 11,020 14,840 18,000

7 Quarrying(7) 42,413 40,403 38,525 39,464 42,115 40,769 39,039 37,541 35,434 36,530 36,223 36,897 34,190 33,849

TOTAL 143,069 137,244 124,990 118,759 112,593 112,795 107,666 109,167 100,788 96,586 95,886 96,073 95,608 96,8821 Estimates are based on the production data in that year’s UK Minerals Year Book, published by British Geological Survey

2 Colliery waste estimate is based on deep-mined coal assuming a ratio of waste to saleable product of 1:2

Coal waste is based on opencast and other coal production and is also based on a 1:2 ratio.

China clay waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 9:1

Clay waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 9:1

Slate waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 20:1

Quarrying waste is estimated on the ratio of waste to saleable product of 1:9

Figures are provisional

In an industry scoping exercise relevant to quarry fines minimisation, responses collected from interviews

held with the quarry sector have showed that estimates on fines production at individual crushing stages

could be technically feasible (Mitchell, 2007a) (project code: MA 4/5/003). Research carried out to estimate

the generation of fines according to rock type indicated that (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003):

n Limestone/ dolomite/ chalk quarrying generates around 20-25% fines

n Sandstone/gritstone quarries produce up to 35% fines

n Fines from sand and gravel pits vary enormously, but production percentages fall within 5 to 15%

n Igneous rocks produce between 10 to 30% fines

According to a survey on aggregate minerals for England and Wales, the total sales of primary aggregates

for 2005 was 172.7 Mt, the total sales of crushed rock for aggregate use was 100 Mt, and the total sand

and gravel sales was 72.6 Mt (DCLG, 2007). According to National Statistics figures for mineral extraction

in Great Britain, for 2006, the total extractor’s sales for the rock types shown in Table 7 are 222.5 Mt

(National Statistics Online, 2007). Taking into account the percentage estimates for quarry fines as reported

above, approximate figures for the fines production are presented in Table 7. Table 8 provides some further

information for the characteristics of quarry production residues and associated primary aggregates.

Table 6: Minerals waste arisings 1990-2003 (DEFRA, 2007e)

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Quarry operation Typical % of quarry fines (average values)

Total sales for aggregate use (Mt) Estimated fines production (Mt)*

(in England and Wales)

(in Great Britain) (in England and Wales)

(in Great Britain)

Sandstone 30% 10.8 11.8 3.2 3.54Limestone 20% 66.9 82.6 13.4 16.52Igneous and metamorphic rock

20% 22.4 47.9 4.5 9.58

Sand and gravel 10% 72.6 80.2 7.3 8.2Total - 172.7 222.5 28.4 37.84* This estimate is for total fines production, which includes material sustainably consumed in aggregate applications. It does not imply that all the fines are excess to market demand

Estimated tonnages of fines have declined due to the reduced production of primary aggregates between

2001 and 2005. Research work has reported an estimate of 41.3 Mt that corresponded to 238 Mt of

produced aggregates (based on the ‘Collation of the results of the 2001 Aggregate Minerals Survey of England

and Wales) (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). The data in Table 7 estimates the quantities of quarry

fines produced. Nevertheless, it should not be forgotten that this is estimated values and not actual data.

Real data may not match the calculated data, because parameters such as the composition and physical

characteristics of primary rocks and production residues, the processing routes and the end use potential of

quarry fines may vary for different sites.

Aggregate type Primary rock characteristics Production residues characteristics Comments Sand and gravel Composition: mainly quartz; other

types of co-existing rock such as quartzite, sandstone, flint, igneous (granitic) rock

Particle size:

0.0625 mm<sand<4 mm

4 mm<gravel<64 mm

Deposits: superficial, bedrock

Superficial deposits

Composition: mainly clay and silt;

inert or non-hazardous; considerable variation in production rates from a few percent up to 30% of total mined material; storage: in lagoons

Bedrock deposits

Composition: cobbles quartzites, igneous rocks, clay, silt

Possibility of radioactive minerals [low hazard] in fine tailings in some quarries (areas near granite)

Limestone Composition: limestoneà calcite (CaCO3); dolomite/dolomitic limestoneà 10-50% dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2, calcite

Particle size: various sizes following end product requirements, normally <10cm

Composition: similar to rock, but with higher quantities of chert and clay; some streams may also contain small amounts of vein materials such as galena, sphalerite, pyrite, barite;

variable quantities depending on the local topography and geology; non-hazardous

Possibility of included vein minerals

Igneous and metamorphic rock

Extrusive bodies are of variable quality; -Intrusive bodies are of variable size; Particle size: depending on end use, normally < 10cm

-rock types: granite, diorite, olivine dolerite and so on

Large variation in sizeà very large oversize blocks and very fine undersize particles; inert / non-hazardous

Possibility of radioactive [low hazard] and asbestiform minerals in fine tailings

Sandstone Wide range of sandstone types/ deposits; Particle size: depending on end use, normally < 10cm

inert material Potential host for uranium ore deposits

Table 7: Estimates of quarry fine production based on total sales figures for aggregate use in England and Wales (data for limestone also include data for dolomite and chalk)

Table 8: Characteristics of primary aggregates and associated (BGS, 2003)



25

The lack of actual data for mineral waste is seen as an obstacle to utilisation. Taking as example recycled

aggregates (that is, from construction, demolition and excavation waste), extensive surveys have been

undertaken to determine exact arisings and availability. This is a very critical step towards their use, as

knowing the volume, nature, geographical proximity and availability of materials can assist the identification of

fit-for-use end markets and applications.

A detailed feasibility study modelling the sustainable use of resources for the production of aggregates was

undertaken for the West Midlands. This project investigated the supply of aggregates from primary, secondary

and recycled sources including fines from crushed rock and sand and gravel quarries. This work developed

an economic model that projects the potential sustainable resources for aggregate supply relative to

construction demand, market price and resource availability (WRAP, 2006). The outcomes of this study are

presented in more detail in Figure 5. Such feasibility studies are considered highly important for identifying

benefits and obstacles to utilisation in a local/regional level and promoting the sustainable use of aggregates

by balancing the use of recycled, secondary and primary materials. A similar study has been undertaken for

Scotland (WRAP, 2007).

Software tools and the principles of Mass Balance could assist to evaluate with greater accuracy the

generation of quarry fines. Earlier research work has developed software to assist the planning and evaluation

of aggregate resources according to fit-for purpose end uses. Such techniques could be employed even

during early stages (that is, during exploration). The techniques use the principles of resource management

and waste minimisation. Also software packages, such as the JK Simmet mineral processing simulator (JKTech,

2007), could assist to predict the generation of quarry fines. Mass balance has already found applications for

various resources (for example, tyres, packaging, glass etc), but has not been extensively used for the mineral

sector. A study undertaken on mineral resource availability and efficiency for the North-West region of

England found out that (4sight, 2007):

n There is a high demand for minerals in the North West. The North West is a major producer of minerals

and aggregates, but also the biggest net importer of aggregates in the UK

n Very little is known of the full environmental costs of mineral flows and information related to mineral

resources flows are not of sufficient detail and consistency

n Tracking minerals from exploitation through to end use and final disposal provides important information

about a system’s efficiency, resource availability and management at the regional level.

The use of any of the above tools would require the co-operation of the quarrying sector as the accuracy of

results from studies using such research techniques would be dependent on provided data.

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Feasibility case study – Sustainable resourcing of aggregate supply

Scope of project: Development of an economic model that projects the potential sustainable resourcing

of aggregate supply relative to construction demand, market price and resource availability

Case study location: West Midlands

Resource and product groupings: primary (crushed rock, sand and gravel, dust (residual), scalpings

(residual)); secondary (IBA, PFA, FBA, glass, used foundry sand); recycled (C&D waste, excavation waste)

Key variables identified: supply, costs, market price, and demand

Results – Shifts in resource use predicted for period 2004-2016

Crushed rock:

n Recycled aggregates will be used increasingly for subbase and higher value graded aggregates (including

concrete and asphalt) resulting to a significant market lose for crushed rock products.

n The production of low grade fills and scalpings will have to be increased to meet market demand and

this will require changes to the output profile of crushed rock quarries. This increase is due to the shift of

recycled aggregates to higher value products. The production of scalpings may remain uncompetitive due

to distance from market.

n Changes in production sales profile of crushed rock quarries will lead to a reduction in average selling

price and potentially increase the production of crushed rock fines above market demand.

Sand and gravel:

n Recycled aggregates use will shift to higher value graded aggregates therefore sand and gravel

producers will lose market share (market share falls from 19% to 15%)

Scalpings:

n These are used as fills to replace the demand previously met by recycled aggregates

Surplus fines:

n Stocks continue to rise. The costs of processing the material to a fine aggregate for concrete (according

to the model) are uneconomic.

Sensitivity analysis:

n Removal of the aggregate levy and equivalent reduction in the market place did not affect the market

of crushed rock products. This is due to the cost effectiveness of recycling in West Midlands and the

proximity of sources of recycled materials to sources of aggregate demand and the relative distance of

primary resources.

Other results:

n Investment in washing plants for the processing of crushed rock fines and scalping may be needed. Also

there is a need to develop processes that minimise the production of dust.

Figure 5: Feasibility case study on the sustainable use of resources for the production of aggregates in West Midlands (WRAP, 2006)



27

3.2 MINIMISING THE GENERATION OF QUARRY FINES

The minimisation of quarry fines is perceived as essential in order to achieve resource efficiency,

environmental protection and optimisation of the quarrying process. There is a need to minimise quarry

fines for compliance with current legislation and the planning process. Environmental protection and social

responsibility is of vital importance to the quarrying sector to reduce any adverse consequences (for

example, in health and safety) and costs associated with the production of quarry fines (for example, storage,

dealing with arisings transport, and handling).

The minimisation of quarry fines could be achieved by carefully designing the quarrying process even

during the early stages of exploration. Research projects carried out at Leicester University focused on

minimising the inaccuracies associated with resource evaluation through statistical analysis and by exploring

drilling techniques (Jeffrey et al, 2004) (project code: MA 3/2/002). A second project looked at developing

a tool that could be used to identify the parts of a deposit that can produce good quality products with

least waste, and thus to optimise extraction. This tool used the techniques of image analysis together with

software development (Jeffrey et al, 2003a; Jeffrey et al, 2003b) (project code: MA 3/2/001; MA 4/02/002).

The generation of quarry fines is due to extraction and processing operations in a quarry. As discussed in

Section 2.2.1, there are several parameters that influence the production of fines, which are relevant to

the rock characteristics and the involved processes. However, careful design and optimisation of extraction

and processing could minimise fines production. A good practice guide mainly focusing on comminution is

presented in the “goodquarry” website and in Table 9 (The University of Leeds, 2007c).

Modelling tools can assist the quick performance evaluation of quarry operations. Research projects, part

of the MIST programme, have undertaken work using process flowsheet simulators, such as the JKSimMet

(JKtech, 2007) and Bruno (Metso minerals, 2007) and they have produced several case studies for sand and

gravel (Figure 6) and crushed rock quarries ( University of Nottingham, 2003; University of Nottingham,

2005; Mitchell, 2007a; University of Leeds, 2007) (project code: MA 2/3/007; MA 4/1/002; MA 4/5/003) . The

benefit in using such tools is that changes to equipment settings (crushers, screens), material flow rates or

alternative circuit configurations (such as replacing a cone crusher with an impact crusher) can take place

through the software, and the subsequent changes in the throughput tonnage figures and product grading

can be explored. The constructed model (depending on software package) can be calibrated to take into

account the physical and breakage characteristics of the rock and it may also be possible to understand and

monitor the performance of equipment. Modelling can be seen as an inexpensive way to achieve optimisation

in processing operations and models can be produced using either theoretical or real data. The reliability of

constructed models is closely related to the accuracy of data input. Therefore, process audits combined with

mass balance studies are considered essential in collecting appropriate data. The use of software tools could

assist to optimise plant processing routes with the scope to minimise the production of quarry fines, but in

order to validate such studies, results should be accompanied by pilot or full scale trials. Case studies (such

as the example given in Figure 6) demonstrate that it is possible to reduce the production of quarry fines,

nevertheless costs associated with modifications to flowsheets may not necessarily balance the benefits seen

from reduced quantities of fines. However, feasibility studies could provide the detailed information needed

to decide whether a modified processing route is viable.

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Sandstone Quarry – Mid Wales – Three stage crushing circuit

Conclusions:n Process change: replacement of a horizontal shaft impact (HIS) crusher with a cone crushern Product: 0/20 aggregate has been increased from 250 to 300 tph from the same feed rateè 20% increase in productionn Fines: the proportion of fines has been decreased from 38% to 30% è 21% decrease in fines production

Cone CrushersSetting 14mmFeed / output 79 tph

Horizontal Shaft Imapct CrusherFeed / output 250 tphTip speed 45 m/s35mm setting

Jaw CrusherFeed 226 tphSetting 125mm

Screens 40 / 20 mmFeed / output 329 tphOutput12 tph +40mm67 tph +20mm250 tph -20mm

Screen 105mmFeed 400 tphUndersize174tph

Feed700mm medium Sandstone

Aggregate Product0/20 250tph 100%

0/20 Aggregate

Process FlowsheetOriginal process circuit

Cone CrushersSetting 14mmFeed / output 167 tph

Cone CrusherFeed / output 300 tph35mm setting

Jaw CrusherFeed 226 tphSetting 125mm

Screens 40 / 20 mmFeed / output 467 tphOutput45 tph +40mm122 tph +20mm300 tph -20mm

Screen 105mmFeed 400 tphUndersize174tph

Feed700mm medium Gritstone

Aggregate Product0/20 300tph 100%

0/20 Aggregate

Process FlowsheetModified process circuit

11

Figure 6: Case study example using the Bruno mineral processing simulator (Mitchell and Benn, 2007; The University of Leeds, 2007b; Metso minerals, 2007)



29

Quarry fines are produced from various activities, but the stages of blasting and comminution are considered

the most liable to generate such fines. The amount of dust produced during blasting is estimated to be as high

as 20% (The University of Leeds, 2007c). Investigation into the quarry fines generated at various crushing

stages was carried out and some of the results are presented together with good practice suggestions,

in Table 9 (The University of Leeds, 2007c). Research undertaken by BGS identified that the quarrying

sector would consider using new technologies which reduce fines production if they were economically

viable and that further research work is required in identifying the capital and operational costs associated

with quarry fines (Mitchell, 2007a) (project cost: MA 4/5/003). When trying to optimise comminution

circuits, all parameters of influence should be taken into consideration including the physical properties

and characteristics of the rock, the mechanisms involved in various processes and operational parameters

(Petavratzi, 2006). Knowledge gained from comminution research (Evertsson, 2000; Bengtsson and Evertsson,

2006; Svedensten and Evertsson, 2005; Napier-Munn et al, 1996) should be used by quarry operators to

optimise the performance of their equipment and to achieve lower quantities of quarry fines.

The generation of quarry fines may cause adverse impacts on the environment (such as the local air, land,

water, flora and fauna) and human health, and the mitigation of potential impacts is mandatory. Commonly,

various dust control practices (conventional or alternative) are employed to minimise the impact of dust

generated by quarry activities (Petavratzi et al, 2005; Petavratzi, 2006; EIPPCB, 2006). Health issues and the

protection of fauna and flora are addressed through the management and protection of air quality. Fines

produced from sand and gravel operations are commonly separated from the wanted fraction in washing

plants and silt/clays are stored in lagoons. Although this process avoids the production of dust, it results in

water consumption. Research has investigated the waterless removal of fines (Mitchell, 2007b) (project code:

MA 4/5/002) as a different approach in reducing water consumption, and this is reviewed elsewhere (The

University of Leeds, 2007a). Quarry fines are often stored in stockpiles prior to use within the quarry or in

other end applications. A substantial quantity of quarry fines are replaced in the void created during aggregate

production, once activities in a specific quarry have been terminated.

In accordance with the Best Available Techniques document on the Management of tailings and waste

rock, good management of waste rock can be achieved by minimising its volume in the first place and by

maximising opportunities for the alternative use of production residues (EIPPCB, 2004). The generation

and minimisation of quarry fines is investigated in more detail by sub-theme ‘Optimising the Efficiency of

Aggregate Production’. The following Sections of this report focus on utilisation opportunities available for

quarry fines.

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Production stage

Rock type Proportion of fines in the crusher product (weight %)

Good practice

Primary crushing

Igneous and metamorphic

3 - 6% (j)1 to 10 - 15% (g) Changes at the closed side setting (CSS) of jaw crushers (optimising the CSS) or the feed system (such as replace choke system with non-choke system) may reduce fines.

Overall, small quantities are produced (<5%) and any changes may have little effect on the total arisings of quarry fines.

Limestone 6 - 7% (j) to 20% (hm)

Sandstone 1 - 2% (j) to 15 - 20% (j, g)

Secondary crushing


0 - 23% (c) During secondary and tertiary crushing higher quantities of quarry fines are produced and minimisation of them will have an effect on overall fines production.

Pre-screening of the feed can remove a substantial proportion of fines, avoid packing of material in the chamber and introduce a more uniform feed distribution to the crusher.

Optimisation of the closed side settings of crushers may reduce fine material.

The rotor speed of impact crushers is directly proportional to the production of fines. Slower rotor speeds may reduce the amount of fines produced.

Limestone 15 - 25% (c) to 30% (hm)

Sandstone 10 - 15% (c)

Tertiary crushing


5 - 30% (c) to 40% (hm)

Limestone < 20% to 40% (hm)4

Sandstone ~15% (c) to 40% (hm)

(j) refers to jaw crushers (g) refers to gyratory crushers(c) refers to cone crushers(hm) refers to hammermill/impact crusherTable 9: Estimation of quarry fines produced during crushing (The University of Leeds, 2007c)



31

The utilisation of quarry fines is seen as a way to minimise the accumulation of unwanted material and at the

same time to maximise resource use and efficiency. As discussed in Section 2.2, utilisation opportunities for

quarry fines are identified by the end user, when fit-for-purpose criteria become available that allows their

use. Various utilisation prospects exist for quarry fines, which can broadly be classified into unbound and

bound applications. Both categories of end uses may require some degree of processing of the quarry fines

to be undertaken in order to comply with technical specifications. End uses falling within any of the above

categories are presented in detail in the following Sections. End applications may be of high or low value, or

may require a small or a large volume of quarry fines. Where applicable, the above issues are discussed. Figure

7 illustrates the applications reviewed in this report. Some quarry fines may already be used in some of the

discussed uses shown in Figure 7 or they may be future utilisation opportunities. Again, these parameters are

discussed where appropriate.

4 UTILISATION OPPORTUNITIES FOR QUARRY FINES

soil remineralisation, compost, artificial soils, remediation

site restoration, landscaping

road pavements

embankment construction

landfill capping

filler applications

manufactured sand

cement making

green roofs

straw and clay blocks

concrete

hydraulically bound mixtures

manufactured aggregates

ceramic products

asphalt pavement, bituminous blocks

synthetic rock

kerbs

fibre reinforced pre-cast units

grout products

Applications

Unbound Bound

Figure 7: Current and potential unbound and bound applications for quarry fines

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4.1 THE USE OF QUARRY FINES IN UNBOUND APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines may find use in several unbound applications as substitutes of primary aggregates, for example,

in unbound aggregate mixtures, such as subbases and cappings. Technical specifications for aggregates are set

by standards, for example BS EN 13242 for unbound mixtures (BSI, 2002b), with the supporting National

Guidance given in PD 6682-6 (BSI, 2003f). A summary of the content of the European standard and National

Guidance document is given by the Quarry Products Association (QPA, 2004).

Specifications for unbound mixtures products and the specifications describing unbound mixtures of

aggregates are found in European Standard BS EN 13285. In the UK BS EN 13285, applies to granular sub

bases and cappings. The aggregates in unbound mixtures must conform to the requirements of the BS EN

13242 for:

n Crushed, broken and totally rounded particlesn Resistance to fragmentation n Magnesium sulfate soundness

A summary of BS EN 13285 is found elsewhere (QPA, 2004).

4.1.1 BULK FILLING APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines are commonly used in reclamation of mineral workings, both alongside the development of

quarrying activities and during closure. Reclamation can be an economically viable use for quarry fines,

because the material is used on site instead of being transported to a different location/end user (Manning,

2004) (project code MA 2/4/003). Reclamation plans are controlled by the permission granted to a quarry

site. (DCLG, 2006b).

Backfilling or infilling of voids is applied in surface and underground mineral workings, although there are

cases where void filling is unnecessary (DCLG, 2006b). For instance, the extraction of sand and gravel

deposits frequently means that the workings extend beneath the water table. In these cases partial filling and

landscaping can convert such sites into recreational areas (Bell, 2007). Infilling voids may use various materials

such as quarry fines, overburden material, tailings, slurries from lagoons, and inert waste. The physical and

chemical properties, the bulking and settlement characteristics, and the compaction and stability of the fill are

of great importance in backfilling or infilling activities (DCLG, 2006b). The use of quarry residues in quarry

filling void applications is classified as high volume and low value. Often a flowable fill is required for irregular,

non-uniform voids and a case study demonstrating the use of quarry fines in infill grouts is given in Section

4.2 (bound applications). Sometimes quarry fines are used for landscaping purposes within the quarry, while

this is still in operation.

Quarry fines may also find use in general fill applications such as embankments, which are considered as

low value, but again they may require large quantities of materials. Currently several other alternative and

secondary materials are utilised in similar ways; therefore, quarry fines will have to compete in the same

markets as these materials, and with primary aggregates. Whether quarry fines are used in general fill

applications will be determined primarily by the cost of transport. Where demand for such uses exists in

close proximity to quarries, then quarry fines could easily satisfy this demand.



33

Research work investigated the use of sandstone quarry sand in engineering fill applications and confirmed

its suitability. The research also identified that moisture susceptibility and frost heave would prevent its use in

unbound subbase applications, unless processing removed or diluted the filler fraction (Lamb, 2005).

The performance of recycled materials including building debris, crushed concrete, and quarry fines as

replacement for traditional materials (that is, primary aggregates), used as fine aggregate, was investigated

by researchers (Touahamia et al, 2002). The shear strength characteristics of recycled materials and quarry

fines were examined with, and without, reinforcement. Results suggested that recycled materials have lower

shear strength values, but the presence of geosynthetic reinforcement in recycled materials and quarry fines

increased the shearing resistance of materials (Touahamia et al, 2002).

Overall, unprocessed quarry fines (Type 1 group materials as classified in Table 1) can be used as bulk fill

in trenches, for backfilling underground caverns, in embankments, in landfill construction (that is, landfill

capping), in offshore “reef bag” construction and other general filling applications (Ghataora et al, 2004).

Several other examples from research papers are found in an earlier report on the Exploitation and Use of

Quarry Fines (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).

The geotechnical criteria that specify material suitable for use as fill are described in the European Standard

BS EN 1997-1 (BSI, 2004a) and a summary is shown in Table 10.

Principle requirements to be considered Applications

n good material handling properties

n adequate engineering properties

n transport/storage requirements

fills beneath foundation and ground slabs

backfill to excavations and retaining structures

general landfill including hydraulic fill, landscape mounds and spoil heaps

embankments for small dams and infrastructureCriteria Fill propertiesStrength; stiffness; durability; permeability Grading; resistance to crushing; compactibility; permeability; plasticity;

organic content; chemical aggression; pollution effects; solubility; susceptibility to volume changes (swelling clays and collapsible materials); low temperature and frost susceptibility; resistance to weathering; effect of excavation, transportation and placement; possibility of cementation occurring after placement (for example,. blast furnace slags).

4.1.2 ROAD PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION

The Specification for Highway Works allows the use of a range of reclaimed materials including quarry fines

on a site (where construction occurs) specific basis (Highways Agency, 2007a). Series 600 on Earthworks set

the specifications for bulk fill materials which find application either as a general granular fill or/and general

cohesive fill (Highways Agency, 2007a). These specifications set detailed criteria for unacceptable materials,

which are determined by their potential hazardous nature and adverse physical properties (such as, grading,

moisture content, plasticity etc). Also Series 600 puts the requirements for materials used as capping on

their own or as part of a mixture. Table 11 provides a summary of material properties requirements as set in

Series 600. Series 800 sets the specifications for unbound mixtures for subbases, which have to conform to

BS EN 13285 (BSI, 2003a) and the properties of aggregates must comply with BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b). For

Type 1 Unbound mixtures only up to 10% by mass of fines below 4 mm is permitted.

Table 10: Geotechnical requirements for materials used in fill applications (BSI, 2004a)

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Previous research has investigated the use of quarry fines in road construction (Hills et al, 2001; Touahamia et

al, 2002; Lamb, 2005; Rockliff, 1996; Rezende et al, 2002). Research undertaken by TRL explored the suitability

of unbound sandstone quarry sand (SQS) in a 20 metres cycle path as well as the use of SQS underlain with

scalpings. The unbound section performed well and showed no signs of deteriorations during the research.

The section that combined the scalpings with the SQS performed well initially, but after a period a noticeable

channel appeared that highlighted the potential for a large volume of water to washout any unbound material

(Lamb, 2005). Other research investigated the use of alternative materials including quarry production

residues in road construction and bulk fill (Hill et al, 2001). This work stated that it is more appropriate to

simulate in situ loading (physical and environmental). Results suggested that the mechanical properties of

alternative materials using performance based specifications are equally good to conventional materials and

they could potentially be used as bulk fill (Hill et al, 2001).

Another project investigated the use of quarry waste for the construction of low-volume roads. The test

material consisted of 65.9% (by mass) of gravel, 12% (by mass) of sand and 22.1% (by mass) of silt and clay.

The material was considered suitable to replace natural primary aggregates without incurring significant

structural weakness. However, field studies suggested that the performance of this material is dependent of

its moisture content, which is affected significantly during rainy periods (Rezende, 2003).

Material description Critical material properties In accordance with (BSI, 1990)

Granular material as general fill • grading• uniformity coefficient• moisture content• moisture condition value

BS 1377-part 2

BS 1377-part 2Cohesive material as general fill • grading

• plastic limit• moisture content• moisture condition value• undrained shear strength of remoulded material

BS 1377-part 2

BS 1377-part 2

BS 1377-part 2

Granular material as capping (fine grained ) • grading• optimum moisture content• moisture content• Los Angeles coefficient

BS 1377-part 2

BS 1377-part 4

BS 1377-part 2Granular material as capping (fine grained) – Unbound mixtures

Complying with BS EN 13285 and BS EN 13242

4.1.3 SOIL ENHANCEMENT

Quarry fines are considered a valuable additive to soils which may help to improve its quality by providing

essential nutrients to plants (for example, iron, potassium, magnesium). Quarry production residues will tend

to vary according to the source they are derived from. A summary of the benefits that may be seen from the

use of quarry fines in soils is presented in Table 12 (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).

Table 11: A summary of Series 600 – Technical specifications for bulk fill materials in MCHW 1 (Highways Agency, 2007a)



35

BenefitsEnhanced soil fertility and diverse soil biologyMulti-season effectsEnhanced plant establishment, growth and vigourEnhancement of flavour, aroma and shelf-life of produceHigh dry matter content, drought resistance, nutritional value and some plant disease resistance of plants

In compost, increases in process performance with integrated resource use andCarbon sequestration by calcium and magnesium carbonate formation, microfloral accumulation and C-accumulation as soil and crop biomass

The use of quarry fines for remediation and soil improvement has been addressed by previous research

(Madeley, 1999; Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth – online magazine, 2007). Quarry fines

and dust may be used to enhance plant growth. Several projects have been undertaken (UK and overseas),

which explored the use of a variety of crops with quarry fines containing soils such as brassicas with basalt/

glacial silt (Szmidt, 1998; Szmidt, 2004), soybean with sand and gravel fines (Angeles et al, 1997), acacia with

granite fines (Oldfield, 1998) and other (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004). Results varied for different trials and

under some circumstances they were positive, whereas in other cases no significant changes were recorded

(Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online magazine, 2007). Overall however the use of a

suitable combination of crops with quarry fines can enhance plant growth.

There is evidence that the use of quarry fines in soils may enhance crop value as well as animal and

human nutrition. Plants grown in quarry dust – amended soils have higher levels of essential elements and

nutritional values when compared to those produced by conventional agriculture. Recent research has

identified that the nutrition content of fruits and vegetables has been dropping since initial records were

taken (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online magazine, 2007). Hence, finding ways to

achieve soil remineralisation and nutrition content increase is considered critical. Another benefit seen from

incorporating quarry fines in soils is that this action may have a positive effect on carbon cycling, but further

research is required however to demonstrate this (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004; Remineralize the Earth-online

magazine, 2007).

4.1.4 COMPOSTING

Quarry fines may also find application in composting. Research in this area has been less active and only

a few trials have been undertaken. Results from some trials have not shown any clear benefits from the

incorporation of quarry fines in compost. In another occasion, work at Glasgow University (Graham, 2001)

and the Scottish Agricultural College (SAC) (Szmidt, 2004) has determined small but significant increases

in compost temperature at relatively high rates of quarry fines (20 kg/m3). Also ammonia production from

compost was lower in the presence of quarry fines suggesting a lower odour potential (Szmidt and Ferguson,

2004).

Table 12: Benefits seen from the use of quarry fines in soil (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004)

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In the UK, some extensive work, funded through the MIST project investigated the use of basaltic quarry

fines with organic process residues for the development of growing media. Various combinations of quarry

fines and compost were trialled and grass and tomato plant pot experiments were set up to assess the

performance of different blends. Field trials, at a local quarry were also set up. The main parameters

investigated were plants’ growth, the leachability of nutrients and potential contaminants, and physical

properties (such as, infiltration, water holding capacity, and shear strength) of blends tested in lysimeters.

Results suggested that most quarry fines interact positively with compost and vice-versa to allow

development of novel growing media suitable for horticultural and land restoration uses. However, further

research work is required to understand and assess the influence of quarry production residues on compost

(Guillou and Davies, 2004) (project code MA 1/3/003).

Specifications for composted materials are set by the Publicly Available Specifications for Composted

Materials (PAS 100, 2005). The BSI PAS 100 covers various key elements related to composting such

as process control, input materials, sanitation, stabilisation, quality requirements, sampling frequency,

classification and others (PAS 100, 2005). However, according to PAS 100 and the compost quality protocol,

quarry production residues are not included in the list of permitted materials (PAS 100, 2005; Environment

Agency et al, 2007). The latter is limited to biodegradable materials only. The deliberate addition of non-

biodegradable materials (for example, basaltic fines) is not allowed. The provision of data that justify the

suitability of quarry fines in the composting process could permit incorporation. This however will have to be

classified on a case by case basis (Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).

4.1.5 ARTIFICIAL SOILS

Quarry fines may also be used to produce artificial soils. The British Standard BS 3882 (BSI, 1994) specifies

topsoil requirements. According to BS 3882, three grades of topsoil are established, premium, the general

purpose, and economy grade (BSI, 1994). Topsoil is classified to any of the above grades after review of the

following characteristics (BSI, 1994):

n Textural classification

n Maximum stone content

n pH value

n Nutrients content

n Loss on ignition

n Exchangeable sodium percentage

Past research into artificial soils suggests that blending quarry production residues (such as sandstone quarry

sand) with organic material (i.e compost, agricultural waste) might produce an artificial soil (Lamb, 2005;

Keeling et al, 2001; Mitchell et al, 2004). Results determined that the textural classification of premium grade

topsoil can be achieved by using a 70:30 (v/v) blend of the filler fraction (<75 µm) of sandstone quarry sand

or as produced sandstone quarry sand and a suitable organic material. The grading requirements for premium

topsoil are met by the filler fraction, but not from the as produced sandstone quarry sand (Lamb, 2005).

Specific types of quarry fines, such as from limestone quarrying activities may be used to remediate acidic

soils. In a project funded through the MIST programme, limestone quarry fines were used in combination

with steel slag fines and compost to remediate acidic colliery spoil sites. Grass growing trials were

undertaken at various compositions of colliery spoil, limestone dust and steel slag. Results confirmed that

the most appropriate mix will contain 5% of each limestone and compost and 4% of steel slag (Tarmac Ltd



37

and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA 4/2/019). Further research is currently undertaken from Birmingham

University in remediated acidic sites using quarry wastes (project code MA 6/4/02) (Birmingham University,

2007).

4.1.6 FILLER APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines may substitute primary materials which are used as fillers in paper, paint, plastics, rubber and

elsewhere. Mineral fillers are used in a wide range of commodities and commonly comprise fine grained

materials (<2 mm). Fillers used in certain end uses must fulfil specific requirements. For instance the

production of photocopier paper and household paints must use fillers with high brightness levels and good

rheological properties. In order to satisfy such demand, primary materials like kaolin, calcium carbonate

or talc are used and sold at a relatively high cost in order to recover total production costs (extraction

and processing). Quarry fines could not comply with the requirements for high value filler applications.

Nevertheless they could be used as general fillers in papermaking (for example, packaging paper), pigments

(for example, marine paint), plastics (for example, glass reinforced plastics), membranes and rubber (tyres,

cable) (MIRO, 2001a; Bonney et al, 2000).

Research investigated the use of mineral residues of calcareous and siliceous composition from aggregate

quarries in end uses such as elastomeric membranes, paints, paper and plastic. The aim of this research was

to develop low cost by-product fillers where product specifications and end use do not demand high-

grade fillers. Siliceous and calcareous quarry fines have been shown to be suitable for use in elastomeric

membranes and a large scale trial was carried out for the calcareous materials.

Trials were undertaken to establish the compatibility of these materials with paints, but results were not

positive. However it was found out that micronised calcareous quarry fines could partially substitute

extenders and produce a reasonable quality of paints. The use of calcareous micronised quarry fines in the

production of glass reinforced plastics was also examined and it was found out that partial substitution of

extenders does not impair the quality of the panels produced. Finally, micronised calcareous quarry fines

could substitute up to 5% wood pulp in paper pulp without influencing the production procedure (MIRO,

2001a; MIRO, 2001b; Bonney et al, 2000).

4.1.7 OTHER APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines could also find use in the production of Portland cement. The cement sector has been active

in trying to utilise such material for the preparation of kiln meal (Petavratzi and Barton, 2007). The cement

making process requires four major constituent oxides to be present, namely CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3.

Therefore, quarry fines with the above constituents may be applicable for use. Materials used in clinker’s

recipe are blended to specification prior to use and it is anticipated that various other alternative materials

may be found suitable. The production of meals suitable for cement is often undertaken by a secondary

industry sector specialised in blending. Quarry production residues, which present some of the essential

ingredients and low compositional variability, could be used in cement manufacture (Petavratzi and Barton,

2007). Current cement standards (BS EN 197-1) only refer to well established alternative materials (i.e

pulverized fuel ash) commonly used for the production of blended cements (BSI, 2000a). The use of

quarry fines and other alternative materials pre-kiln is relatively new and further research work should be

undertaken to determine its full potential.

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Finally quarry fines might find application in new, innovative products such as green roofs, eco-friendly slates,

cob building, light earth or straw clay, earth bags and earth plasters.

In green roofs, clay, silt and quarry fines could be used in the soil and aggregate mixtures, and scalpings

in the aggregate mixture. The particle size distribution and particle shape of quarry production residues

are considered critical parameters that will determine their utilisation potential. Currently there are no

specifications on green roofs in the UK and the market is limited, although it is anticipated that changes will

be seen in the near future due to active research and development. Further information can be found in

GreenSpec website (GreenSpec, 2007a) and the Green Roof Centre (The Green Roof Centre, 2007).

Eco-friendy slates for roofing are produced by one manufacturer in the UK by resin-bonded recycled plastic

and dolomite/limestone fines. Dolomite or limestone comprises a filler material in this application. By-

product fillers derived from quarry fines might be suitable to this product, but further research should be

undertaken to determine this. (E-C-B-UK, 2007; GreenSpec, 2007b).

Quarry production residues could also be used in earth construction applications. For example, clay, silt and

quarry fines could be used in cob building and straw clay end uses. Again more research work is required to

determine the applicability of quarry fines in earth construction. More information on earth construction can

be found elsewhere (Sustainable Build, 2007).

4.2 THE USE OF QUARRY FINES IN BOUND APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines could be diverted and utilised in various bound applications such as controlled low strength

materials, masonry products, asphalt and asphalt surface treatments, hydraulic bound mixtures and mortar.

Technical standards (British and European) specify the requirements for aggregate materials used in bound

applications. The BS EN 12620 sets the criteria for aggregates to be used in concrete (BSI, 2002a). The

accompanying National Guidance Document PD6682-1 provides information on the application of the

standard to the UK (BSI, 2003g). The product standard BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e) and the PD 6682-2 (BSI,

2003e) corresponds to aggregates used for asphalt and surface treatment. The BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)

and the supporting PD 6682-6 sets the specifications for aggregates used in hydraulic bound uses (BSI,

2003f). Finally the BS EN 13139 (BSI, 2002c) and the National Guidance PD 6682-3 (BSI, 2003h) set the

requirements for aggregates used in mortar. The content and relevance of the above technical standards

with quarry production residues is discussed in the following sections together with findings from relevant

research that demonstrate the potential utilisation of quarry fines in bound applications.

4.2.1 CONTROLLED LOW STRENGTH MATERIALS

Controlled low strength materials (CLSM) are defined as self-compacting, low strength, cementitious

materials used primarily as backfill in lieu of compacted fill (ACI, 1999).Controlled low strength material is

characterised by high workability, low density and low strength, which allows for self-compaction. Fly ash,

ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), and waste foundry sand, are commonly found in flowable fill

mixtures (Naik et al., 2003), but non-standard materials such as quarry fines may also be used to produce

CLSM as far as they satisfy the requirements for intended applications.

According to the Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA’s) Office of Research, Development, and

Technology, quarry residues such as screenings, pond fines and baghouse fines can be used as a filler

http://www.tfhrc.gov/about/offices.htm

http://www.tfhrc.gov/about/offices.htm



39

aggregate or as a partial or possibly a complete replacement for the pozzolan component in flowable fill

mixes (TFHRC, 2007). Screenings may substitute sand, whereas pond and baghouse fines could partially or

completely used instead of conventional aggregates. It is anticipated that fines produced from comminution

and screening will not require any additional processing except from some minimal sizing or drying if they

exhibit high moisture content. Pond fines will require some type of dewatering prior to use. Engineering

properties of quarry residues that are of particular importance to quarry fines are gradation, moisture

content and unit weight, whereas properties such as the mix strength, the flowability, the time of set and the

bleeding and shrinkage determine the performance of the controlled low strength material (CLSM) (TFHRC,

2007).

Research investigated the use of fly ash, rice husk ash and quarry dust as potential by-products in controlled

low strength materials. Quarry fines were obtained from a granite quarry and comprised material below 4.75

mm. Trials explored different mixtures such as cement-fly ash-quarry fines, cement-quarry fines and cement-

rice husk-quarry fines (Nataraja and Nalanda, 2007). Engineering properties such as flowability, density,

uniaxial compressive strength, stress-strain behaviour, water absorption and volume change were investigated.

Results suggested that the engineering properties of CLSM can be achieved satisfactorily using a very

small amount of cement and a large amount of quarry fines. When the by-product content was increased,

the water-cement ratio also increased linearly to get a specific flow. Quarry fines could substitute sand in

CLSM. Quarry dust content (<75 µm) as high as 96% by weight, could be mixed with flowable fill without

noticeable segregation and bleeding. The uniaxial compressive strength test results were acceptable and the

stress- strain behaviour results suggested that quarry fines could be used for soil-like material applications in

producing CLSM (Nataraja and Nalanda, 2007).

In another project quarry fines were used as the main constituent of a pumpable infill grout (Tarmac Ltd and

Associates, 2007; Ghataora et al, 2004) (project code: MA 4/2/019). Laboratory trials and modelling studies

were carried out to establish the constituents of potential mixes, and were followed by field trials that

verified the pumping qualities of a selection of mixes (Ghataora et al, 2004). Limestone quarry fines below

4 mm were used in field trials and several mixtures were prepared with different ratios of water-cement-

quarry fines and in one of the trials foaming agent, whereas the effect of pumping aid was also investigated.

Two different field trials were undertaken and both explored the ‘pumpability’ of different mixtures and

the compaction properties. The objective of these trials was to examine the suitability of flowable fills in

underground void filling and back-filling applications. The product expected to be utilised in underground void

filling was required to have free flowing properties, to be able to be pumped long distances, to have a low

strength and to contain a high content of quarry fines. The properties investigated for the material used as

a backfill were the pumpability, 3-day strength, bleed and segregation after placement. Results suggested the

following: (Tarmac Ltd and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA 4/2/019):

n Quarry fines could be pumped by hydro-transport techniques using water only

n Quarry fines could be developed into cementitious pastes and pumped over long distances

n Pastes based on quarry fines can be pumped over long distances without segregating thus providing an

alternative material to pulverized-fuel ash

n Overall the pumpable grouts would be suitable for low value, bulk infill products such as void infill or

reinstatement of utility excavations.

Limestone quarry fines were used in one project as a substitute for natural sand (approximately to 50% by

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mass) for the production of self–compacting concrete (SCC). Fines content (<75 µm) of 10% (by mass) was

included in the limestone quarry fines, which was absent in the natural sand. The substitution reduced the

requirement for chemical admixtures, without affecting the strength of the self-compacting concrete (Naik

et al, 2005). In one research, three types of limestone quarry fines were tested as substitutes for cement.

Results suggested that a 10% replacement of cement with quarry fines produce a self-compacting concrete

with good rheological properties in its fresh state and compressive strengths and drying shrinkage at

hardened state (Felekoglu, 2006). The use of granite quarry fines in self-compacting concrete was investigated

against limestone fines. Granite fines had a finer particle size distribution and higher flakiness index than its

limestone equivalent. Research demonstrated that granite fines could be successfully incorporated into SCC.

When granite fines were compared with limestone particles, then it was concluded that they required a

higher dosage of superplasticiser for similar yield stresses and rheological properties for routine use in SCC.

The consistency of quarry fines overtime may be an issue, and durability issues such as alkali-silica reaction

should be investigated in detail (Ho et al, 2002). Other examples are reviewed by other authors (Manning,

2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).

Geotechnical design and properties are determined by European standards (Eurocode 7) (BSI, 2004a),

whereas the properties of the aggregates used in controlled low strength materials should comply with BS

EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a).

4.2.2 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS – MANUFACTURED CONCRETE

The use of quarry fines in concrete is well established, in particular where arisings become available from

local sources (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).

Technical specifications for concrete are given in BS EN 206-1 (BSI, 2000f)( and the complementary British

Standard, BS 8500 (BSI, 2006a; BSI, 2006b) (part 1 and part 2). Other standards which relate to specific end

products exist and some of them are summarised in Table 21 in Appendix IV (Price, 2002; WRAP, 2007c).

Specifications for aggregates used are given in BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a). The production of concrete requires

the use of coarse aggregate (>4 mm) and fine aggregate (<4 mm) and in some cases also filler aggregate (<

63 µm). Filler aggregates are obtained by processing natural, recycled or manufactured aggregates. In some

European countries it is common practice to set a minimum fines content and to use fine filler aggregate, as

it may be beneficial in minimizing voids and bleeding in concrete (BSI, 2003g) The “aggregates for concrete”

standard specifies the geometrical, physical and chemical requirements for aggregates and a summary of them

is given in Table 13.

BS EN standard requirement Properties Applicable to/MethodologyGeometrical Aggregate sizes (Sieve apertures)

Grading Coarse and fine aggregateAggregate shape Coarse aggregate (flakiness index)Shell content Coarse aggregateFines content Coarse, fine, filler aggregate (up to 11% for all-in aggregate)

Fines quality Fine/Filler aggregate (Harmfulness that is, clay content) Physical Resistance to fragmentation Los Angeles method

Resistance to wear Coarse aggregatesPolished stone value Coarse aggregateAggregate abrasion value (for highways surfaces uses)Durability Magnesium sulfate soundness test



41

Chemical Chlorides Water soluble ion chlorideSulphur rich compounds Acid soluble sulfates and total sulfur Other constituents Constituents that alter setting and hardening of concrete Carbonate content Fine aggregates – concrete pavement surface sources

Technical specifications on the use of aggregates for mortar are set by BS EN 13139 (BSI, 2002c), with the

supporting National Guidance given in PD 6682-3 (BSI, 2003b). Grading requirements place greater emphasis

on ‘consistency of products’ based on ‘typical grading’ figures with controlling tolerances and overall

requirements on designated sieves (QPA, 2007).

Quarry fines may be produced to comply with standards for concrete or mortar, specification. There are

cases when the fines cannot meet the technical requirements, or the local concrete or/and mortar market

cannot absorb the quantities produced, or that even a suitable local market may be absent. Under such

circumstances, quarry fines remain unused. Unfortunately there is little data on the technical suitability

and market availability for quarry fines to be used in concrete or mortar, and the only existing information

comprises anecdotal evidence provided from interviews with the industry (Mitchell, 2007a) (project code:

MA 4/5/003). According to such anecdotal evidence, hard rock and sandstone quarries produce fines as

a result of high demand for 10 mm aggregate. At some hard rock quarries, demand exceeds supply and

aggregate producers re-crush single-size aggregate to create more fines. Sandstone quarry fines produced

from some sites are consumed locally, whereas some other sites have no sales and stockpiles are increasing,

often matching a critical level, which constrains the continuity of quarrying activities (The University of Leeds,

2007a).

Research has investigated the use of quarry fines in various concrete applications. The International Center

for Aggregates Research (ICAR) explored the use of microfines (particles below 75 µm) in concrete.

According to American Standards (ASTM C33) a maximum of 7% (by mass) microfines is allowed in some

applications, when adverse constituents such as clay or shale are absent. Trials were undertaken using 63

samples of fine aggregate from seven different rock types and characterisation included standard tests such

as specific gravity, gradation, absorption, uncompacted void content, as well as less commonly used tests, like

laser diffraction, particle sizing, chemical analysis and the methylene blue method. Tests were conducted on

mortar mixes containing fine aggregate. Findings suggested that manufactured fine aggregate mortars with

high fines content generally had higher flexural strength, improved abrasion resistance, higher unit weight and

lower permeability due to filling of pores with microfines. Compression strength and shrinkage were within

generally acceptable ranges. Manufactured fine aggregate can be produced from a variety of rock types such

as limestone, granite, quartzite, diabase and dolomite. Hence concrete can be manufactured using all of the

aggregate, including microfines from 7 to 18% without the use of admixtures (Ahn and Fowler, 2001).

The use of limestone fines (90% of material passing 300 µm), cumulated from limestone quarrying activities,

was examined by one research project. This work looked at the use of limestone fines combined with

Portland cement (with or without the use of waste glass powder) (Turgut, 2006). Other research looked

at the use of limestone fines with a small quantity of Portland cement was explored for the production

of artificial stone. Cement to limestone dust ratio and compaction pressure, were considered as the two

independent process variables and compressive strength represented the dependent variable (Galetakis

and Raka, 2004a; Galetakis and Raka, 2004b). Experimental work from both projects showed that quarry

dust cement combination can be utilised for the production of moulded masonry blocks with acceptable

Table 13: Requirements for aggregates for concrete according to BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a)

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mechanical and physical properties (Turgut, 2006; Galetakis and Raka, 2004a; Galetakis and Raka, 2004b).

Hanson Aggregates manufactures structural concrete in Wales (Craig-yr-Hesg) using 12% unseparated

sandstone quarry fines. The product is being sold as standard C35 strength concrete (35 N/mm2). However

measurements identified that the strength of the final product would be considerably higher than 35 N/mm2

after 28 days. Therefore, it was proposed that, if the filler was to be removed, then much greater proportions

of the coarser grained material could be incorporated into the mix, while retaining the desirable strength

value (Lamb, 2005). Also sandstone quarry sand (SQS)is used in block manufacture, in a mass percentage up

to 10% of 6 mm aggregate to prevent balling and voids. This is common practice for a number of companies

in South Wales (Lamb, 2005).

The filler fraction of the sandstone quarry sand (SQS) was tested as a cement replacement material. Physical

and chemical analysis results determined that this material could be used as a cement substitute, subject to

the end user requirements and material’s availability. The leachate results showed a significant increase in lime,

when SQS was added to mortar, which may cause efflorescence on concrete products. The pozzolanicity

results were positive, but it was found out that this material contains a very high insoluble residue, which

limits its use in cement only as filler. Although overall results were considered positive, it was thought that

further work would be required to determine if additional routine testing requirements were essential for

using SQS in cement. It was also unclear if it would be practical for the quarry to separate the filler from the

SQS and also dry the material prior to inclusion with the cement mix (Lamb, 2005).

The use of silt and clays (SiO2 composition) obtained from crushed granite stone (<150 µm and between

75 and 150 µm) was tested as cement substitutes and it was found out that up to 25% of cement

replacement could be achieved without affecting the durability of concrete, namely parameters such as

strength, workability and impermeability. Silt and clays expressed reactive properties and they could be

used as reactive minerals. Although the inclusion of silt and clay increased the water / cement ratio, it was

thought that the problem could be solved by using high specific surface area material with a superplasticizer

admixture (Chan and Wu, 2000).

The production of concrete for sea defence structures using limestone quarry fines was investigated by

laboratory experimentation undertaken by the University of Birmingham. The aim was to produce concrete

structures for erosion control. The strength of concrete at 28 days was higher than the specified, but the

project did not move forward as economic evaluation showed that this application was not cost effective

(Ghataora et al, 2004).

An analytical literature review is presented in the report “Exploitation and use of quarry fines” and further

literature findings can be reviewed there (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).

4.2.3 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS – HEAVY CERAMICS

Heavy ceramics such as bricks, tiles and pipes could absorb some quantities of quarry fines from local

sources, but it is expected that utilisation rates will be much lower than in concrete and controlled low

strength applications. The market for bricks has changed significantly after the introduction of concrete

blocks, as the latter replaced common bricks. This resulted to a shift to producing facing bricks used for

aesthetic purposes (BGS, 2007). Brickworks commonly own clay quarries, which provide the primary raw



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materials. However, other constituents derived from primary, secondary and waste sources are also utilised

in order to satisfy market competition, which requires from companies to produce large portfolios with

different product.

Technical specifications on masonry products, as described in BS EN 771-1, (BSI, 2003i) apply to ceramic

products such as bricks and they set the requirements for a variety of physical properties such as density,

dimensions, thermal properties, compression strength, water absorption and others. ’Fit-for-use‘ criteria

for raw materials are not currently available, because historically brick manufacturers utilised only primary

materials from their own clay quarries and the use of alternative materials has not progressed sufficiently to

require the development of a new set of specifications.

A recent research project looked at the utilisation of various alternative materials in brick making. A

characterisation framework was developed based on end user requirements. The framework aimed to

characterise constituent materials according to their contribution to the end product (Petavratzi and Barton,

2006). The approach and findings of this research is presented in Section 2.2.2 and

Table 4. Depending on the physical (that is, composition) and chemical characteristics (for example, soluble

salts content) of quarry fines, they may be used as filler, clay substitute, colourant, fluxing agent or even

body fuels (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006). Examples of quarry fines that could potentially be suitable for use

in bricks categories are given in Table 20, in Appendix III. According to responses from brick manufacturers,

the inclusion of quarry fines in bricks, in a percentage of 3 to 5% by mass, is possible without affecting the

appearance and properties of end product. Nevertheless the brick sector will only choose to introduce

materials to the process that will provide some clear benefits to the appearance of the end product (for

example, desirable colour) or the manufacturing process (for example, fluxing) (Petavratzi and Barton, 2006).

The incorporation of quarry fines in ceramic products has been explored by several other research projects

and a summary of findings is shown in Table 14. A review of other literature sources can be found elsewhere

(Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003).

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Project Findings ReferenceAcid resisting bricks from kaolin fine quarry residues, granulated blastfurnace slag (GBFS) and granite-basalt fine quarry residues

The performance and characteristics of these bricks were compared with conventional ones made of clay, feldspar and sand. The study suggested that it is possible to produce acid resistant bricks, which satisfied the technical specifications in place, by using (by mass) 50% kaolin fines, 20% granite-basalt fines and 30% granulated blastfurnace slag at a firing temperature of 1125 oC.

(El-Mahllawy, 2007)

Recovered slate waste in sintered structural tiles manufactured by powder technology

This study examined the characteristics of the raw materials (slate waste), the sintering process, the suitability for processing by powder technology and the final properties of the end product. The obtained results showed that recovered slate waste is a suitable material for use in ceramic tiles, since their properties are within the range of those of conventional ceramic tiles

(Campos et al, 2004)

Slate powder waste in ceramics using the slip casting process

‘Green’ ceramic pieces from slate powder waste have a potential use in the manufacturing of ceramic pieces by the slip casting process.

(Mansur et al, 2006)

Unfired earth bricks (that is, compressed unfired bricks, light unfired bricks, unfired clay bricks)

Although currently there is no clear evidence that demonstrate the use of quarry fines, it is believed that clays and manufactured sand produced as by-products from the extraction of aggregates could find application in unfired bricks.

(GreenSpec, 2007c)

Marble and granite reject to enhance the processing of clay products

Addition of up to 30% (by weight) of non-beneficiated, fine grained and low iron marble and granite reject in red clay based mixture did not alter the properties of the end product and reduced the firing temperature.

(Segadaes et al, 2005)

Granite sawing wastes in ceramic bricks and tiles

Granite wastes have physical and mineralogical characteristics similar to those of conventional ceramic raw materials. The technological characteristics are in agreement with standards for ceramic bricks and tiles. Additions up to 35% (by weight) can be achieved at firing temperatures up to 1200oC.

(Menezes et al, 2005)

4.2.4 CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS – MANUFACTURED AGGREGATES

The production and use of manufactured aggregates, although limited currently in the UK is expected to

increase in the future due to changes in legislation and government initiatives, such as the work undertaken

by WRAP (The Waste and Resources Action Programme) that promote the specification of good practice

recycled content products (WRAP, 2007d). Manufactured aggregates produced using only quarry fines will

result to dense products and their end applications is considered limited as primary aggregate sources are

readily available at lower cost. However the production of lightweight aggregates is beneficial, because it

could assist to the development of lightweight products and at the same time ‘consume’ waste materials and

by-products that are currently being landfilled.

Technical specifications for lightweight aggregates for concrete are set by BS EN 13055. Part 1 (BSI, 2002d)

together with the National Guidance Document PD 6682-4 (BSI, 2003c). Part 2 of BS EN 13055 specifies

lightweight aggregates for bound and unbound materials (BSI, 2004b) and it is accompanied by the National

Guidance Document PD 6682-5 (BSI, 2005).

Research in this area has been active and several trials and projects have been developed that investigated the

use of quarry fines in the production of manufactured aggregates. The quarrying of ragstone in Kent produces

in excess approximately 200,000 tonnes of poor quality fine grained material and research was conducted

to identify the suitability of this material in the production of manufactured aggregates. In the South-East of

Table 14: Literature findings on the use of quarry fines in heavy ceramic products



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England, only 40% of the aggregate required for construction can be supplied by local sources, which is seen

as a driver towards the use of manufacture aggregates. Quarry fines comprises poorly cemented sandstone

with high fines content (16.5%) and it has not been found to be suitable for use as an engineering material

or as fine aggregate in concrete. Washing the fines could remove the excess fines content and provide

an appropriate concrete aggregate, but the installation of a washing plant is expensive. Quarry fines were

blended with other solid waste products (namely cement kiln dust, ground granulated blastfurnace slag and

pulverized-fuel ash) and were pelletised in a CO2-rich atmosphere. The final products may find potential

use as secondary lightweight aggregates, for structural concrete, concrete block manufacture or highways

application, if proved suitable through compliance with BS EN 13055 (Padfield et al, 2004).

The potential use of quarry fines (<4 mm) combined with recycled plastics for the production of

manufactured aggregates was investigated by research. The ‘Plasmega’ process involved the mixing of

shredded plastic waste and quarry fines at controlled temperatures to produce lightweight aggregates. A

range of different plastics to fines ratios, which varied from 60 to 80% for quarry fines and 20 to 40% for

general plastic waste, were used in these trials. Plastic waste was delivered in bales and consisted primarily of

general waste (variety of plastic). Contaminants such as wood and metals were separated before and during

shredding. Quarry fines consisted of gritstone and limestone, but trial batches were also produced using

steel slag, lagoon silt, sand and china clay waste. Fines were added to the mixer first followed by the shredded

plastics and combined together at a temperature between 250 to 260oC for 6 to 8 minutes. The mix was

fed directly into a briquette plant that produced a 40 mm diameter ovoid, which were subsequently crushed

using a hammer mill. Laboratory tests were carried out to determine the properties of the finished product

and small scale trials were undertaken of the use of ‘Plasmega’ in asphalt, concrete and block manufacture.

Results suggested that from a technical point of view, the process technology appears to be viable and

aggregates of consistent quality can be produced for the 50:50 and 60:40 fines/plastic blends of materials.

Based on the aggregate abrasion value and the magnesium sulphate soundness value, the produced aggregate

is considered a hard and durable material. The polished stone value results especially for the limestone mixes

suggested that the manufactured aggregate may not be suitable for surface course material. Asphalt materials

containing the lightweight aggregate required an extra binder to achieve full coating and to ensure durability

of the material. Overall it was concluded that the ‘Plasmega’ aggregate could potentially be used in asphalt

and unbound applications, but further work should be carried out through full scale trials to determine this.

The fundamental obstacle to the process was considered to be the ready supply of usable waste plastic at

cost appropriate to make the product competitive (Tarmac Ltd and Associates, 2007) (project code: MA

4/2/019).

Lightweight aggregates were produced using marine clay and a CaF2-rich semiconductor industry sludge

using a bench-scale rotary kiln. The scope of this study was to produce an aggregate source in the area of

Singapore, utilising marine clay produced during excavation in construction sites, which is currently treated

as waste. Different clay to sludge ratios were trialled (90/10, 70/30, 50/50 (mass %)). All three mixtures

showed good bloating behaviour during firing and the ceramic pellets (1 – 1.5 cm diameter) had densities

below that required for lightweight aggregates. The water absorption of the aggregates was high due to

large pore size, which could be altered by changing the clay to sludge ratio or the firing conditions. Also

the composition of the aggregate showed a significant loss of fluorine (40-60%) during processing, but

leach testing suggested that aggregates would not pose a human or environmental hazard due to fluorine

mobilization. The aggregates were considered suitable for the manufacture of low strength building blocks

(Laursen et al, 2006). Clay produced from aggregate quarries could also comprise the binder rather than the

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base material in manufactured aggregates. In other work lightweight aggregates were produced using a rotary

kiln by mixing combustion ashes such as pulverized-fuel ash, incinerated sewage sludge ash, municipal solid

waste incinerator bottom ash with a binder such as clay (Wainwright and Cresswell, 2000; Wainwright and

Cresswell, 2001).

Unless energy consumption associated with the production of lightweight aggregates is reduced, the wide use

of such materials is expected to be limited as the competition from alternatives such as primary, secondary

and recycled aggregates is high. A project currently carried out within the Fifth call of the MIST programme

investigates the use of microwave technology to produce lightweight aggregate from quarry wastes, which

may result in energy savings. This project is currently underway and it is expected to establish the technical

and economical feasibility of microwave processing in the manufacture of sustainable construction materials

(The University of Nottingham, 2007) (project code: MA 6/4/006).

4.2.5 HYDRAULICALLY BOUND MIXTURES

Hydraulically bound mixtures (HBMs) comprise a combination of aggregates with binder mixtures that set

and harden in the presence of water. Hydraulically bound mixtures can employ different types of hydraulic

binders and they are therefore classified as Cement Bound Granular Mixtures (CBGM), Slag Bound Mixtures

(SBM) and Fly Ash Bound Mixtures (FABM). Cement bound mixtures commonly use Portland cement,

whereas slag bound mixtures and fly ash bound mixtures utilise granulated blast furnace slag (and depending

on mixture type also include partially ground granulated blast furnace slag and ground granulated blast

furnace slag) and fly ash respectively as the binder phase. Hydraulically bound mixtures find application

in road (major, minor roads) and paving construction (paved areas, heavy duty paving), in shore and slope

protection, flood protection, dams, liners, container embankment structures, river/canal bank protection and

backfill. In pavement construction, HBMs can find application in base, subbase and capping layers. Quarry

fines could be utilised as an aggregate or in the production of alternative binders (for example, in composite

cement), material below 4 mm could find application as fine aggregate in HBMs.

Technical specifications on aggregates for hydraulically bound mixtures are given by BS EN 13242 (BSI,

2002b) and the accompanying National Guidance document PD 6682-6 (BSI, 2003b). The European Standard

sets specific requirements for the geometry, physical, chemical and durability properties of aggregates, a

summary of which is shown in Table 15. The Manual of Contract for Highways Work, Volume 1 and Series 800

(Highways Agency, 2007a) sets the requirements for hydraulically bound materials used in road pavement.

According to Specification for Highway Works, china clay and slate waste is included in the list of alternative

materials that could be used as aggregates, whereas the use of quarry fines may be considered by the

Overseeing Organisation on a site specific basis. Also the Interim Advice Note 73/06 (Highways Agency,

2006) provides guidance on the construction of road pavement foundations and has to be applied during

all road construction, implementation, improvement and maintenance works. The European Standards for

HBMs are divided into two main series, the BS EN 14227 series (BSI, 2004c), which covers specifications for

hydraulically bound mixtures and the BS EN 13286 series which cover test methods for HBM (BSI, 2003d).

The use of sandstone quarry sand (SQS) in cement bound road subbase was investigated. Physical data

suggested that the material would form a good subbase in terms of strength and compaction. The sandstone

quarry sand could comfortably meet the specification for a cement bound subbase (CBM 1). Four different

mixes utilising 50, 75, 100 and 125 kg/m3 cement contents based on a density of 2,200 kg/m3 were prepared

and test cubes were compacted at moisture content of 9% by mass of aggregate. Results suggested that



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blocks displayed a steady increase in compressive strength with cement content. The 4.5 N/mm2 requirement

for CBM1 was satisfied for materials with cement content falling between 75 and 100 kg/m3. Also, the 7 day

compressive strength of 4.5 N/mm2 would be achieved by materials with 100 kg/m3 cement content and by

adding approximately 4% of cement to SQS (Lamb, 2005).

The utilisation of recycled and secondary materials in hydraulically bound mixtures has been studied in the

past (Dunster et al, 2005a; Dunster et al, 2005b). Alternative materials such as silt dredging, pulverized-fuel

ash, clay and steel slag fines were trialled in applications that involved stabilisation for erosion protection and

in road construction and paving (Dunster et al, 2005b). The advantages seen from using alternative materials

in HBM were end product related (such as, higher strength was achieved), economic (for example, avoid

disposal cost or transport of primary aggregates), environmental (such as, reduced pollution associated with

transport) and operational (such as, easy to handle and use). Technical guidance on the use of alternative

materials in HBMs for different applications such as in major road or minor road construction, erosion

protection, liners and heavy pavement was produced within this project (Dunster et al, 2005c; Dunster et

al, 2005d; Dunster et al, 2005e). The referenced case studies provide some good examples of utilisation of

alternative materials in HBM and it is anticipated that similar benefits could be achieved by using quarry fines.

Research is currently being undertaken within the MIST programme (sixth call – Thematic Value: Optimising

Resource Value) on the use of quarry dust in hydraulically bound mixtures for construction applications. The

scope of this project is to carry out a detailed literature review of existing studies, to develop specifications

for HBMs with quarry fines in their structure, to undertake laboratory investigation and to produce a

guidance document and technical report which will include all project findings. It is anticipated that this

project will be completed during 2008 (Scott Wilson, 2007) (project code: MA 6/4/003).

BS/EN standard requirement

Properties Applicable to/ methodology

Geometrical Grading Coarse, fine and all in aggregates (determines sieve apertures; break point between coarse and fine aggregates = 4 mm)

Crushed and broken surfaces

Coarse aggregates (assesses the potential for mechanical interlock between the coarse aggregate particles; in accordance with BS EN 933-5:1998 (BSI, 1998)

Fines content Coarse, fine and all-in aggregates (percentage passing a 63 µm sieve; the Specification for Highway Works however specifies a 75 µm sieve; adopted category will be determined from end use)

Physical Resistance to fragmentation

Los Angeles test

Resistance to wear Coarse aggregate (Micro-Deval test)

Particle density In accordance with BS EN 1097-6 (BSI, 2000b)

Chemical Acid-soluble sulfate Applicable to blast furnace slag aggregate only

Total sulfur Low content in aggregate sources in the UK, so unless stated this is not applicable

Constituents which alter the rate of setting and hardening of hydraulically bound mixtures

Commonly not applicable in the UK

Durability Based on water absorption value

In the UK, aggregates are considered satisfactory without further testing if they conform to water absorption WA242. Aggregates with water absorption above 2% should satisfy general purposes uses if they conform to the magnesium sulfate soundness category MS35Table 15: Requirements for aggregates for hydraulically bound mixtures in accordance with BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)

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The use of quarry fines is under investigation by Scott Wilson and Transport Research Laboratory. This

project is due to be completed in 2008 (Scott Wilson and TRL, 2007). The objective of this project is to

characterise a range of different quarry fines, with and without hydraulic binders, and to develop procedures

for the use in pavement engineering. (Scott Wilson and TRL, 2007).

Further information and case studies on the use of quarry fines in hydraulically bound mixtures can be found

elsewhere (Manning, 2004; Zoorob et al, 2002).

4.2.6 ASPHALT APPLICATIONS

Quarry fines may be used in asphalt paving and surface treatment as fine aggregate or/and filler. Technical

requirements for aggregates used in asphalt are covered by BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e) with the supporting

document PD 6682-2 (BSI, 2003e). According to BS EN 13043, fine aggregate suitable for asphalt comprise

the particle size fraction below 2 mm and as filler, the aggregate most of which passes the 63 µm sieve,

which can be added to construction materials to provide certain properties. A summary of requirements

for aggregates used in asphalt according to BS EN 13043 is shown in Table 16. The Specification for

Highway Works, Series 900 sets the requirements for bituminous bound materials used in road pavement

construction (Highways Agency, 2007). Also technical standards such as the BS EN 12697 (part 11) (BSI,

2000c) specifies the compatibility between aggregate and bitumen and the BS EN 13179 (BSI, 2000d)

describes testing for filler aggregate used in bituminous mixtures. By the beginning of 2008, new European

Specifications for asphalt, its constituents, and methods of testing will be introduced (QPA, 2007b).

BS/ EN standard requirement

Properties Applicable to/ methodology

Geometry Grading Coarse, fine and all in aggregates; break point between coarse and fine aggregates = 2 mm

Fines content Fine aggregate (percentage passing a 63 µm sieve; the methylene blue test is not considered sufficiently precise in the UK; compliance with the fines content limit or evidence of satisfactory use is required instead; in British Standards a 75 µm sieve is specified)

Physical Resistance to fragmentation

Los Angeles test

Resistance to polishing of coarse aggregate for surface courses

Coarse aggregates (In accordance with BS EN 1097-8 (BSI, 2000e); guidance on minimum polished stone values is given in the Highways Agency Design Manual For Roads and Bridges (Highways Agency, 2004)

Resistance to surface abrasion

Measurement of the aggregate abrasion value (in accordance with BS EN 1097-8) (BSI, 2000e)

Durability Soundness The magnesium – sulfate soundness test is recommendedChemical Coarse lightweight

contaminants Testing is recommended for recycled aggregates only

Requirements for filler aggregate

Recommended tests: particle size distribution and loose bulk density in kerosene in accordance with BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e)

The use of quarry fines as aggregate or filler for asphalt has been investigated by research, and where

possible, such materials are utilised. A good example is the use of china clay waste in the A30 Bodmin to

Indian Queens dual carriageway, where approximately 800,000 tonnes of material have been utilised for

the new road and asphalt layers. The use of china clay waste reduced the demand for primary materials,

minimised the pollution from long distance transport of quarried stone, as well as reduced the associated

Table 16: Requirements for aggregates for asphalt and surface treatment (BSI, 2002e)



49

costs, and provided social benefits such as less nuisance to local communities from transport, and

employment opportunities (Highways Agency, 2007b).

The REFILL project, funded by the EU BriteEURam programme, investigated the use of quarry fines from the

sandstone Leadhill Quarry (Scott Wilson Ireland) in various end uses including asphalt. Assessment work was

focused on incorporating 0-2 mm fines in typical surface (wearing) course asphalt mixtures and subsequently

examined impact durability. Results suggested that the mixtures are not suitable due to the high filler content

(~23%). Additional testing with blends of fines with 3 mm single size aggregates provided satisfactory results

due to the lower filler content of these mixtures (Mitchell et al, 2004).

According to the International Center for Aggregates Research, the physical and chemical properties of

fine material are critical when utilised in applications such as hot-mix asphalt. In particular properties such

as surface free energy, chemical interaction potential, surface area and aggregate shape characteristics

(angularity and texture) can impact the adhesive bond between the aggregate and binder. Testing trials were

undertaken with a variety of combinations of bitumen and aggregates for determining mixtures’ performance,

whereas the influence of aggregate shape was evaluated by modelling techniques (Bhasin and Little, 2006;

Masad et al, 2004).

Several other research projects examined the use of quarry fines as well as recycled and secondary

aggregates in asphalt and bituminous mixtures. A summary of the outcomes of these projects is shown in

Table 17.

Project Findings ReferenceEvaluation of marble waste dust in the mixture of asphaltic concrete

Use of marble dust as filler material. Optimum filler/ bitumen content was obtained and results suggested that marble dust can be used (unprocessed in asphalt mixtures)

(Karasahin and Terzi, 2007)

Use of aggregates produced from marble quarry waste in asphalt pavement

Marble and andesite quarry wastes were compared with conventional materials for use as aggregates in asphalt pavement. The physical properties of the aggregate were found to be within specified limits and they could potentially be used in light to medium asphalt pavement binder layers

(Akbulut and Gurer, 2007)

Case Study – A316 resurfacing project

Use of recycled aggregates such as glass and incinerator bottom ash (IBA) in a resurfacing pilot project. Recycled aggregates replaced the fine aggregate in asphalt. The recycled glass and IBA performed well. Materials were found to be highly consistent and comparison with primary materials gave good results

(Transport for London, 2005)

Development of bitumen-bound waste aggregate building blocks

Use of pulverized-fuel ash, incinerated sewage sludge ash and steel slag for the development of bitumen–bound blocks (Bitu-blocks), which are made by 100% recycled aggregates. Compressive strength results were at least equal to concrete blocks and appeared to be more stable than conventional masonry blocks.

(Forth et al., 2006; Van Dao, 2006; Zoorob et al, 2002))

Exploitation and use of quarry fines

Literature review report presenting several other examples (Manning, 2004) (project code MA 2/4/003)

Table 17: Literature findings on the use of quarry fines and alternative aggregates in asphalt applications

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4.3 SUMMARY OF POTENTIAL UTILISATION ROUTES FOR QUARRY BY-PRODUCTS

In Section 4, several end uses, which could potentially be applicable to quarry fines, have been discussed.

These include the use of quarry fines in unbound and bound applications. As mentioned earlier in this report,

quarry fines are most often economically used for restoration purposes, but a fraction of these materials

remain unused and the objective of this report is to identify potential end uses for these materials. A

summary of the trends identified in Section 4 is given in Table 18 (a and b).

End Use SpecificationsType of quarry by-products *1

Current level of exploitation *2

Utilisation potential *3 Benefits

Quarry restoration

Type 1 and Type 2 (and often inert waste from secondary sources)

In use – predominant end use

High volume – low value

Re-use of overburden material and production residues

Backfill/infill of voids

BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)

Type 1 and Type 2 In use (in a few projects)


Use of large volumes of quarry finesMinimisation of exploitation of primary aggregatesLess pollution produced from the production and transport of primary aggregates

General fill (i.e embankments)

BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)

Type 1 and Type 2 In use if found locally / Trials


Road pavement construction (i.e sub-base, capping)

Specifications for Highway Works–Series 600 and 800 (Highways agency, 2007a)

Mainly Type 2–Type 1 in certain circumstances (such as high consistency material)

In use if found locally / Trials


Remediation; artificial soils; compost

BSI PAS 100BS 3882

Type 1 and Type 2 In use in some areas


Enhance plant growth; soil fertility; added nutritional valueMinimisation of quarry residuesEnvironmental and social benefits seen from enhanced health of soils and plants

Filler applications (for example, paper, paint, plastics, rubber)

European Standards on fillers’ critical properties

Type 2 Trials with mineral residues of calcareous and siliceous composition

Low volume – high value

Low cost fillers

Portland cement – kiln meal

BS EN 197 (BSI, 2000a)

Type 2 and Type 1 (in certain circumstances (for example, high consistency material)

Trials/In use Medium to high volume - medium value

Substitution of primary materials

Innovative products (for example, green roofs, eco-slates, cob building )

Green specifications design guides

Type 2 and Type 1 (in certain circumstances (for example, high consistency material, composition)

Not in use Low volume – high value

Low cost primary materials

(*1)à Mineral by-products classification as determined by REFILL research project – check Table 1 for further information(*2)à Based on literature review findings (*3)à Term Volume refers to quarry fines volumes potentially utilised; term Value corresponds to end use

Table 18a: Summary of potential end uses for quarry fines



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End Use Specifications Type of quarry by-products *1

Current level of exploitation *2

Utilisation potential *3

Benefits

Controlled low strength materials – self compacting concrete

BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a)

Type 1 and Type 2 Trials High volume – low value

Substitute of natural sand/ aggregate

Minimisation of quarry residues

Reduced exploitation of primary aggregates

If sourced locally, reduced emissions/ pollution from transport

Manufactured concrete

BS EN 12620 (BSI, 2002a); BS EN 206 – 1 (BSI, 2000f); BS 8500 (BSI, 2006a; BSI, 2006b)

Type 1 and Type 2 In use (if found locally)/trials

Low volume – low to medium value (depending on end product)

Heavy ceramics BS EN 771–1 (BSI, 2003i)

Type 1 and Type 2 In use/trials Low volume – low to medium value


BS EN 13055 (BSI, 2002d; BSI, 2004b)

Type 2 and Type 1 in certain circumstances (such as material consistency)

Trials/In use Low volume – medium to high value

Hydraulically bound mixtures

BS EN 13242 (BSI, 2002b)

Type 2 and Type 1 in certain circumstances (such as high consistency material)

Trials/In use Low volume – low to medium value

Asphalt BS EN 13043 (BSI, 2002e); Specifications for Highway Works - Series 900 (Highways Agency, 2007a)

Type 2 Trials/In use (in certain cases)

Low volume – medium value

(*1)à Mineral by-products classification as determined by REFILL research project – check Table 1 for further information

(*2)à Based on literature review findings

(*3)à term Volume refers to quarry by-products volumes potentially utilised; term Value corresponds to end use

Table 18b: Summary of potential end uses for quarry by-products

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53

Quarry fines can be suitable materials for a variety of end applications; however, currently their utilisation is

not widespread to the level it would have been expected mainly due to reasons related to the geographical

position of quarries.

Very often quarries operate in remote location from potential end users and the cost of material to them

includes high transport costs, which discourages their use. A good example of the effect of transport cost

to utilisation is the china clay by-products in Cornwall, which although they represent a suitable material for

various end product, their use has been limited to local markets only. A case study of china clay sand is given

in Figure 8, which presents in detail the drivers and constraints associated with the sustainable use of these

materials.

There are occasions where producers of aggregates are not aware of potential utilisation routes for their

quarry fines in the local area, and these materials remain unused. The principles of industrial ecology and

industrial symbiosis could prove beneficial in such cases for identifying markets in close geographical

proximity that can absorb these materials. Government initiatives like the National Industrial Symbiosis

Programme (NISP), aim to assist the industry to develop linkages and synergies between businesses in a local/

regional level and this way to turn unutilised material into a resource.

Another obstacle, reported by research, is the application of the Aggregates Levy to quarry fines (Manning,

2004; The University of Leeds, 2007d) (project code MA 2/4/003). End users decide what materials will be

incorporated into their manufacturing process primarily upon economic criteria. If a secondary material

offers essential elements to the end product or manufacturing route and at the same time provides a

profit to the end user by reducing the cost of the feedstock or contributing other benefits, for instance

environmental (reduced emissions) or technical (desirable performance), then this material will be

considered as a valuable substitute for primary materials. Quarry fines are found in competition at the same

time with primary and alternative materials.

Certain advantages can be seen however in quarry fines compared to other secondary materials. Quarry

fines are considered more consistent materials in relation to their composition and particle size, also over

time (temporal variability), they are commonly inert or non-hazardous which means that their impact to the

environment and human health is very low, and they could provide some degree of security to the end user

in terms of stable material supply.

Often quarry fines require some degree of processing before they can be used, which may increase their cost

and at the same time requires suitable infrastructure and equipment to become readily available.

Quarry fines from aggregate and sand and gravel production are not exempt from the Aggregates Levy and

therefore the use of such materials in construction products does not count towards recycled content.

Current legislation such as the Waste Framework Directive and sustainability strategies (for example

Strategy for Sustainable Construction (BERR, 2007)) aim to promote resource efficiency and the use of

recycled/reclaimed materials (for example, set minimum requirements for recycled content in construction),

which drive construction product manufacturers to utilise secondary materials in their products. This driver

5 BARRIERS TO UTILISATION

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to supply on products containing increased recycled content supports the use of recycled and secondary

aggregates, and investment and technical inventions to enable these uses. This driver does not apply to quarry

fines.

Another important obstacle to utilisation is the limited knowledge of exact quantities of quarry fines.

Currently only estimated quantities are available, which are calculated using a waste to mineral ratio.

According to DEFRA, during 2003 approximately 34 million tonnes of quarry waste were generated, based

on a waste to product ratio equal to 1 to 9. DEFRA does not provide an accurate definition of quarry waste

hence it is not clear what proportion of the reported figures corresponds to quarry fines, or whether it

includes other materials such as overburden. Past research estimated the percentages of fines generated

from different rock types and following this methodology the total production of fines from quarrying

using the 2005 Aggregates Mineral Survey was 28.4 million tonnes (Table 7). The estimation of quarry fines

production given in Table 7 is considered more relevant in this report, as it is an estimate of overall fines

production, but it is not possible to quantify the fraction of these quarry fines that may be excess to market

demand. Taking as example the utilisation of alternative materials used as aggregates, it can be seen that they

have progressed considerably, in part due to the availability of information on sources, tonnages, temporal

variability and consistency. It is recommended that figures on quantities of fines produced, marketed and

stockpiled should be calculated in order to properly evaluate the quantities of quarry fines currently available,

and information that present the geographical distribution of quarry fines, should be compiled to enable the

identification of potential end markets.

Information on the characteristics of quarry fines (such as, particle size, mineralogy) from different quarry

operations is not available and this is seen to affect the marketability of these materials. A past European

project (REFILL) carried out research which identified the characteristics of quarry fines. However, this

information is difficult to locate, which prevents this project from the assessing the quality and consistency of

those data, and makes it impossible to decide if they should become publicly available.

Very often barriers to the use of quarry fines are due to the absence of fit-for-purpose specifications.

Although technical standards, such as the European Standards on aggregates have broadened their scope

to include secondary and recycled materials, they are not always considered as fit-for-use by the industry.

For instance, the use of grading specifications to determine aggregates for concrete will exclude very fine

material (below 63 µm), because it is not common practice in the UK to use filler aggregate in concrete and

more importantly it is not required to determine the composition of fine and filler aggregate. Compositional

characterisation and suitable classification tests can easily identify adverse constituents such as clay or shale

into quarry fines and thus determine whether their incorporation into the final product is feasible. Grading

specifications cannot provide this kind of knowledge and currently in the UK only compliance with the fines

content limit is required. Another example is the use of quarry fines and dust in soil remineralisation and

composting. Uncertainty over the acceptability of compost containing rock dust in respect with the BSI PAS

100 has become apparent as the deliberate addition of non-biodegradable feedstock (for example, sand and

gravel) is not allowed unless sufficient evidence to demonstrate an enhancement of the process is presented

(Szmidt and Ferguson, 2004).



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Case study: Promoting the use of china clay waste China clay waste is produced from the extraction of kaolin from decomposed granite. The waste to product ratio is 9:1 in china clay quarries

Locations of china clay quarries: Cornwall (St Austell), Devon (Lee Moor, South Devon)Composition of china clay waste (in relation to 9:1 waste to product ratio): n sand (4 tonnes)n stent (2.5 tonnes)n overburden (1.5 tonnes)n fines (1 tonne)

Arisingsn Overall arisings: 19.6 Mtn Potentially available (estimated aggregate resources from ‘live feed’ operations): 7 Mt/yearn Potentially available (estimated aggregate resources from existing stockpiles): 156 Mt/yearn Aggregate resources in use: 2.6 Mt/year

Current usePredominantly in the South-West, which has a finite requirement for such aggregates. Several other end uses have been investigated and found suitable (such as, aggregates for concrete, bulk fill uses etc)

Drivers to utilisationn Legislation and government initiatives support the use of secondary aggregates: for example, exemption of china clay waste from Aggregates Levy; landfill tax; sustainability issues (such as, sustainable construction strategy and the promotion of use of materials with recycled content, sustainable use of natural resources); EU Mining Waste directive; EU Communication on waste and by-products n Existing standards and specifications are in place: for example Specifications for Highway Works Series 800, 900 and 1000 permit the use of china clay sand; BS13242 on aggregates for unbound and hydraulically bound materials, BS EN 12620 on aggregates for concrete and so onn There is a significant supply of china clay waste and a high potential for aggregate usen There is a significant market for sand and gravel, which china clay aggregate could meet n Shipping or pumping seems as economically viable solution for transporting china clay wasten Landscape, habitat and environmental benefits to be seen from removing this waste

Barriers to utilisationn Transport of china clay waste remains a significant obstacle to utilisation n If pumping of china clay becomes the preferred route for transport, then additional installations and infrastructure requirements will have to be developed with additional economical cost.

Future work requirementsn Resolve the problem associated with the transport of china clay waste. Pumping and shipping both look as potential solutionsn Further research is required in establishing the suitability of china clay waste for certain end uses (for example, in concrete)n Developing a Quality Protocol for china clay waste is expected to promote utilisationn Developing a marketing plan for china clay wasten Conducting detailed feasibility studies on the true capital and operational costs associated with aggregate pumping

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57

This report focused on quarry fines produced from aggregates and sand and gravel production. Quarry fines

and dust are generated from various activities such as extraction (for example drilling and blasting) and rock

preparation / beneficiation.

Quarry fines below 6 mm may be included in an end product (for example, Type 1 aggregate), be a product

in their own right (for example, fine aggregate) or be surplus to market demand, namely excess fines

which remain unused. The fines may include a high proportion of ultra fine (dust) particles (below 75 µm),

which may also be part of an aggregate product, or be produced in excess, or be produced as a by-product.

Definitions that properly describe all these different fractions do not currently exist; it is considered essential

that the industry establish robust definitions in order to provide a clear language with which to discuss and

communicate the issues relevant to quarry fines.

The current European standards on aggregates provide some fit-for-purpose criteria for aggregate materials,

which are primarily based on grading but are applied to all aggregates, wither recycled, secondary or primary.

Therefore, as fine aggregate is determined the fraction of material below 4 mm for use in concrete, mortar,

unbound and hydraulic bound applications and below 2 mm for inclusion in asphalt products. There is still a

need to develop better fit-for-purpose specifications that take into account the nature of different materials,

market trends and economics in conjunction with criteria currently used by end user and available technical

standards.

Figures on available resources and quantities of quarry fines are based on estimates rather than real data and

this is considered as a substantial barrier towards utilisation.

This report investigated the potential use of quarry fines in both unbound and bound applications. The

primary utilisation route for quarry fines is in restoration work. However, not all of quarry fines are used

for restoration, and in certain cases they may exhibit suitable properties for a variety of other end uses with

an associated profit for the aggregate producer. Literature findings have shown that quarry fines are suitable

materials for use in bulk fill applications (for example, backfilling, infilling, general fill), in road pavement

construction, in remediation and for the production of artificial soils and compost. All the above end uses are

partially in use, depending on availability of resources in geographical proximity. Other end uses such as fillers

in paper and paint or the use of quarry fines in Portland cement have been trialled or have been used on

single occasions. Also, the inclusion of quarry fines in innovative products (such as, green roofs, cob building)

has not been implemented as yet. Bound applications reviewed in this report include various construction

products (such as, concrete, heavy ceramics, manufactured aggregates), in flowable fills, in hydraulic mixtures

and asphalt. Trials have been undertaken for all these different applications and some of them are in use in

individual cases.

6 CONCLUSIONS

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The location of quarry fines, the limited awareness of aggregate producers for potential markets, the

competition with primary and alternative materials, the limited knowledge about quarry fines arisings and the

characteristics of these materials, and the absence of properly developed fit–for–use specifications are some

of the barriers to utilisation identified through this project.

Future research work should address and try to find solutions to constraints identified. Further information

for future research work is presented in Section 7.



59

This project has addressed the sustainable utilisation of quarry by-products in a variety of applications. The

review process has identified certain gaps of knowledge that should be covered by future research work.

These are highlighted in the bullet points following:

n Mapping quarry fines: It is considered essential to determine the quantities of quarry fines, in order

to promote sustainable utilisation. The classification of quarry fines arisings into produced, stockpiled and

marketed would enhance current knowledge regarding the percentage of such materials which remains

unused. Also it would be useful to develop a ‘live’ system, such as a GIS database, which will display the

geographical distribution of quarry fines across the UK.

n Feasibility studies for quarry fines. The development of detailed feasibility studies for specific material

streams will provide an insight to the technical and economic viability of different utilisation routes. Although

feasibility studies tend to be case specific, they assist to increase awareness for issues specifically relevant to

different rock types (such as, sand and gravel, hard rock).

n Characterisation of quarry fines. Critical characteristics of quarry fines such as mineralogy, particle size,

compositional consistency, temporal variability and storage and handling properties should be addressed

for a variety of different products. The availability of such information is expected to assist the match

making process between quarry fines and utilisation routes and to assist the initiation of synergies between

aggregate producers and end users.

n Development of ‘good practice guides’ for the utilisation of quarry fines into different applications. These

should include examples from current utilisation practices and refer to critical requirements that should be

met for the incorporation of quarry fines and dust into different end products.

7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK

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ALSF FUNDED REFERENCES

MA 6/4/012. Birmingham University (2007). Monitoring of remediated acidic sites using quarry wastes.

URL<http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/summeries/proj_sum_ma_6_4_012.pdf>. Access

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MA 1/3/003. Guillou, G. and Davies, R. (2004). Combination of basaltic quarry fines with organic process

residues for the development of novel growing media. URL< http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/

final_reports/final_report_ma_1_3_003.pdf>. Access date: [15/12/2007]. Mineral Solutions Ltd.

MA 4/2/002. Jeffrey, C.A, Hill, I.A and Fitch, P.J. (2003b). Waste minimisation by the application of integrated

technology. URL< http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/final_reports/final_report_ma_4_2_002.pdf>.

Access date: [15/12/2007]. Department of Geology. University of Leicester.

MA 3/2/001. Jeffrey, K., Eddleston, M. and Bailey, E. (2003a). Aggregate deposits and processing simulation to

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report_ma_3_2_001.pdf>. Access date:[15/12/2007]. Department of Geology. University of Leicester.

MA 3/2/002. Jeffrey, K., McKee, G. and Bailey, E. (2004). Sand and gravel aggregate deposits-improved

characterisation technology (ADICT). URL< http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/final_reports/final_

report_ma_3_2_002.pdf>. Access date:[15/12/2007]. Leicester University and Tarmac Southern.

MA 2/4/003. Manning, D. (2004). Exploitation and Use of Quarry Fines. Manchester: Mineral Solutions. Report

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MA 4/5/003. Mitchell, C. (2007). Quarry Fines Minimisation. URL< http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_

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MA 4/5/002. Mitchell, C. (2007b). Waterless fines removal. URL<: http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/

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MA 6/4/003. Scott Wilson (2007). The use of quarry dusts in hydraulically bound mixtures for construction

applications - Summary. URL< http://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/summeries/proj_sum_ma_6_4_

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MA 4/5/009. Smith, R.A., Sowerby, C., Knapman, D., Myall, D., May, J., Lewis, R., Bamfield, B. and Fox-Davies, T.

(2005). Feasibility of china clay secondary aggregate use. URLhttp://www.mi-st.org.uk/research_projects/final_

reports/final_report_ma_4_5_009.pdf. Access date:[17/10/2007]. TRL Limited.

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APPENDIX I: PAST RESEARCH MIST PROJECTS

Project title Project holder Project programme

Project code

China Clay Secondary Aggregates Feasibility and Demonstration Programme Imerys Minerals MIST MA/4/5/009Combination of basaltic quarry fines with organic process residues for the development of novel growing media Mineral Solutions Ltd MIST MA/1/3/003Development of an interactive database to enhance the exploitation of quarry fines. Mineral Solutions Ltd MIST MA/2/4/003A Generic Model for the Formulation of Growing Media from Composts and Quarry Fines Mineral Solutions Ltd MIST MA/3/1/003

APPENDIX II: THE INTERPRETATIVE COMMUNICATION ON WASTE AND BY-PRODUCTS (COM (2007) 59 FINAL)

APPENDIX

Is the intended use of the material lawful?

Material is a waste

Material is a waste

Material is a waste

Material is a waste

Was the material deliberatelyproduced? (Was the production process modified in order to produce the material?)

Is the material ready for use without further processing (other than normal processing as an integral part of the production process?

Is the material produced as an integral part of the production process?

Then the material is a non-waste by-product

Then material is a product, not a production residue

Material is a production residue - tests below apply

Is use of the material certain?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

No

No

Criteria 3

Criteria 2

Criteria 1

Figure 9: A decision tree for waste versus by product decision (Commission of the European Communities, 2007)

Table 19: Past research projects undertaken within the Mineral Industry Sustainable Technology Programme

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Is the material not useable? OR

Does it not meet technical specifications? OR

Is there no market present for this material?

Only a proportion of the material has a guaranteed use

Material is going to be stored for indefinite time prior to potential (not certain) reuse

NoNo

No

Yes

Yes

Yes

Criteria 1

Waste

Waste

Waste (*)

Go to Criteria 2

*until further changes are identified (i.e long term contracts)additional parameters to be taken under consideration

Figure 10: Decision tree for criteria 1 (in accordance with the Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 final (Commission of the European Communities, 2007))

Criteria 2&3

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

Material is a by-product after investigating the following: n Degree of readiness of material for further use n The investigation of processing/ recovery tasks into the main production process n Whether tasks are carried out by someone other than the manufacturer

Are tasks performed as integral part of the continuing process of production?

An additional recovery process is required

Can the material be used without any further processing?

Go to Criteria 3

Material is a waste until this process is complete

Figure 11: Decision tree for Criteria 2 and 3 (in accordance with the Interpretative Communication on waste and by-products (COM (2007) 59 final (Commission of the European Communities, 2007))



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Case Study – Leftover rocks from mining and quarrying – The AvestaPolaris case (I)

Facts on the operation

n The activities of AvestaPolarit Chrome Oy consist in extracting chromium-rich ore and producing

chromium concentrate.

n Within one year of extraction 8 million tonnes of leftover rock is generated.

n About 100 million tonnes of leftover rock are already stored around the mine

Potential end uses of leftover rock

n Backfilling parts of the mine – stacks will be landscaped prior to use

n A small proportion, about 20% will be processed into aggregates

n Stacks already stored may be used as filling material in constructing breakwaters and embankments

Diary of actions

n AvestaPolarit applied for an environmental licence to enable the continuity of mining and processing

activities on site (gradual changes took place from open-cast activities to underground mining)

n Environment centre granted licence, but classified leftover rock and ore-dressing sand as waste,

because production residues are not immediately reused or consumed.

n AvestaPolarit appealed against that decision

Questions set to the Court

Are production residues (leftover rock and ore-dressing sand) from mining operations to be regarded

as waste in accordance with Directive 75/442/EEC on waste (The European Parliament and the Council,

1975) and having recard to points:

n Place production residues are stored (i.e mining site, ancillary site, other)

n Composition of production residues (i.e leftover rock is of similar composition to primary ore)

n Health and safety impacts (i.e leftover rock is harmless to human health and the environment)

n Potential reuse and no intention to discard such materials

Court’s reply

Answers to question 1:

n Leftover rock stored for an indefinite length of time to await possible use/discard is classified as waste

(Palin Granit Oy, 2002)

n The place of storage, composition or proof that residues do not pose a threat to human health or the

environment, are not relevant criteria for determining whether leftover stone is to be regarded as waste

(Palin Granit Oy, 2002)

n Foreseeable reuses, such as in the construction of harbours, in embankment work or for inclusion in

construction products do not represent a certainty and leftover rock should be regarded as waste

n Leftover rock processed into aggregates, even if such use is probable, it requires an operation for

recovery of the desirable fraction, which does not comprise part of the production process and residues

therefore should be classified as waste

n Stacks of materials that remain on site will also constitute a waste, as no certain use without requiring

processing exists. Landscaping of such materials represents an environmental friendly manner of dealing

with them, not a stage in the production process

n Where leftover rock is intended to be used for filling in the galleries of the mine and sufficient evidence is

in place as to the identification and actual use of the substances, then they would not be waste.

n The term by-product should be confined to situations in which the reuse of the goods, materials is not

a mere possibility, but a certainty, without further processing prior to reuse and as an integral part of the

production process

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APPENDIX III: FIT- FOR- PURPOSE REQUIREMENTS

Product sector Role of alternative material (source/ ingredient)

Critical properties on alternative materials Examples of materials

Ceramic products

Clay substitute Particle size, plasticity, firing temperature, colour after firing

Common clay, fireclay

Body fuel Calorific content Colliery spoil, coal finesFillerParticle sizesand

Colourant Aesthetic properties (colour, texture), scumming, efflorescence

Water-ochre colliery waste

Fluxing agent Reactivity temperature, particle size Fine silica sandCement For use in kiln meal

Ca-rich source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Limestone finesSi-rich source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition SandAl-rich source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Residues from bauxite miningFe-rich source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Water colliery wasteSi+Al+Fe source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Quarry fines (various)Ca+Si+Al+Fe source Chemistry, particle size, loss on ignition Quarry finesFor the production of blended cements Pozzolanas Chemistry, specific surface area Natural pozzolanas, silica fourHydraulic materials Chemistry, particle size Ground granulated blast

furnace blastReactive phase Chemistry Limestone, gypsum

Concrete Coarse aggregate Particle size aggregatesFiller aggregate Particle size Quarry finesCement Portland cement, blended

cementpigments Iron oxides

Insulation Fuel Chemistry, particle size cokeFormstone Chemistry, particle size Waste material from mineral

wool productionFlux Chemistry, particle size Blast furnace slagPrimary rock Chemistry, particle size Basalt, gabbro


Base filler Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Quarry washings

Binder Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Cement

Fuel Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Colliery spoil

Bloating agent Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Municipal solid waste fly ash

Fluxing agent Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Fine glass, fine silica sand

Coating Mineralogy, chemistry, particle size, moisture content, loss on ignition (%)

Table 20: Characterisation framework and fit-for-purpose requirements for the use of alternative materials in ceramics, cement, concrete, insulation and manufactured aggregates products (MIRO, 2007)



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APPENDIX IV: TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR MANUFACTURED CONCRETE PRODUCTS

Concrete application Product Technical specificationPrecast concrete drainage units Channel BS EN 1340:2003

Manholes and inspection chambers BS EN 1917:2002Pipes BS EN 1916:2002

Precast concrete floor elements Ribbed floor; ribbed floor elements BS EN 13224:2004Precast concrete landscaping and hard surfacing units

Block paving BS EN 1338:2003Edging BS EN 1340:2003Flags BS EN 1339:2003Street furniture BS EN 1340: 2003

Precast masonry units Autoclaved aerated concrete BS EN 771-4:2003Block BS EN 771-3:2003Brick BS EN 771-3:2003Cast stone and reconstructed stone masonry BS 1217:1997Capping BS 5642-2:1983Edging BS EN 1340:2003Lintel BS EN 845-2:2003Manufactured stone masonry unit BS EN 771-5:2003sills BS 5642-1:1978

Precast concrete linear units Beam BS EN 13225:2004BS EN 206-1:2000

Column BS EN 13225:2004BS EN 206-1:2000

Frame unit BS EN 13225:2004BS EN 206-1:2000

Staircase unit BS EN 206-1:2000Precast flooring units Beam and block BS EN 206-1:2000

Composite lattice girder BS EN 206-1:2000Composite solid slabs BS EN 206-1:2000Floor plates for flooring systems BS EN 13747:2005Hollow core BS EN 1168:2005Hollowcore BS EN 206-1:2000Staircase unit BS EN 206-1:2000

Precast concrete road and hard surfacing unit

Block paving BS EN 1338:2003Channel BS EN 1340:2003Kerbs BS EN 1340:2003Quadrant BS EN 1340:2003

Precast concrete roofing system units

Floor plates for flooring systems BS EN 13747:2005Roof tiles and fittings BS EN 490:2004

Precast structural units Beam BS EN 206-1:2000Beam and block BS EN 206-1:2000Column BS EN 13225:2004

BS EN 206-1:2000Composite solid slab BS EN 206-1:2000Foundation unit BS EN 206-1:2000Frame unit BS EN 13225:2004

BS EN 206-1:2000Hollow core BS EN 206-1:2000Precast concrete pile unit BS EN 206-1:2000Staircase unit BS EN 206-1:2000

Table 21: Manufactured concrete products and relevant technical specifications