Swift Water Rescue Training - Swiftwater Safety Institute

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Swift Water Rescue Training Field Manual

Fifth Edition - Revised March 2020 © 2011

SIMPLE. SMOOTH. INNOVATIVE.

The Swiftwater Safety Institute (SSI) was officially formed in 2011 by Eric Riley. SSI specializes in global, world-class, swift water rescue training utilizing limited resources while encouraging innovative problem solving and critical thinking.

“After a decade of formal training and guiding in various locations around the world, I came to the conclusion that there was something missing in the river rescue industry. Monopolistic companies seemed to comprise the bulk of course offerings for prospective students. Having taken a number of rescue courses from various companies, and instructed for others, I felt highly compelled to make it a personal mission to contribute to furthering the development of this specialized field. Large companies seemed to represent the cookie cutter course idea that is somewhat consistent with large scale offerings, and the thought of creating a highly customizable program became a driving force for me. The idea that I could provide an alternative training platform for passionate professionals was a powerful moment, and SSI was born. I didn’t want a company that did everything, I wanted a company that did very specific things, and did them exceptionally well.”

A note from Eric Riley - March, 2020

Swiftwater Safety Institute LLC P.O. Box 9792

Jackson, Wy 83002 © 2011 - Revised March, 2020

www.swiftwatersafetyinstitute.com

[email protected]

Name: ________________________________________________

Address: ______________________________________________

Phone: ________________________________________________

E-mail: _______________________________________________

No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form by electronic or other means, including photocopying or recording without written permission from the publisher.

Cover Photo: Big Cedar Media

Written by: Eric Riley Contributing Authors: Abraham Role, Dan Thurber

Illustrations by: Maria Foteva

http://www.swiftwatersafetyinstitute.com

http://www.swiftwatersafetyinstitute.com

Table Of Contents

1-3 4-7 8-10 11-14 15-21 22-29 30 31-39 40 41-42 43-44 45-49 50-55 56-58 59-60 61 62 63-67 68-71 72-76 77 78-79 80-81 82 83 84-86 87-88 89-97 98-99 100-106 107-110 111 112-119 120-123 124

Introduction and Overview…………………..……….…. GAR Risk Calculation Worksheet………………………. Rescue Priorities and Training Objectives…………….… Definitions…………….…………………………………. Hand Signals & Communication……….……………….. Personal Protective Equipment………………………….. River Rescue Control Zones…………………………….. Rescue Equipment, Rope Construction & Terminology… Section 1 Review ………………………………………. Throw Bags……………………………………………… Swift Water Belay Techniques……….……….…………. Knots ................................................................................. Vector Angles and Anchors................................................ Mechanical Advantage ………………………..………… Vector Pull……………………………………………….. Z-Drag Kit Recommendations………….………..………. Section 2 Review………………………………………… Swimming in Swift Water.................................................. Shallow Water Crossings………………….…….………. Foot Entrapment .…………………………..………….… Contact Rescues…………………………………………. RecirculatingHydraulics…………………………………. Strainers …….…………………………..….…………… Section 3 Review …………..…………….…..………… Lines Across the River....................................................... Tensioned Diagonal........................................................... Tethered Craft Lowers....................................................... Boat Wraps/Pins…………………….…………………… Boat Rigging/Scouting……………..………..…….…….. Medical Considerations and Cold Water Immersion……. Drowning Concerns……………………………………… Section 4 Review…..…………………………………….. National Fire Protection Association…………………….. Additional Notes………………………………….……… Works Cited………………………………………………

About This Training Manual

Utilizing this material without prior instruction and/or certification may pose hazards to river rescue and flood responders.

Training on the river can be highly dynamic based on various environmental concerns. Effort is made to cover each topic, however water levels, adverse weather, student retention, and other elements may render various skill components impractical to execute.

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Notes:

WARNING Swiftwater rescue may involve unique hazards with inherent risks. These hazards and risks can potentially prove fatal. This manual contains information and diagrams on specialized swiftwater rescue techniques. The diagrams and techniques outlined in this manual are intended for use as a part of a formal training course involving supervised training with an accredited SSI instructor. Swiftwater rescue situations are often times highly dynamic, thus requiring proficient decision making and hazard recognition only gained through personal experience. This manual is intended to be a guide but is not completely inclusive of every possible swiftwater rescue technique, hazard, inherent risk, or situation that you may encounter.

The Swiftwater Safety Institute (SSI) has two areas of training focus:

1. U.S. Park Service, B.L.M. personnel, U.S.F.S., outdoor educators, U.S. Fish and Game, commercial guides and recreational river users.

2. Disaster relief teams, Police, Fire, and Emergency Services, professional Search and Rescue agencies, as well as the U.S. military including special operations and tactical response.

The focus of this training will be on accident prevention, critical judgement, and rescuer awareness. In order to optimize overall swift water responder safety, our first line of prevention is to understand the inherent risk commonly found in swift water responses.

Mission: To increase the proficiency of swift water and flood responders by adapting rescue instruction to focus on the specific needs, environments, and available equipment for rescuers.

About Swiftwater Safety Institute

Introduction and Overview

Swiftwater Safety Institute Instructors The Swiftwater Safety Institute is a professional organization focused on training industry professionals to become instructors in the discipline of water and rope rescue. SSI instructors are actively involved in emergency services, commercial guiding, educational practices, or professional rescue agencies world wide. In order to meet industry level training standards, continuing education in the form of advanced professional training and participation in instructor proficiency-update courses are required to achieve and retain SSI swift water instructor licensure.

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Swift Water Course Evaluation Successful course completion requires the demonstrated ability and proficiency in skills outlined in the core competency check sheet. This will be validated in a one-on-one format with a course evaluator/instructor. Students will also be required to pass a comprehensive written evaluation to achieve certification. Course participation is a requirement and missing a portion of any course module may affect your certification length.

After successful completion of SSI’s swift water rescue training (SRT), the student is presented with an internationally recognized “Certification of Course Completion" by the Swiftwater Safety Institute. SSI certifies that the student has met all outlined standards of such training, and students will retain a carbon copy of the "Core Competencies" worksheet as well as receive an electronic certification card issued by the Swiftwater Safety Institute. The certification will be branded by the Swiftwater Safety Institute and will hold the internationally recognized levels of training.

Attainment of Certification

Course Delivery Method

Courses will be delivered in a theoretical and practical format. Generally this will be done utilizing an appropriate classroom in combination with in-field training. Additionally, various training videos and power points may be utilized. This will be dependent upon the course curriculum being delivered along with field and classroom resources.

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GAR Risk Calculation Worksheet

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Risk Calculation Worksheet - Calculating Risk Using GAR Model (GREEN-AMBER-RED)

Risk Calculation Worksheet - Calculating Risk Using GAR Model (GREEN-AMBER-

RED)

To compute the total level of risk for each hazard identified below, assign a risk code of 0 (For No Risk) through 10 (For Maximum Risk) to each of the six elements. This is your personal estimate of the risk. Add the risk scores to come up with a Total Risk Score for each hazard. SUPERVISION Supervisory Control considers how qualified the supervisor is and whether effective supervision is taking place. Even if a person is qualified to perform a task, supervision acts as a control to minimize risk. This may simply be someone checking what is being done to ensure it is being done correctly. The higher the risk, the more the supervisor needs to be focused on observing and checking. A supervisor who is actively involved in a task (doing something) is easily distracted and should not be considered an effective safety observer in moderate to high-risk conditions. PLANNING Planning and preparation should consider how much information you have, how clear it is, and how much time you have to plan the evolution or evaluate the situation. TEAM SELECTION Team selection should consider the qualifications and experience level of the individuals used for the specific event/evolution. Individuals may need to be replaced during the vent/evolution and the experience level of the new team members should be assessed. TEAM FITNESS Team fitness should consider the physical and mental state of the crew. This is a function of the amount and quality of rest a crewmember has had. Quality of rest should consider how the ship rides, its habitability, potential sleep length, and any interruptions. Fatigue normally becomes a factor after 18 hours without rest; however, lack of quality sleep builds a deficit that worsens the effects of fatigue. ENVIRONMENT Environment should consider factors affecting personnel performance as well as the performance of the asset or resource. This includes, but is not limited to, time of day, temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind and sea conditions, proximity of aerial/navigational hazards and other exposures (e.g., oxygen deficiency, toxic chemicals, and/or injury from falls and sharp objects). EVENT or EVOLUTION COMPLEXITY Event/Evolution complexity should consider both the required time and the situation. Generally, the longer one is exposed to a hazard, the greater are the risks. However, each circumstance is unique. For example, more iterations of an evolution can increase the opportunity for a loss to occur, but may have the positive effect of improving the proficiency of the team, thus possibly decreasing the chance of error. This would depend upon the experience level of the team. The situation includes considering how long the environmental conditions will remain stable and the complexity of the work. Assign a risk code of 0 (For No Risk) through 10 (For Maximum Risk) to each of the six elements below.

Supervision Planning Team Selection Team Fitness Environment Event/Evolution Complexity

Total Risk Score The mission risk can be visualized using the colors of a traffic light. If the total risk value falls in the GREEN ZONE (1-23), risk is rated as low. If the total risk value falls in the AMBER ZONE (24-44), risk is moderate and you should consider adopting procedures to minimize the risk. If the total value falls in the RED ZONE (45-60), you should implement measures to reduce the risk prior to starting the event or evolution.

GAR Evaluation Scale Color Coding the Level 0f Risk

0 23 44 60

The ability to assign numerical values or “color codes” to hazards using the GAR Model is not the most important part of risk assessment. What is critical to this step is team discussions leading to an understanding of the risks and how they will be managed.

10 20

30 40

50 GREEN

(Low Risk)

AMBER RED (Caution) (High Risk)

The following is an example of a GAR Risk Calculation Worksheet - An expanded version of this

is contained in the next three pages of this text.

Source: [1]


SUPERVISION Supervisory Control considers how qualified the supervisor is and whether effective supervision is taking place. Even if a person is qualified to perform a task, supervision acts as a control to minimize risk. This may simply be someone checking what is being done to ensure it is being done correctly. The higher the risk, the more the supervisor needs to be focused on observing and checking. A supervisor who is actively involved in a task (doing something) is easily distracted and should not be considered an effective safety observer in moderate to high-risk conditions.

PLANNING Planning and preparation should consider how much information you have, how clear it is, and how much time you have to plan the evolution or evaluate the situation.

TEAM SELECTION Team selection should consider the qualifications and experience level of the individuals used for the specific event/evolution. Individuals may need to be replaced during the event/evolution and the experience level of the new team members should be assessed.

TEAM FITNESS Team fitness should consider the physical and mental state of the crew. This is a function of the amount and quality of rest a crew member has had. Quality of rest should consider how the ship rides, its habitability, potential sleep length, and any interruptions. Fatigue normally becomes a factor after 18 hours without rest; however, lack of quality sleep builds a deficit that worsens the effects of fatigue. Environment should consider factors affecting personnel performance as well as the performance of the asset or resource. This includes, but is not limited to, time of day, temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind and sea conditions, proximity of aerial/navigational hazards and other exposures (e.g., oxygen deficiency, toxic chemicals, and/or injury from falls and sharp objects).


Source: [1]5


ENVIRONMENT Environment should consider factors affecting personnel performance as well as the performance of the asset or resource. This includes, but is not limited to, time of day, temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind and sea conditions, proximity of aerial/navigational hazards and other exposures (e.g., oxygen deficiency, toxic chemicals, and/or injury from falls and sharp objects).

EVENT or EVOLUTION COMPLEXITY Event/Evolution complexity should consider both the required time and the situation. Generally, the longer one is exposed to a hazard, the greater the risk. However, each circumstance is unique. For example, more iterations of an evolution can increase the opportunity for a loss to occur, but may have the positive effect of improving the proficiency of the team, thus possibly decreasing the chance of error. This would depend upon the experience level of the team. The situation includes considering how long the environmental conditions will remain stable and the complexity of the work. Assign a risk code of 0 (For No Risk) through 10 (For Maximum Risk) to each of the six elements below.


Source: [1]6


Source: [1]

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The mission risk can be visualized using the colors of a traffic light. If the total risk value falls in the GREEN ZONE (1-23), risk is rated as low. If the total risk value falls in the AMBER ZONE (24-44), risk is moderate and you should consider adopting procedures to minimize the risk. If the total value falls in the RED ZONE (45-60), you should implement measures to reduce the risk prior to starting the event or evolution.

The ability to assign numerical values or “color codes” to hazards using the GAR Model is not the most important part of risk assessment. What is critical to this step is team discussions leading to an understanding of the risks and how they will be managed.

Notes:


Rescue Priorities and the Urgency Scale:

Certain situations carry higher urgency and, simultaneously, a higher level of acceptable risk. Some actions expose rescuers to greater risk. These may be appropriate in more dynamic situations and not for more static situations. Identify as a team when a situation has become relatively static and deliberately calm your nerves with a critical discussion if time warrants.

In any rescue, work to make the situation more static if possible. If any actions threaten to make a situation more dynamic, use appropriate tools to mitigate those actions (e.g. downstream safety, live bait, safe wading techniques, etc.)

Swift Water Rescue Priorities

First Priority: Self-Rescue Secondary Priority: Other Rescue Personnel

Third Priority: Victim Rescue

Self

Team

Others

Where do we place necessary/critical expedition gear on the scale

of priorities?

! 8Thurber, Dan - 2019

SRT-I Training Objectives • SSI Rescue Philosophy • River Liability • River Terminology • Rescue Equipment • Rope Construction • Maintenance of Rescue

Equipment • Throw Bag Drills and Belays • Knots & Anchor Systems • Swimming in Swift Water • Site Management

• Strainer Drill Swimming • Shallow Water Crossings • Live Bait • Contact Rescues • Tensioned Diagonal • Tethered Craft Lowers • Lines Across The River • Foot Entrapment Extrications • Communication • Rescue Priorities • Mechanical Advantage

Working on the river is very dynamic. Effort is made to cover each topic. Water levels, adverse weather, student retention, and other elements may render various skill components impractical

to execute.

Our focus will be on prevention, critical judgment, and rescue awareness while optimizing overall swift water safety. Our first line of prevention is to understand the inherent risks involved, and learn how to best handle them. The dynamics of swift water rescue may require plan A, B, and C, and we always encourage students to evaluate the possible result of their intended rescue actions.

As you approach this training material, keep in mind that there are most likely several ways to conduct any rescue. Rescues will require awareness and judgment in combination with knowledge of personal limitations. Ultimately, YOU are responsible for your personal safety and decision making.

Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

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• Assess the situation and assign a “Rescue Boss” if the resources are available. The Rescue Boss keeps big picture awareness, facilitates the smooth operation of the rescue, ensures that rescuers are informed on all aspects of the rescue, including scene safety and size-up as well as resource allocation as needed.

• Utilize the lowest risk methods first, set up higher-risk methods as the next alternative.

• Evaluate the gear necessary to carry out a proposed rescue. Do you have the gear needed? If not, plan on taking a different approach to the rescue.

• Every rescuer should evaluate and confirm that they are prepared to rescue themselves or “self-rescue” as the first priority in any rescue environment. If not, it is better to assume a role that better reflects your comfort, safety, and level of training. *Refer to “Duty to Rescue” with regard to commercial guides and professional rescue agencies on the following page.*

• Self-sacrifice is not an option. Reporting why specific action was not taken is more defensible than reporting that additional lives were lost.

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SSI Rescue Philosophy

“Simple is Smooth and Smooth is Fast”

Keep in mind that a very exposed and complicated rescue may be the only possible rescue if all other options have been exhausted.


Good Samaritan Act - A person who renders emergency medical services or aid to an ill, injured, or unconscious person at the immediate scene of an accident or emergency that has caused illness, injury or unconsciousness is not liable for damages for injury to, or death of that person caused by the rescuers act or omission in rendering the medical services or aid, unless that person is grossly negligent.

Negligence - Failure to exercise the degree of care that is considered reasonable under the circumstances, resulting in unintended injury to another party.

Standard of Care - A reasonable person in particular circumstances would exercise certain watchfulness, attention and prudence.

Duty to Rescue - As individuals, Americans may choose to act as Good Samaritans and come to the aid of those in need, but are not legally obligated to do so, unless employed or receiving compensation of some form directly related to that activity.

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Notes:

River Rescue Liability

River Left - The left side of the river, while facing downstream.

River Right - The right side of the river, while facing downstream.

Strainer - An obstruction that allows water passage, but may potentially hold victims or gear in place. e.g.; trees and re-bar.

Sieve - Generally referenced as larger “rock gardens” allowing water through, but possibly entrapping boats and people.

Entrapment - Any situation in which a partial or entire body is pinned against or trapped by an object and the current of the water.

Undercut - Erosion of rocks, trees or even a dirt shoreline. This allows water to flow underneath the surface of these obstacles.

P.F.D. - Personal flotation device.

Hydraulic - Water flowing over, around, under, or between obstacles.

Lateral Wave - A wave that presents laterally to the current vector.

Current Vector - The main direction that the current is flowing.

Recirculation - A hydrological feature that can keep you suspended in the feature by the backwash of upstream water located directly downstream of said feature.

Eddy - The reverse current created when fluid flows past an obstacle. A space devoid of downstream-flowing fluid on the downstream side.

Ferry Angle - An angle between perpendicular and directly into the current.

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Basic River Terminology Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_%28water%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_%28water%29

Class I : Fast moving water with riffles and small waves. Few obstructions are obvious and easily missed with little training. Risk to swimmers is slight. Self-rescue is easy.

Class II : Straightforward rapids with wide, clear channels which are evident without scouting. Occasional maneuvering may be required, but rocks and medium-sized waves are easily missed by trained paddlers. Swimmers are seldom injured and group assistance, while helpful, is seldom needed. Rapids that are at the upper-end of this difficulty range are designated “Class II+”.

Class III : Rapids with moderate, irregular waves which may be difficult to avoid and which can swamp an open canoe. Complex maneuvers in fast current and good boat control in tight passages or around ledges are often required. Large waves or strainers may be present but are easily avoided. Strong eddies and powerful current effects can be found, particularly on large-volume rivers. Scouting is advisable for inexperienced parties. Injuries while swimming are rare. Self-rescue is usually easy but group assistance may be required to avoid long swims. Rapids that are at the lower or upper- end of this difficulty range are designated “Class III-” or “Class III+”, respectively.

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International Scale of River Difficulty Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Source: [2]

Class IV : Intense, powerful, but predictable rapids requiring precise boat handling in turbulent water. Depending on the character of the river, it may feature large, unavoidable waves and holes or constricted passages demanding fast maneuvers under pressure. A fast, reliable eddy turn may be needed to initiate maneuvers, scout rapids, or rest. Rapids may require “must make” moves above dangerous hazards. Scouting may be necessary the first time down. Risk of injury to swimmers is moderate to high, and water conditions may make self-rescue difficult. Group assistance for rescue is often essential but requires practiced skills. Rapids that are at the lower or upper end of this difficulty range are designated “Class IV-” or “Class IV+” respectively.

Class V : Extremely long, obstructed, or very violent rapids which expose a paddler to added risk. Drops may contain large unavoidable waves and holes or steep, congested chutes with complex, demanding routes. Rapids may continue for long distances between pools, demanding a high level of fitness. Eddies may not exist, may be small, turbulent, or difficult to reach. At the high-end of the scale, several of these factors may be combined. Scouting is recommended but may be difficult. Swims are dangerous, and rescue is often difficult even for experts.

Class VI : These runs have almost never been attempted and often exemplify the extremes of difficulty, unpredictability and danger. The consequences of errors are very severe, and rescue may be impossible. Class VI is for teams of experts only, at favorable water levels, after close personal inspection and taking all precautions. After a Class VI rapids have been run many times, their ratings may be changed to have appropriate Class V rating.

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International Scale of River Difficulty Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Source: [2]

15


It is important to note that hand and whistle signals may change slightly depending on where you are working and who you are working with. This is simply a visual reference for commonly

used hand signals. It is important to clarify exactly which signals will be used prior to performing them.

Go A straight arm in a vertical position generally means “GO”- as in, “it’s clear, I’m ready, green light,” etc.

The same signal can be achieved by using a kayak or raft paddle and holding it in the same vertical position.

You can also send instructions to “GO” left or right by angling your arm out to either side.

Prior to “Going,” the same signal should be reciprocated by the other rescuer to confirm the action and set your intent to the group.

Notes:

River Hand Signals

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Stop Arms straight out to the side informs rescuers to stop. This signal may also be achieved by placing a kayak or raft paddle overhead in a horizontal position.

As river and rescue professionals, we may not have the ability to free up both arms to give the “stop” signal. In this case, it may be permissible to utilize one arm in the same outward position. Whatever it is that you are doing, make sure your team is on the same page prior.

Notes:

River Hand Signals

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River Hand Signals Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Are you OK? I’m OK. Repeatedly tapping the top of the head is a question and an answer. “Are you OK?” If so, return the tapping motion with eye contact. Be deliberate about your tapping motion, and the further away you are, the bigger and slower the taps should be. It is simply easier to see that way.

No, I’m not OK. “I’m not OK. Something is wrong. Something is serious. I require assistance. I am injured.”

It is often said that doing nothing, or waiving your arms if you need assistance is an indication of your personal state. This may be accurate and may work in many instances. However, if you are able to make eye contact and create a definitive “X” across your chest using your crossed arms - this is a very clear indication that you are NOT OK and require assistance.

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Eddy Out Make a circle with one hand raised in the air. This is an indication to eddy-out. Point to the direction of the eddy that will be used.

I Need A Rope This hand signal lets other rescuers know that you either need a rope or throw bag, or you have a rope or a throw-bag ready.

This is commonly used while setting up safety upstream or downstream.

Notes:

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Swimmer Making a crawl stroke motion indicates that there is a swimmer in the water, or that you are going to be making a swim.

Entrapment This is the common signal to indicate an entrapment has occurred. Holding the forward bend is key to indicate t h a t t h e s u b j e c t i s actually entrapped and unable to move. Follow this by pointing directly

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I’m Watching You “I’ve got my eye on you. Go ahead and make your intended swim and I will run safety for you. You have eyes-on. You are not solo, I’m keeping an eye on you.”

I’m Coming To You Clearly pointing at yourself first then to another person, or to a specific area indicates that you are intending to move that way.

Conversely, you can have people come to you by reversing the hand signal and pointing at them first.

Notes:

Whistle Communication Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

As mentioned with the use of river hand signals, not everything is universal. However, that can easily be overcome by adaptability of responders to a new area of response. Communication is key, and

as long as an appropriate briefing has been given prior to the commencement of a rescue operation, there should be very little

confusion on hand signals to be used.

Whistles are an important piece of your Personal Protective Equipment. Even mild grade rapids can cause enough noise that your voice may not be audible. In that instance, it is important to have a functioning whistle so you can alert others as needed.

Common whistle blasts: 1 blast = attention 3 blast in repetition = emergency aid needed

As with hand signals, whistle blast may be very dependent on the course of action at hand. Dependent upon your intended rescue application, any rescue team can augment specific whistle signals to meet their immediate needs. Communicating this with the entire group beforehand is critical.

Effective whistles will have the following: • No moving parts to jam, freeze or deteriorate. • Pealess design, not too bulky • Will be easy to blow and cannot be overblown • Will be heard above ambient noise such as rivers and wind • Chambers that are designed to “self-clear” after submersion

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Helmet - Kevlar or plastic helmet. Your skull cap or full coverage helmet should be snug fitting and in serviceable condition.

P.F.D. - Coast Guard approved Type III or V. Your P.F.D. should fit snugly and be in good shape with a label that can easily be read. Punctures, rips or tears are indicative of a worn P.F.D. and should be replaced.

Knife - One hand accessible. Proper river knives have serrated edges which help cut heavy ropes. Longer blades are preferred. Backup knives are common and typically carried in P.F.D. pockets.

Whistle - See rescue whistle specifications from prior page.

Clothing - Drysuits are preferred in cold environments. They do not hold much warmth, however they keep you dry. Layer underneath with moisture wicking and quick drying layers.

Protective Footwear - Closed-toed and full-heel shoes are required. Heavy duty lug soles or lighter weight, closed-toed water shoes are acceptable.

Personal Throw bag - A personal throw bag worn around the waist or kept inside a kayak or P.F.D. pocket.

Personal Carabiners - Locking aluminum or steel carabiners are the only acceptable carabiners for river rescue use. Non-locking carabiners are RARELY acceptable. It is appropriate to keep carabiners located and secured in pockets when not in use.

Personal Protective Equipment Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Aluminum 31kNSteel 70kN

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Steele 65kN Aluminum 31kN


Personal Protective Equipment

What is needed to be considered protected?

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Depending on the level of training and scope of response, your P.P.E. selection may vary. This is referenced as your mission profile. Additionally, var ious organiza t ions and agencies may set their own P.P.E. operational standards.

As conditions and temperatures change, you may prefer to work without a drysuit and/or gloves, but if you are working in either the YELLOW or RED Zones (see pg.30) , you must be prepared for an unintentional swim, and have appropriate P.P.E.

P i c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e equipment for the job will increase your chances of success during a swift water rescue, while reducing the potential for c rea t ing add i t iona l victims in need of assistance.

Kevlar with no ear protection. Plastic with ear protection.

Easily accessible whistle, carabiners and a stash of personal webbing for

emergencies.

Thermal Layering Drysuits don’t keep you warm, they keep you dry. Layer appropriately.

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Personal Protective Equipment U.S.Coast Guard and State Law Enforcement agencies require and/or recommend different types of personal flotation devices (P.F.D.’s) for different applications. Your weight isn't the only factor in finding out how much "extra lift" (buoyancy) you need in water. Amount of body fat, lung volume, clothing, and character of water (rough, calm), are all influencing factors.

Buoyancy - The tendency of a body to float or sink in water or any other fluid. Most people will naturally float in water, especially if they fill their lungs with air. Most require only about 11 pounds (50 Newtons) of extra buoyancy to keep their head out of water. That is why a PFD with just 15.5 pounds (70 Newtons) of buoyancy can provide adequate flotation for an adult -- even a very large person. PFDs with 22 to 34 pounds (100 to 155 Newtons) can provide superior performance.

Check your P.F.D. often for rips, tears, and holes, and also check to see that seams, fabric straps, and hardware are in acceptable condition. There should be no signs of water-logging, mildew, odor, or shrinkage of the buoyant materials.

Type I 22.0 lbs. Type II 15.5 lbs. Type III 15.5 lbs. Ring Buoy 16.5 lbs. Boat Cushion 18 lbs. Type V Hybrid inflatable 7.5 / 22 lbs. Type V Special use device 15.5 to 22 lbs.

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The human body is slightly more dense than fresh water. Consequently, an unconscious body will typically sink once water is aspirated into the lungs. Fat bodies are slightly more

buoyant than thin bodies, but all bodies will sink in fresh water — for a period of time.

Source: [3]

Type I - Offshore Lifejacket - Type I P.F.D.s, are the most buoyant PFDs and suitable for all water conditions, including rough or isolated water where rescue may be delayed. Although bulky in comparison to Type II and III P.F.D.s, Type I will turn most unconscious individuals to the face-up position.These are typically worn by the U.S.Coast Guard and at sea.



Type II - Near Shore Buoyant Vest - This P.F.D. comes in several sizes and is generally considered for calm inland water where there is chance of fast rescue. Many of these P.F.D.’s will turn an unconscious person face-up in the water.

Type III - Flotation Aid - P.F.D.’s are generally considered the most comfortable, with styles for different boating activities and sports. They are for use where there is good chance of fast rescue since they will generally not turn an unconscious person face-up. Flotation aids come in many sizes and styles, and the intended use of this P.F.D. is for white water.

26Source: [3]

Type V - Inflatable P.F.D.’s / Hybrid - Inflatable P.F.D.’s rely on inflatable chambers that provide buoyancy when inflated. Un-inflated, inflatable life jackets are less bulky than inherently buoyant life jackets. Inflatables come in a variety of U.S. Coast Guard-defined performance types. The specific type of life jacket is determined by characteristics such as its amount of buoyancy, its in-water performance and its type of inflation. mechanism.

Type IV - Throwable Device - These are designed to be thrown to a person in the water. Throwable devices include boat cushions, ring buoys, and throw bags for intended use in swift water. It is important to keep these devices immediately available for emergencies.



Type V - Special Use Device - Special use P.F.D.’s include work vests, deck suits, and hybrids for restricted use. Hybrid vests contain some internal buoyancy and are inflatable to provide additional flotation. *see above.

27Source: [3]

Type V Low-Profile Type V High-Float



28

The diagram below is a close-up of the standard quick release rescue belt. The metal tri-glide provides different levels of friction necessary for the rescue evolution at hand.

With personal P.F.D.’s, it may be advisable to adjust the length of the tail of the webbing by trimming to the desired length. 6”- 8” of tail is typically suitable, but this adjustment will be up to the professional rescuer.

Plastic cam-lock buckleMetal tri-glide

Quick release pull

Thick soled water boot Lightweight water shoe

Lash-tab river knife

Neoprene gloves for warmth



29

Folding river knife

Personal throw bag

Notes:

Self draining water shoe


River Rescue Control Zones

Conducting a successful river rescue can come down to the successful management of personnel, equipment, and work

zones. A primary goal of establishing three different work zones is to maximize the capabilities of personnel and to minimize the

potential risk of rescuers not properly trained or without the proper Personal Protective Equipment to carry out a rescue.

The GREEN Zone: Anyone not directly participating in the hands-on rescue should remain in the green zone. The green zone

will commonly be anywhere from 10’ to 30’ from the water - dependent upon shoreline and topography. This is commonly the staging area for S.A.R. or various E.M.S. personnel. This is also

known as the “COLD” zone. P.P.E. is not required.

The YELLOW Zone: The YELLOW Zone is the established area in between the Green and Red Zones. This may include

anywhere from 10’ to 30’ back from the waters edge. Upstream and downstream safety will find themselves working in the

Yellow Zone, and all personnel in this defined work area should have appropriate P.P.E. - including a P.F.D., throw bag, helmet

and appropriate footwear. All rescue operators in this work zone should be prepared for an unintentional swim, and have a

minimum of 16 - 24 hours of river rescue training.

The RED Zone: Also knows as the “HOT” Zone, is the actual river itself. Responders operating in this work area should have full P.P.E. kits, and have at least 16 - 24 hours of river rescue

training. RED Zone operators are responsible for the hands-on application and contact with the subject. RED Zone responders

should have significant river rescue training, skills and knowledge. Red Zone operators can also work in either the

YELLOW or GREEN Zones as needed.

30

Static River Rescue Rope - A floating line of kernmantle construction. A Dyneema or Nylon Drycore for strength and polypropylene sheath for buoyancy and low water absorption is common. However, polypropylene has a relatively low melting point making it susceptible to melting under frictional loads. • Static, low-stretch ropes are desired for river rescue application.

3/8” - 1/2” is equivalent to 9.5mm - 12mm.

River Rescue Specific Rope - Many companies produce “low-stretch” river rescue lines. They generally all have a woven polypropylene sheath, however the core fibers may vary. These ropes are specific to horizontal rescue application and are not intended for vertical rope work. These ropes will generally float, making them ideal for river rescue work.

Locking Carabiners - Steel for strength or aluminum for weight-conscious paddlers are permitted. Locking carabiners only. Check kN rating. General kN ratings on locking “oval” or “D” aluminum carabiners will be between 22kN and 30kN. Make sure gates and locking mechanisms are in serviceable condition.

Prusik Cord - Several pieces, 3-4 mm smaller than your low-stretch river rescue line or static rescue haul line. Pre-tied prusiks in two different lengths are very useful in a double-prusik ratchet system. Low-stretch nylon is a common material for prusiks.

Pulleys - Rescue pulleys that accommodate the rescue line size. Check the kN rating to ensure strength. Available in large “prusik-minding” devices, or non “prusik-minding.” Aluminum sheaves have advantages over nylon. Consider the merits of sealed bearings vs. spindle pulley.

Webbing- Several 15’ - 20’ pieces for constructing anchors. 1” tubular webbing free of defects and in serviceable condition.

River Rescue Equipment

31


1. Double Braid Ropes - A Double Braid rope has a braided core surrounded by a braided sheath. Current applications for double braid include Cordelette Cord, Accessory Cord, Utility Rope and Marine and Industrial Applications.

2. Kernmantle Rope - Most commonly used for recreational climbing and rescue. This rope has a tightly braided sheath (mantle) around twisted or parallel core (Kern). The core provides the majority of the strength, while the sheath protects the core from abrasion. Different kernmantle fibers dictate the elongation or low-stretch qualities of specific ropes.

3. 3-Strand Rope - This twisted or laid rope construction uses three strands of twisted filaments and lays them into a spiral, creating a single rope. No core and no sheath.

Rope Construction

32


1.

3.

2.

Specific Gravity - buoyancy of rope / material in units of density (g/cm3). Polypropylene 0.91 Melting Point 330˚F - 165°C Dyneema or HMPE 0.97 Melting Point 297˚F - 147°C Fresh Water 1.00 Sea Water 1.03 Nylon 1.14 Melting Point 428°F - 220°C Polyester 1.38 Melting Point 482°F - 250°C Technora 1.44 Melting Point 480°F - 248°C

Polypropylene (Poly) - Because of its low-density, polypropylene floats. Poly is quite susceptible to sunlight deterioration, but its life can be extended by storing it away from direct sunlight and by keeping it dry while not in use. Poly loses nearly all of its strength around 200˚F, and along with Dyneema, has one of the lowest melting points of all synthetic ropes. Polypropylene is hydrophobic and does not readily absorb water making it a good choice for light-duty river rescue. Poly possesses low-stretch qualities which can make it appropriate for specific mechanical haul systems. It is also one of the cheapest synthetic fibers.

High Modulous Polyethelyne (HMPE) Dyneema/Spectra - 15 times the tensile strength and proportionally 8 times lighter than steel. Its specific gravity of 0.97 means it floats, but not quite as well as polypropylene.

Dyneema is hydrophobic and doesn’t readily absorb water making it a good choice for river application. Dyneema possesses initial low-stretch qualities, but does fatigue giving into significant “creep stretch.”A Dyneema core is slippery, yet when coupled with a protective hatch-pattern braided Polypropylene sheath, it’s a good choice for river rescue.

Rope Construction

33


Source: [4]

Polyamide (Nylon) - Nylon absorbs water and will not float. Nylon is 15% weaker when wet. Depending on the construction, nylon will either stretch a great deal or be very static in nature. Used in kernmantle climbing ropes (dynamic) and static rescue lines, the dynamic or static qualities depend on the structure of the core (twisted or parallel). Static nylon can fatigue giving into “creep stretch.”

Polyester (Dacron, Terylene) - Polyester is hydrophobic, meaning it doesn’t absorb water. However, it still won’t float because of its specific gravity. Polyester has slightly better resistance to ultra violet rays than nylon.

Aramid (Kevlar, Technora) - Related to Nylon, but stronger and more heat tolerant. Additionally, Technora ropes don’t have the ability to stretch or absorb much shock. Ropes made of Kevlar/Technora are about half the diameter and weight of conventional ropes, yet equally as strong. These ropes may lose significant strength when knotted due to the tight turn radius. Typically, rope construction entails a Technora core and Nylon or polyester sheath.

Rope Construction

Notes:


34

Polypropylene is suitable for protection on moderate terrain, but vertical rope work should be done using nylon or polyester static

rescue lines.

Source: [4]

Basic Comparison of Static, Low-Stretch, and Dynamic ropes:

Static: Low-Stretch: Dynamic: ≤6% elongation 6%-10% elongation ≥10% elongation @10% MRBS @10% MRBS @10% MRBS

Most river rescue ropes are either Static or considered Low-Stretch. * MRBS = Minimum Rated Breaking Strength

Rescue Ropes

Rope Stretch Section 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Polyester Nylon Technora Polypropylene H2O Resistant Absorbs H2O H2O Resistant H2O Resistant S.G. 1.38 S.G. 1.14 S.G. 1.44 S.G. .91. Absorbs Shock Absorbs Shock Brittle Absorbs Shock

Melting Point: 250°C 220°C 248°C 165°C

Notes:

35

Note: Depending on construction, the following ropes can be considered low-stretch. *Technora is extremely heat resistant, yet brittle under a dynamic shock load.

Source: [4]

1” Nylon tubular webbing.................................... 1” Nylon solid webbing........................................ 3/8” - 9.5mm Polypro........................................... 1/4” - 6.5mm Polypro........................................... 3/8” - 9.5mm Nylon w/ Polypro sheath………… 1/4” - 6.5mm Dyneema w/ Polypro sheath.......... 1/2” - 12.7mm Polypro......................................... 1/2” - 12.7mm Polyester…………………………………

100% Nylon with parallel core construction 8 mm Prusik Cord………………………………. 7 mm Prusik Cord................................................. 6 mm Prusik Cord................................................. 5 mm Prusik Cord................................................. 4 mm Accessory Cord........................................... kiloNewton..........................................................

4,000 lbs - 17kN 6,000 lbs - 26kN 1,900 lbs - 8.5kN 950 lbs - 4kN 3,375 lbs - 15kN 2,475 lbs - 11kN 2,600 lbs - 12kN 9,000 lbs - 40kN

3,375 lbs - 15kN 2,700 lbs - 12kN 1,687 lbs - 7.5kN 1,125 lbs - 5kN 900 lbs - 4kN 225 lbs. force

Breaking Strength of Ropes

Strengths of Rope and Webbing

36


Source: [5]

• Minimum rated breaking strength (MRBS) is determined by wrapping new rope around two large diameter capstans, then tensioning the line until it breaks.

• Any curve or bend in a rope weakens it. The tighter the bend, the weaker the rope. Termed “flex fatigue”, this internal abrasion also weakens ropes as they run over pulleys.

• All knots reduce the working strength of rope. The general rule is that a knot reduces strength by approximately 33%.

• The rope will always fail at the knot which has the lowest working capacity. Choosing the knot that is most appropriate for the situation and dressing the knot properly will help retain the ropes working strength. Four to six inch tails on all knots are advisable.

Rope Terminology

Bight- Anytime a loop is in the rope.

Tail- After completing a knot, this is the short part you have left over. Ensuring proper tail length will add to overall knot safety.

Bend- Is created when two ropes, or the ends of the same rope are joined together.

Dressed- Fine-tuning a knot after it is tied is “dressing” the knot. By tightening up your knot and laying all bights smoothly against each other, you are mitigating disproportionate loading and possible premature failure. Strive to avoid overrides in your knots.

*Overrides - the unnecessary overlap or crossover of rope strands in a Figure-Eight follow-through or bend.

Hitch- When fastening a rope to an object such as a tree or a carabiner you are creating a “hitch.” Hitches generally use friction to stay fixed.

Standing End - The part of the rope which is taking the load or is static. “Typically the ‘anchor’ side of the rope.”

Working End - The part of the rope used to tie off or rig with.

Anchoring - Fastening to a suitably secure object.

Notes:


37

Rope TerminologySection 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

Bight- Anytime you put a loop in the rope.

Knot: Figure-Eight on a bight

Dressed- Fine-tuning a knot after it is tied is “dressing” the knot. By tightening up your knot and laying all bights smoothly against each other, you are mitigating disproportionate loading and possible premature failure.

Tail - After completing a knot, this is the short part you have left over. Ensuring proper tail length will add to overall knot safety. Knot: Bowline

Bend- Is created when two ropes, or the ends of the same rope are joined together.

Knot: Double Fisherman’s

38

Rope TerminologySection 1 - Terminology, P.P.E., Rescue Equipment, Ropes

39

Standing End - The part of the rope which is attached to the anchor or is static.

Knot: Bowline

Hitch - When fastening a rope to an object such as a tree or a carabiner you are creating a “hitch.” Hitches generally use friction to stay fixed.

Hitch: Munter

Working End - The part of the rope used to create and tie the actual knot to your load or object of pull.

Knot: Directional-Eight

Notes:

1. What are the swift water rescue priorities?__________________ __________________ __________________ 2. Who has a duty to rescue? ______________________________

3. What is the SSI rescue philosophy? _______________________

4. What are the differences between type III and V P.F.D.’s? ______________________________________________________

5. List all pertinent Personal Protective Equipment used in swift water rescue. ________________________________________

______________________________________________________

6. A kilonewton is equal to how many pounds? _______________

7. Where can undercuts be found? __________________________

8. What is a kernmantle rope? _____________________________

9. What are the characteristics of the following synthetic fibers:

Polypropylene _________________________________________

Nylon ________________________________________________

Dyneema/Spectra _______________________________________

Polyester ______________________________________________

10. What is the tensile strength of 1” tubular nylon webbing?_________

Swiftwater Safety Institute Section 1 Review


40

Throw bags typically contain between 50’ and 75’ of low - stretch rope. Larger bags will generally have a rope with a diameter close to 3/8” (9.5mm).

3/8” or 9.5mm Polypro………………..……….. 3/8” or 9.5mm Nylon…………………………… 1/4” or 6.5mm Polypro........................................ 1/4” or 6.5mm Dyneema......................................

• Make an accurate first throw, but be prepared for the swimmer to miss the rope. Ropes are hard to find in white water if it’s not right on top of you. It’s important to hit them with the rope.

• It is extremely important to ask if they want a rope and yell “ROPE” before you deploy your throw bag. When a rope is in the water everyone must be alert.

• Swimmers: Never wrap the rope around any part of your body. Secondary coils can be messy. Separate yourself from the coils as quickly as possible to avoid entanglement; attempt to make sure a coil never goes over your head.

River Rescue Throw Bags

1,900 lbs - 8.5kN 3.375 lbs - 15kN 900 lbs - 4kN 2,475 lbs - 11kN

• You should be able to properly deploy a throw bag twice at a distance of 50’ in a time of 20 seconds. Throws should be accurate and incorporate either overhand, underhand, or sidearm techniques.

• The objective is to throw the rope over the swimmers head. This will allow the rope to land softly on their head or shoulders if accurate. Make sure they know the rope is coming. Ask them, “Do you want a ROPE?”

• An overhand technique may be best carried out by a “football- style” throw directly at the swimmer.

Never throw a bag with an exposed carabiner attached to it

Section 2 - Throw Bags, Knots, Anchors, Mechanical Adv.

41

Clean lines on throw bags vs. Figure-Eight stopper knot: The conversation revolves around not having a small figure-eight on a bight at the end of your throw bag. The following is meant to be an overview using objective, practical experience as our guide.

• Safety - A knot or handle on the rope may get chocked between rocks. Theoretically, no knot or “handle”reduces the risk.

• The rescuer won’t rely on a knot to hold on to and will have a proper belay technique utilizing hip belays or static object belays.

• It may be quicker to tie a knot around and object or run a clean line through an attachment point.

•• It may be harder to find the end of your rope if not stored properly, preventing timely throws.

• On a secondary coil, the swimmer may not have the benefit of a small knot to hang on to.

• When using a Snag-Plate on a secondary coil you will have nothing for the Snag-Plate to attach to.

Years of practical experience have yielded the following: • The instance of the actual empty bag becoming chocked is relatively equal to the small figure-eight on a bight becoming chocked, depending on the bag and flotation included.

• We have seen ropes on “clean lines” escape from their bags and become entrapment issues. This is due to the fact that it may be difficult to effectively capture the rope in the bag without a knot in it, unless it is stuffed and completely closed in the bag.

*We will explore both variations in this course.

Throw Bags Continued

Advantages of a “Clean Line” (No knot in end)

Disadvantages of a “Clean Line” (No knot in end)


42

Static Belay: In white water we typically use belays to assist us in holding a throw bag line once a swimmer has securely grabbed ahold of it.

Hip belays typically place the rescuer in a potentially dangerous situation by partially wrapping the line around your hip. However, this may be the only option you have. Be sure to hip belay the main line on the down-stream side of your body. If you are on your feet and the shoreline allows, you may be able to move downstream as needed, creating a dynamic belay. P.F.D. lapel support from behind is recommended and you should always have plan “B” and “C” in mind as the following steps.

Simply holding the rope is likely not possible for the rescuer. Proper belaying technique gives the rescuer the possibility of controlling the rope under force. Having your feet set against a large object is ideal for a standing or sitting hip belay, but may reduce your ability to react and move quickly. Rope management is very important.

Sitting Belay: Similar to the standing hip belay but the rescuer sits down. While this method reduces the chance of slipping or losing footing it is more static than a standing belay. This is because quick movement is difficult. If a sitting belayer transitions from a sitting position to a standing position, they need to be sure of footing and ensure that they are free and clear of any rope entanglements. This is where “clean lines” on your throw bag may be ideal and reduce the instance of getting chocked between rocks on the shoreline.

Belay Techniques in Swift Water

Remember - everything you feel on the rope as a belayer, the swimmer feels as well. It’s easier on both if you are able to

provide any sort of dynamic belay.

43


Dynamic / Moving Belay: This is probably the easiest way for the swimmer to be pulled in. Once the rescuer makes rope contact with the swimmer, the rescuer instructs the swimmer to hold the rope over the opposite shoulder and have feet facing downstream while laying on their back (this is the same for all belays). The rescuer then walks down the river bank (if possible) pulling the swimmer perpendicular to the current. This places the least amount of strain on both ends of the rope.

Note: This does require some rope management as you will be walking/ running down the shoreline. Not always possible on a varied shoreline, but a great option if the shore is void of large obstacles. Avoid rope entanglement.

Friction Belay: If the pull becomes unbearable, bending the line around a tree or around a large rock can divert some of the force. The resulting friction transfers much of the force to the object and increases the strength of a belay tremendously. However, the swimmer on the other end of the rope will feel the increased force as the belay becomes very static. You must be able to release the rope quickly, so don’t wrap it or tie it off.

Note: This type of belay may be very useful when attempting a static pendulum swing of gear or several people through fast moving water.

Anchored Belay: A rescuer wearing a P.F.D. with an approved rescue harness may be anchored in while providing a static hip belay. This may be appropriate for a strong swimmer / live bait swim with an appropriate shoreline. This is also very useful if the belayer is perched on rocks or a cliff. However, this may take some time to set up.

Belay Techniques in Swift Water Cont.

44


A safe assumption is that we lose 1/3 of our original strength when we put a knot in a section of rope.

Loop Knots % Of Retained Strength Figure 8 Follow Through............................................... Figure 8 on a Bight........................................................ Directional 8.................................................................. Bowline.......................................................................... Butterfly.........................................................................

Joining Knots Double Fisherman’s........................................................ Water Knot (in webbing)................................................

Fastening Hitches Clove Hitch.................................................................... Girth Hitch/Larks Foot................................................... Prusik - See Double Fisherman’s

Note: Keep in mind: when your prusik is wet and lubricated it may slip and glaze your haul line. It is acceptable to use two prusiks on the same line to increase hauling capacity, however be aware of the added force exerted on your anchor. 9.5mm haul lines and 6mm prusiks are standard river rescue sizing.

Weakest Part of the System: • It is important to understand the dynamics of a mechanical

advantage rope system. As rescuers, we have to understand where failure may occur on every system that we set up.

• When setting up a rescue kit for personal or commercial use, it is important to match rope strength with carabiner, cordage, webbing and pulley strength to create the strongest system possible.

Swift Water Rescue Knots

66% - 77% 66% - 77% 55% - 74% 55% - 74% 61% - 72%

65% - 80% 60% - 70%

60% - 75% 40% - 75%

45


Source: [5]

Rescue Knot Illustrations

Figure-Eight Bowline

Butterfly


46

Water Knot 3-Wrap Prusik

Directional Eight


47



Clove Hitch Klemheist

Munter Hitch

48



Girth Hitch

Double Fisherman’s

49


Angles & Anchors

120 degrees

100 lbs.

100 lbs. 100 lbs.

120 degrees

100 lbs.

100 lbs. 100 lbs.

120 degrees

100 lbs.

100 lbs. 100 lbs.

120 degrees

100 lbs.

45 degrees

54 lbs. 54 lbs.

Note: At 120 degrees, the load on each anchor is equal to the overall pulling force.

As we decrease the degree of our anchors relative to our load, we decrease the load distributed on each anchor. Ideally, our anchors

will not be over 90° apart as determined by the length of our anchor material and the proximity of the anchors to one another.

50


0.44kN

0.24kN0.24kN

At 45° - 54% of the force is felt on each

anchor.

At 90° - 71% of the force is felt on each

anchor.

54% of load

At 120° - we have reached

equilibrium and all forces felt are

equal to the load.0.44kN

0.44kN0.44kN

100 lbs.

100% of load

Angles & Anchors

100 lbs.

140 degrees

150 lbs. 150 lbs.


0.44kN

0.66kN0.66kN150% of load

100 lbs.

160 degrees

300 lbs. 300 lbs.

0.44kN

1.32kN1.32kN 300% of load

As we increase our angles above 120 degrees, the force felt on each anchor is amplified. This is useful when creating a vector

pull, but can become very dangerous when we are rigging high-lines across the span of a canyon. Rule of thumb is to pre-tension a high-line with one person hauling on a 3:1 M.A. system. We are looking for 10% deflective sag. This means that if we have a span

of 100’, we are looking to have an angle of no more than 160 degrees with at least 10’ of sag when the line is loaded with one rescuer. With a 2kN rescue load on the high-line, we are looking for an angle of no more than 140 degrees. Special consideration

must be given to high-line construction and advanced rope rigging courses are necessary to fully understand the physics and

principals involved to safely set up and operate a high-line system.

51

• In a swift water setting, the boat based or vehicle based anchor will be exposed to the dynamics of the whole system moving (e.g. the load potentially shifting and moving downriver.) It is extremely important to use multi-point self-equalizing anchors whenever possible or as necessary.

• As proficient swift water professionals, we have to be able to build self equalizing anchors that attach to multiple anchor points on the load. This maximizes the strength of the system and helps to ensure that none of the contact points will be overloaded with any shift of the load. An exception to this rule may be a frame on a large boat or an A, B, or C post on a vehicle.

• We can potentially take two or three marginally strong attachment points and combine the holding force of those attachments with an equalized anchor system, thus creating a much stronger system than any single attachment point alone.

• Use “dampeners” on your haul line and your anchor points. This, in theory, will absorb some of the shock of the system if something should happen to fail and project back or forward.

• Never stand over or directly downstream of a tensioned line.

Boat Anchor Systems Section 2 - Throw Bags, Knots, Anchors, Mechanical Adv.

3-point self equalizing boat anchoring system using a Directional Figure-Eight as the focal point. This system is closed off with a Figure-Eight on a bight.

52

Multiple-Point Equalized Boat Anchor

Above are two different versions of multiple-point, equalized boat anchors.

On the left: 3-point self equalizing anchor using a Directional Figure-Eight. This system is preferred on boat anchor systems because of its ability to “self equalize.” If the boat shifts, theoretically, so will the anchor.

On the right: 3-point equalized (but not self equalizing) anchor using 1” tubular webbing and an overhand knot. This is a “fixed and focused” anchor. It is only equalized if it is static and the direction of pull remains the same. This may be effective enough when building a boatman’s Z-drag as we wouldn’t expect the angle of pull to change.

Notes:

53


© Swiftwater Safety Institute

Multiple-Point Equalized Shore Anchor

The two anchor systems above are great examples of a two-point self-equalizing system vs. a three-point fixed system. A “magic X” should always be placed in the two-point system in the event that one of your anchor points fails.

Advantages of Self-Equalizing Anchor Systems: • A dynamic system that will typically distribute the load evenly between the anchor points even as the load shifts. Friction may be a limiting factor in the ability to consistently self equalize.

Disadvantages of Self-Equalization Anchor Systems: • If one anchor point fails, it will become an extending anchor and will possibly shock load the rest of the system.

• If you don’t have the “magic X” and an anchor point fails, you will most likely loose the entire anchoring system.

The anchor system on the right has a pre-determined direction of pull. It is equalized, but will not self equalize. These are generally

used on-shore and in vertical rigging situations with a pre-determined direction of pull. This anchor is known as “focused

and fixed” anchor.

54


Anchor Systems Continued

Never stand directly downstream of a tensioned anchor. If there is a sudden shift of the load you are attempting to move, you may be

in jeopardy of being caught in the “pinch” as the rope swings downstream.

Basic On-Shore Anchor Attachments

Notes:

It is important to properly load carabiners. Carabiners should always be loaded along the spine, and gates should always be locked.

Notes:

55


Mechanical Advantage

Mechanical advantage systems may not be advantageous if we don’t have the ability to set up multiple-point, and potentially, self-equalizing anchors. For example, tying to one D-ring on your boat or anchoring off to one small tree may not hold the forces that mechanical advantage haul systems can potentially

create in a river rescue situation.

Mechanical advantage is a way to amplify the force exerted on fixed objects without requiring additional input to do so.

1:1

2:1

3:1

4:1“Pig Rig”

5:1

9:1

9:1

Notes:

56



57


The efficiency of sealed bearing pulley’s is roughly 90%, and the efficiency of carabiners is roughly 60%. In essence, this means that some efficiency is lost as we move a rope over a pulley and we lose even more efficiency as we move over a carabiner.

Theoretical vs. Practical Mechanical Advantage: Even using pulley’s, friction is added to the system. Theoretically, a 3:1 should provide a 3:1 M.A. as shown below, using the T-count method.

A L

1

11 + 2 = 3:1

2

A L

1

.9.81 + 1.9 = 2.71:1

1.9

Practical Mechanical Advantage: Sealed bearing pulley’s are roughly 90% efficient, therefore, the practical mechanical advantage is 2.71:1 as shown below. One unit of tension going into the pulley results in .9 units coming out of the pulley. This is reduced by 10% again in the last change of direction (COD) from the anchor to the load.

.81

Notes:

PP

PP

Rules of Z-Rigs: • The practical mechanical advantage (PMA) of a 3:1 system using

pulleys is 2.71:1, and the practical mechanical advantage (PMA) under the same system using carabineers instead of pulleys would be approximately 1.96:1 because of a 40% reduction in efficiency.

• The theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) listed is not the practical mechanical advantage (PMA). PMA is the result of many variables in the M.A. system.

• If a pulley or turn in the rope or carabiner moves in a system there is an increase in the force felt on the object being pulled (i.e. a mechanical advantage).

• If the pulley doesn’t move, then it is simply a change of direction with no mechanical advantage exerted on your haul line. However, by the mechanics of pulley systems, the force will be at least doubled on your anchor on shore.

Three types of pulley systems are achievable: 1. Simple 2. Compound 3. Complex • Aluminum sheaved pulleys are preferred over nylon sheaves, but

are generally heavier and more expensive. Sealed bearing pulley’s are preferable.

• While pulleys are ideal for achieving higher levels of mechanical advantage in a “Z” rig system, sometimes you just won’t have them. However, in most river rescues, carabineers are readily available and will help you avoid rope-on-rope scenarios.

• Carabiners are a limiting factor with regard to friction. Any time a carabiner is used in a M.A. system, it should be inserted as close to the final bend in your system as possible, e.g., the first change of direction from your load.

• With more than two carabiners in your system, you are creating a greater frictional coefficient and are losing mechanical advantage.


58


100 lbs.

90 degrees

100 lbs.

Boat

The closer you set the tag line to your pinned boat, the more directional change you can achieve. This is a major benefit of the

vector pull.

BoatTag Line

Anchor

The vector pull will be most effective if the haul line is taught at 180°. Pulling on the center of the the haul line will result in equal

directional change on both sides of the 180º.

Tag Line

Anchor

Vector Pull Mechanical Advantage

If you can situate your tag line closer to your boat than the on-shore anchor, you will have a greater effect on the angle of pull on the craft. Each anchor feels the maximum force possible when the

tag line pulls from the center of the taught line.

59


Vector Forces The following graph represents applied forces on your loads if you are creating a vector pull to generate amplified forces. Taught line at 180° between two fixed anchor points.

Applying 1kN of force to the taught line results in the following:

Mechanical Advantage 1. 180° - mathematically infinite forces. 2. 150° - Roughly 2kN of force to each anchor point. No Advantage 3. 120° - The force on anchors is equal to the force being applied. Disadvantage 4. 90° - Roughly 0.71kN of force being felt on each anchor. 5. 45° - Roughly 0.54kN of force being felt on each anchor. 6. 0° - Roughly 0.50kN of force being felt on each anchor.

60


Thurber, Dan - 2019

Minimum Requirements for a 3-1 and 9-1 Z-drag:

• 150’ - 300’ Haul line. Water rescue rope recommended 3/8” (9.5mm) minimum - kernmantle design

• 3 - 20’ slings of 1” tubular webbing • 3 to 4 Pre-made prusik loops of 6mm • 7 Locking carabiners with an appropriate kN rating • 4 Rescue pulleys

You may want to have climbing gear such as cams, nuts, slings and a variation of carabiners and tools. Are you a part of a formal response team or an expedition kayaker? There may be limitations.

Store your Z-drag kit in a dry bag. Don’t forget to check the dry bag contents after significant exposure to the water. Remember, you need to keep your rescue ropes dry and out of the sun to retain working strength. If they are wet, it is best to dry them in the shade to limit UV exposure.

Keep your rescue gear well-organized (coiled, daisy chained, clipped together, etc.) so that items can be quickly utilized when needed.

Recommended Z-Drag Kit Contents

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Note: Having a Z-drag crib card that will outline the basic mechanical systems may be helpful as well. Keep in mind that if you have 10 people boy-scout pulling a rope, that is better than 3 people pulling on a 3:1 and it may be much easier and faster to

set up.

Note: You may need to adjust the length of all rope and webbing based upon your mission profile for the day. Overall volume and

width of creeks and rivers plays a critical role in proper gear selection. Be familiar with your equipment.


1. List the advantages and disadvantages of “clean lines” on your throw bags: __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are three different belay techniques used when throw bagging? ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

3. At what angle is the force of pull equal on three anchor points? ________

4. What is an “override” in your knot and why is it preferred to not have overrides? ______________________________________

______________________________________________________

5. How long should the tails on your knots be? _______________

6. What is the benefit of a 2 or 3-point anchoring system? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

7. When would you use a “focused and fixed” equalized, multi-point anchor system over a “self equalizing” multi-point extending anchor system? _________________________________________ ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

8. What does cross-loading carabiners consist of? _____________ ______________________________________________________

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Swift Water Entry Move Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Swift Water Entry: When a rescuer must leap aggressively into the water in a horizontal move and retain momentum. This is commonly an aggressive move, and it is important to emphasize landing in a flat “skimming” motion with your head up. There are multiple other ways to safely enter swift water.

Swiftwater Entry: • Keep your head up to protect yourself. Slightly arch your back, but be cautious of too much leg bend. Think about becoming a rigid plank and staying low. This will ensure your P.F.D. touches the water surface first.

• Hold your aggressive momentum and ready yourself for aggressive swimming strokes if needed.

• Keep your hands and arms crossed in front of your face to break the surface of the water and offer additional protection.

• The leap is a more of an aggressive belly skim outward. NOT a dive. Land flat and stay low with your momentum.

• Keep your legs relatively straight so your knees don’t hit submerged rocks.

• Adjust your ferry angle to the current vector based on your objective.

• Know your downstream hazards and have a plan “B” & “C” in in mind.

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Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

River Flow

Main Current - The main body of water that likely possesses the fastest and most consistent flow.

Convergent Flow - Water entering the main current.

Helical (or Helicoidal) Flow - Cork-screw like flow recirculating from frictional points near the shoreline back towards the main flow.

Up Current - Commonly described as boils of water.

Strongest Flow - Generally, this is in the main current and just below the surface as this is the area with the least frictional resistance. The water on the sides is lubricating the water in the middle of the channel for faster flow.

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River Flow With Gradient Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Gradient increases the velocity of water. As velocity increases, fictional coefficients between rocks and water behave differently. Because of this, some river features may be more pronounced with the increase in velocity of water.

A current in a river or stream, is the flow of water influenced by gravity as the water moves downhill to reduce its potential energy. The current varies within the stream and this depends upon the flow of water, stream gradient, and channel geometry.

Swimming In Swift Water Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Notes:

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Defensive Swimmer Position: • Lay flat, feet downstream at the surface of the water (use feet to

fend off rocks).

• Legs are flexed to act as shock absorbers in the event the swimmer hits a rock.

• Feet are up and out in front of swimmer to avoid foot entrapments that may occur at the bottom of the river.

• Use your arms in backstroke fashion to move yourself across the current and away from hazards.

• Always have your head up scouting hazards ahead. If you are outside of a raft, do not remain directly upstream or downstream of the raft because it is very hard to see or get out of the way. Move to one side or the other if possible.

• Breathe on the way down and in the troughs of big waves, and hold your breath as you exit the trough. It is very rare to crest all the way to the top of waves, thus making it necessary to breathe in the troughs.

Swimming In Swift Water

In swift moving water, you may need to use both methods of swimming. It is OK to change your approach many times in the

course of a swim to take corrective action.

When The Aggressive Swimmer Position is Necessary: • Avoiding objects and aggressively catch eddies.

• Trying to move quickly, especially laterally to the current vector.

• Moving sideways in large wave trains to gain your objective.

• Chasing a victim who is already downstream of the rescue swimmer.

• Using the swift water entry move to enter strong current.

• Swimming aggressively to shore or attempting to climb upon an unavoidable strainer.


Aggressive Swimmer Position: • Depending on the features of the river, you may need to get into

the aggressive swimming position to reach safety. This is an aggressive crawl stroke while also kicking. Remember, self rescue is your priority. Assess your hazards and react accordingly.

• Roll onto your stomach while keeping your feet at the surface of the water. Now you can aggressively swim to avoid obstacles or catch eddies.

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Shallow water crossing rescue techniques are often an underutilized and overlooked rescue technique. Too many times foot entrapment rescues that could have been accomplished with a shallow water crossing technique have been attempted with lengthy and complicated techniques.

Considerations for Shallow Water Crossings: To determine if a shallow water crossing is possible, three factors have to be examined before entering the water:

1. Depth: Can it be determined? This may be a limiting factor.

2. Speed: Velocity is usually the most obvious danger. Shallow water can move fast enough to knock a rescuer off their feet.

3. Channel Bottom: This can be an obvious hazard in the case of an extremely smooth surface, or an uneven boulder strewn bottom.

Rules of Thumb for Shallow Water Crossings: • Keep multiple points of contact with the bottom and only move

one point of contact at a time.

• If moving in a group, it is usually best to have the largest person upriver. Example; wedge or an A-frame.

• Swim if you fall or loose your footing. It is very important to know your immediate downstream hazards.

• Try not to make aggressive lunging steps, but feel the river bottom with your feet as you move. Consistency and communication are key.

• Attempt shallow water crossings only with proper footwear.

• Have a plan “B” & “C” in mind.

• Downstream spotters are always recommended.

Shallow Water Crossings Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

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Gradient - Velocity - ForceSection 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

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VELOCITY POUNDS POUNDS

FT / S - M.P.H. ON LEGS ON BODY

5ft/S = 3.4 MPH 16.8lbs 33.6lbs

10ft/S = 6.8 MPH 67.2lbs 134lbs

20ft/S = 13.6 MPH 269lbs 538lbs

Velocity is influenced by: • Gradient • Friction • Volume (CFS) • Channel Configuration - Bends - Constrictions - Obstructions

Square-Cube Law This is a mathematical principle, applied in a variety of scientific fields, which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as a shape's size increases or decreases. The ratio of two volumes is greater than the ratio of their surfaces.

This principle states that as a shape grows in size, its volume grows faster than its surface area.

When Water Speed Doubles The Force Quadruples

Source: [6]

Single Person Tripod: Stabilization is greatest with the use of a stick or paddle. The rescuer braces the paddle, stick, etc., upstream and has three points of support, the stick and two feet. The crosser then moves one point at a time to make the crossing. Always moving perpendicular to the current.

Shallow Water Crossing Techniques Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Pivot: Three people face inward with arms firmly linked around P.F.D. lapels, heads close together and feet apart. One person always remains stationary. This is the person upstream of the other two, effectively creating a micro eddy for the other two to move in. Always provide downward support. This method is effective with up to four or five rescuers. Pivot swing into the current, however a pivot swing is not necessary.

A-Frame: Two people in the shape of an “A-Frame” with heads together and feet wide and back behind them. Move perpendicular to the current while providing support for one another. The heaviest person should usually be upstream.

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Shallow Water Crossing Techniques Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Wedge: Place the biggest, heaviest person in the front facing upstream. Using a stick or paddle will also help in this persons stability. The second row back should have two people in it and the third row can start a variation in the number of people as needed. All face upstream and move as one unit perpendicular to the current. You may adjust the wedge based on personnel available.

Note: All of these methods can play an important role in successfully accessing and extricating a foot entrapped victim. If possible and controlled, approach the victim from upstream. This will provide an eddy for them and help to allow the group to potentially extricate the victim.

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Foot Entrapment

As previously mentioned, water forces against obstacles do not increase linearly with current velocity as you might expect. If a current of three feet per second exerts a force of 15 pounds on your legs, then you might expect that a current of six feet per second would exert a force of 30 pounds. This is not the case because the force of water obeys a square-cube law meaning that if the water speed doubles, the force increases up to four times.

When Water Speed Doubles The Force Quadruples

Unless you are participating in a shallow water crossing, always minimize standing up in swift current. Actively keep your feet at the surface and try to bump any rocks with your butt or the flats of your feet by actively fending off rocks. Keep your head up and eyes open. Stay alert, and continue scouting downstream always looking for a point to catch a safe eddy, get to shore, or utilize your downstream safety.

Never stand up if the water is moving you downstream and you can’t fully control your movement. If you can’t control your downstream movement because the force of the water is too great, the possibility of entrapment always exists. Always keep your feet at the surface of the water.

Foot entrapments are often deadly. Quick action is required to stabilize the situation. Rescue lines generally won’t help unless rescuers are able to gain upstream stabilization or pull on the victim. Wading rescues are often overlooked, but a group of

people moving together can get into surprisingly deep water and potentially secure and transport a trapped person to safety.


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If possible, get a swimmer out into the eddy immediately below the entrapped victim to provide support. Refrain from approaching from upstream of the entrapped victim unless on belay and controlled, or in a shallow water crossing group.

Foot Entrapment Rescue Techniques: Categorized easy to most difficult, and low to high risk.

Single Shore Rescues:

Shallow Water Crossings: This can be remarkably easy and fast.

Single-Shore Foot Entrapment Stabilization

Single Shore Belay Lower: This is highly effective since foot entrapments typically happen in shallow water and generally close to shore. Either on a rescue vest or on an oversized bowline, one rescuer is controllably lowered to the victim from up river. The belayer then provides assistance by pulling on the line or changing the angle of pull to get the rescuer and victim to shore.

Note: The belayer must be as directly above the victim as possible. This decreases the sideways angle of pull on the belayed person.


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Single Shore Two-Step: Requires one rope. Create two hand coils on the same rope. Begin coiling towards the center of the rope (towards each other). Rescuers meet in the middle and each have a coil to simultaneously throw over the head of the entrapped. Once the bight is over the entrapped, both rescuers walk upstream and criss-cross to form an “X”, which holds the victim.

Snag Plate Rescue: Requires two ropes. One rope needs a Snag Plate © pre-installed in the bag. Throw one throw bag (NON SNAG PLATE BAG) upstream of the entrapped and let the rope float down around the victim. The second rescuer then hooks the first rope with the snag plate below the victim and pulls towards shore. Both rescuers then grab the original line and walk upstream and criss-cross to form an “X”, which holds the entrapped victim.

Foot Entrapment Stabilization Continued Single-Shore Entrapment Stabilization Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Snag Plate - This is a fairly effective way to deal with a foot entrapment. It needs to be pre-installed on your rescue throw bag. It’s critical to follow instruct ional detai ls during the installation process. Rescuers should be proficient with the workings and limitations of the Snag Plate prior to attempting a rescue with it.

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Stabilization Line: A stabilization line is a rope stretched shore to shore. A stabilization line can buy more time. A stabilization line can provide a means for the victim to keep their head above water or can secure the situation in which the victim already has their head out of the water. As this is a multi-shore rescue, it will take a bit more time.

Stabilization / Cinch Line: This technique secures the unconscious victim to the rope. A carabiner and new line are clipped to the stabilization line and thrown to a waiting rescuer on the other side. Pulling the rope around the victim in a downstream pull, if the victim is freed they are now secured in a loop and can be hauled to shore.

Stabilization, Cinch and Snag Lines: The same system as above, but now we introduce a third line. The third line is designed to be strategically placed near the victims feet in order to pull back upstream and free the victim. Two throw bags may be needed and are joined with the empty bags in the middle. Place rocks in the empty throw bags to get the rope close to the victims feet.

Strong Swimmer on the Stabilization Line: The stabilization line going across the river is used as a tension diagonal by the rescuer who attempts to hand-over-hand into downstream position to assist with the extrication of the foot entrapped victim.

Double-Shore Entrapment Stabilization

Notes:


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Double-Shore Vector Lower Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Notes:

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An effective way to lower a strong swimmer to a hard to reach spot on the river. Using a rescue vest and a combination of hand signals and whistle blasts, the strong swimmer can be lowered in an affectively controlled manner to the stranded swimmer or foot entrapped victim. Proper angles are critical and will reduce the required holding force on both sides of the vector. Fix the strong swimmer to the center point of the rescue line using the rescue release belt on their rescue P.F.D.. Rescue swimmers must have a way to release from the rescue line.

Contact Rescues: In-water contact rescues are very dangerous to the rescuer. Always attempt to keep a distressed swimmer at arms length to avoid potential injury and always have a downstream spotter. Contact rescues should be considered only after you have evaluated the other options of reaching the victim with a hand, paddle, boat or rope.

Strong Swimmer: Try to approach from the side of the victim. Gain positive control by being behind the victim after contact. Hold the swimmer by the lapel of their P.F.D. and swim to shore. Have them help you swim if possible.

Pursuit Swim: This is an extremely tiring way to reach a helpless victim in the water. You simply swim after the victim from behind attempting to gain ground on them. Generally it’s a fast reaction to a dire situation. You may be entirely on your own if you attempt this method of rescue. Live Bait: Properly using a rescue vest with an attached line, approach from the side of the victim and gain positive control by being behind the victim after contact. Wrap arms under their armpits and lock your legs around theirs. The rescuer and victim should pendulum swing to shore. If needed, you can pull your quick release harness and you are now in a contact swim situation. Adequate belay techniques must be used to arrest significant downstream forces.

Contact Rescues Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

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If you are being recirculated and can’t get out, focus on breathing while your head is above water. If safety is set for you, you may expect a rope. In terminal holes, a live bait rescue may be attempted with a strong swimmer being belayed on a tether.

Note: Tucking into a ball and allowing the current to force you to the bottom of the hole, you may be able pull yourself along the river bottom and/or catch the downstream currents and swim out beyond the recirculating water to the safe down-stream currents.

Note: Struggling against the up-stream current in a strong hole won’t do much except tire you out. You will experience less buoyancy due to the aeration of the water. This may actually help you get down towards the bottom of the hole. Do NOT attempt to take your P.F.D. off.

Note: If in a recirculating hole, it may be possible to get to the side of the hole and “grab” some green water passing downstream.

Recirculating Hydraulics Recirculating Hydraulics Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

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Low-Head Dams

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A Low-Head dam is different than a “pour-over” hydraulic caused by naturally occurring sub-surface river bed features. Natural river features generally lack the symmetry of a low-head dam and because of this, low-head dams pose an extreme threat.

The perfect symmetry of a low-head dam creates a nearly impossible hydraulic to escape from. Based on actual scenario training, SSI has determined that the best possible way to escape is to swim at the face of the dam and cup your hands to catch the jet of the water. Actively swim down and attempt to swim out the bottom of the hydraulic and downstream. You will not be able to swim downstream on the surface of the boil line, so it’s important to swim beneath the boil line. If you are in the recirculating water of low-head dam, it’s important to note that any controlled movement is extremely limited. You need to actively find “green” sub-surface water if possible.

Actively avoid low-head dams. YOU MAY DROWN and these pose a serious threat to life.

Strainers are objects through which water flows, trapping solid objects such as swimmers and boats. If you find it impossible to avoid a strainer and your only option left is to confront it, attempt the following: • Switch from the passive swim position to the aggressive position.

River Strainers

• Swim towards the strainer in an attempt to be moving faster than the current when you make contact.

• Keep your feet out flat behind you, and try to get your P.F.D. over and clear of the strainer. This can be extremely challenging.

• Forcefully push down on the strainer (although it may not move) while pulling yourself up and over. Try to carry your body completely up and over the obstacle by keeping your feet out flat behind you and kicking and pulling aggressively.

• This is harder than you may imagine. Swim hard, be aggressive, and do not allow yourself to be pulled down by the current.

• Once clear of the obstacle, return to either your passive or aggressive swimmer position, whichever is required. Intentionally going into a strainer feet-first poses significant challenges and is not recommended.


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River Strainers Continued Section 3 - Swimming & Foot Entrapment

Note: Even in shallow water, you may not be able to get your feet to the bottom of the river if on a small strainer. Recovery once you are actually in a strainer is extremely difficult. This situation should be actively avoided.

Note: If pulling a swimmer off of a strainer, make sure you don’t lose contact with them. Have downstream spotters and plans “B” & “C” ready if “A” fails to achieve the desired results.

Note: As a rescuer, it is generally best to approach from downstream of the strainer. It may effectively create an eddy and access to the victim may be easier and under more control. However, be aware that the strainer may shift if you actually climb onto it to attempt a rescue.

Notes:

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Intentionally approaching a strainer defensively may prove fatal.



1. What is the “defensive swim position” and when should this be used?

______________________________________________________

2. How do you transition from “defensive” to “aggressive” swimming? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. List 3 single-shore foot entrapment extrication techniques:____________________ ______________________ ______________________

4. Describe a swift water entry move. When is this used? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. What is a contact rescue and why does it have a high level of exposure for the rescuer ?______________________________________________________

6. If being recirculated in a large hole, what are your options to get out? __________________________________________________

7. How does your response in a low-head dam differ from a large hole? _________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________

8. How do you negotiate a river strainer that cannot be avoided? ______________________________________________________

9. List 4 ways to cross shallow water: ______________________ __________________ __________________ ________________

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Options for getting lines across: • Shallow water cross slightly into the current to reduce your

throwing distance or to get on a stable rock or island to throw from.

• Paddle, swim, or row it over. Ensure proper rope release options

exist and rescuers are familiar with their P.P.E.

• Attach “P” cord to a baseball or rock and throw it over to someone on the other shore (messenger line). Your end of the P-chord should be attached to your haul line. They can then haul it over.

Other considerations: • Upstream spotter. Consider not attempting a rescue with a rope if

it is in a place that other downstream traffic can not pull over.

• Consider the best place to attempt to get a rope across. Finding narrow channels very close by may be the best option.

• You can potentially wade into the current to reduce your distance, but you should always have a spotter if possible. Many rescuers have lost footing upon throwing ropes and have been swept downstream to become victims.

• When swimming or paddling it over, start significantly upstream of your intended point of contact with the other shoreline.

• Allowing the rope to drag in the water will increase your downstream travel and drag. Use rescuers to keep the rope held high and out of the water while you are moving. Once it is across, it must be held up and not allowed to drag.

Getting Lines Across The River Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

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Getting a line across the river can be as simple as throwing a small hand coil of your rescue line, or throwing a throw bag

attached to your rescue/haul line and pulling it across. Always have an upstream spotter to warn downriver traffic of the hazard.

A tensioned line across the river. It’s a good way to transport equipment and rescue personnel across the river. However, at least one person must get across the river first, which can take time. Using a line tensioned at a perpendicular angle to the current vector can be very dangerous to the rescuer. Angles should be 45-60 degrees to the current vector and the line should ideally be no more than 1ft. above the surface of the water if you are using this as a downstream “catch” for rescue personnel.

Tension Diagonal

CORRECT

Note: There will always be some stretch or flex in your system, which will lead to a rescuer or swimmer possibly being contained in the “V” created. This can be potentially lessened by using very steep angles and minimizing slack in the system. Be prepared to release the “downstream” side of the Tensioned Diagonal. This creates an easy pivot of the rope clearing way for downstream

traffic.

Potential Uses: • To move rescuers and/or

rescue equipment across a river channel in a safe and efficient manner.

• To rescue victims trapped on midstream rocks.

• To lower tethered boats to opposite shoreline.

• As a downstream backup in flood channels, tensioned diagonals may be used as a “catch” for rescuers that have been swept downstream.

Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

84

45 - 60 °

Tension Diagonal

INCORRECT

Notes:


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By not having the rope tensioned at an appropriate angle (45° - 60°), rescuers have found themselves in the middle of the line, unable to retreat or advance because they are in the “V” of the

rope, and are held in place by the pressure of the current.

Attaching to the Tensioned Diagonal: Utilizing a carabiner, pulley, and a piece of short cord or a combo of those items (do not attach rope on rope), attach to the tensioned line with the hand opposite to the direction of travel.

Typically you will be on your back with your feet downstream of the line. You generally have more control using this method vs. clipping in with your rescue vest. However, in the instance of needing to transport a patient, you may have to clip into your rescue release harness on your P.F.D.. A pulley significantly reduces friction but is not always necessary.

Note: Belly surfing by using a hand-over-hand method and keeping your feet downstream of the line may also work.

Tension Diagonal Connection Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

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Four-Point Boat Tether: Very simple, and highly effective. This allows control of the rescue craft in multiple directions.

Tethered Craft Rescue

This can also be done using only a two-point tether system, however, when you are dealing with backwash or strong eddies, the two downstream tethers add a significant level of safety by keeping a downstream pull on the rescue craft.

Using live bait security on your rescuer is advisable when attempting a rescue in a low-head dam.


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Live Bait Security

Tethered Craft Rescue Telfer Lower: A fairly complex system, but highly effective if done properly. It requires several longer ropes along with multiple people and a clear idea of objectives. This can be a complex and time consuming rescue. This is generally considered an advanced technique.

Multiple versions of the Telfer Lower are possible.


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Boat Wraps and Pins Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

Assign a Rescue Boss

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Ensure you and your crew are in the safest position possible.

If the boat has pinned, wrapped, or broached: When all personnel are accounted for, there will be time to analyze the situation and proceed deliberately.

S - Sit T - Think O - Observe P - Plan

Questions to ask: • Am I in immediate danger? • Am I positive everyone is accounted for? • Should I get myself to a safer location? • What are my immediate downstream hazards? • Do I have the knowledge and training to deal with this? • Have we defined a plan A? • What is plan B and C?

This will be dependent on manpower. A rescue boss is someone who stays actively aware of the big picture. They may

communicate with other response teams or simply make sure their team is safe and working together. A rescue boss generally does

not actively engage in hands-on rescue if possible.

Boat Wraps and Pins Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

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Boat pins: All boat pins involve the same 4 forces: 1. Gravity 2. Current 3. Friction 4. Buoyancy

To safely and quickly extricate: • Analyze the forces at play and discuss a plan. • Secure the boat so it doesn’t run away once free. • Place upstream and downstream spotters. • Change the shape of the situation to minimize harmful

forces and amplify helpful forces (slightly manipulate the shape of the inflatable craft if deemed necessary.)

Three types of pins may require different approaches: • Wrap: The boat is stuck on a single rock, typically sideways

and mostly centered. Typically reduce friction on one side so the current pulls it around the other direction.

• Broach: The boat is spanning a gap between two boulders. Going around is not an option; either go upstream or through the gap.

• Vertical pin: The boat must come out the way it went in, which may require some creative anchor building to achieve a helpful angle of pull.

• Is everyone accounted for?

• Is there adequate manpower, designated team leaders, good communication?

• Assign up-stream spotters to warn other boaters to the hazard and rescue being performed downstream.

• Spotters should wear their P.F.D and helmet as well as carry a

throw bag and whistle for signaling.

• Set downstream spotters with throw bags and boats when possible to retrieve swimmers and equipment. They need to wear their P.F.D., helmet, and carry a whistle for signaling.

• Gather and mobilize necessary equipment.

• How badly is the boat wrapped? Totally submersed or partially? Any gear still in the boat? Is one side seemingly more wrapped than the other?

• Where is the closest river bank? Can a rope be thrown to shore or from shore? Can a boat ferry a line? Can a swimmer reach the boat?

• Should the crew be evacuated by swimming or by a tensioned line traverse? Would a pendulum swing be appropriate?

• Are there carabineers, rope, slings, and pulleys in adequate supply?

• Are there adequate anchors present on the boat or shore?

• Do we have spotters upstream and backup downstream?

• Are plans “B” and “C” being considered?

Rescue Boss Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

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A Simple Priority of Rescue Options: • Evacuate people if the situation is dangerous (remember downstream spotters). Simple swimming works well, as does a pendulum swing to shore using a throw bag.

• If all people are not accounted for, and even a remote suspicion exists of the missing person being between the boat and the rock, cutting the floor out to get to them may be an option. Floors on rubber boats can be potentially cut out depending on your knife, and the construction of the floor. If the floor is laced in, cut the webbing. If it’s not laced in, cut close to the perimeter tube as this will be the “single” piece of rubber easiest to cut through.

• Which way does it look like the boat wants to naturally go?

• Lean, pull, shift weight, move people, shift gear around or carefully bleed out some air. Keep it as simple as possible. Only introduce a rope into the system after all other techniques have been exhausted.

Boat Wraps and Pins Rescue Priorities Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

Notes:

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• If you are unable to free the pinned craft using all other methods first, it may be time to introduce a rope. Upstream spotters are a critical part of this process.

• Get a line to your boat, or from your boat to shore. Set up a self- equalizing anchor utilizing multiple points on the boat. Use a line dampener if possible.

• Get people to pull from shore (Boy Scout Pull) shifting angles as needed. Attempt tying into other points on your boat as well. Anything to manipulate the boat and allow water to break the friction of the boat from the rock. Try two lines from various points on your boat if you have the resources.

Pinned Boat Connection

Boat Pins / Angles: Try and use the current to move the boat. It may be easiest to set up your direction of pull perpendicular to the current. Remember to always utilize multi-point, and self-equalizing anchors when possible and appropriate. At times you may need to pull upstream in order to get water between the boat and the rock and reduce friction.

Dampen the haul line and the anchors whenever possible. Never stand directly downstream of either anchor and remember that something could fail at any moment. If the first time doesn’t work, try a different angle. Remember, keep it simple and try pulling with multiple people first - if this is an option. If this is an option, it’s very beneficial in finding the optimal angle of pull before setting potential anchors and mechanical advantage systems.


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• Set up a “Z” rig between the bow and stern and pull the boat together in an attempt to reduce the pressure on the boat by spilling the water.

• Be careful of mechanical systems pulling free, lines breaking and the dangers caused by such action. Attempt to keep people in a safe zone for operations. Attach spare P.F.D.s or throw bags to lines under tension to pad and cover the equipment and change their trajectories to a downward angle in order to dampen potential system failures.

Boatman’s Z-Drag

Utilizing the Boatman’s Z-drag to pull both ends of the boat together may cause water to spill from the craft. This illustrates the “old” way of setting up a boatman’s Z-drag to spill water using a ratcheting and brake system with prusiks. This in fact may create more problems when the boat comes free.

Additionally, you will not be able to quickly release the brake system, so you will likely want to try other variations of this.


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Boatman’s Z-Drag

SSI prefers this method of the Boatman’s Z-Drag. Notice there are no prusiks to prevent quick release of the system once water is spilled from the boat and the boat dislodges. Additionally, we don’t feel as though it will be necessary to re-set your Z-drag, thus requiring a brake and ratcheting prusik.


95

Oar Rig: Frame (strongest) - This will displace your pull somewhat evenly, however, this may not be what you want because it can limit specific boat manipulation. Be creative as long as it is safe. Remember that a single D-ring is typically an inadequate anchor.

Paddle Boat: Thwarts - Be careful. Are they welded thwarts or laced in? Around the perimeter tube may be a good option too. Stern Frame? This would be a great way to equalize anchors to three different D-rings. A single D-ring is typically an inadequate anchor - but equalizing multiple D -rings may prove an adequate anchor.

Kayaks: Broach Clips - On some older boats, carabiners won’t fit in the clips. You also may have a hard time lacing a throw bag with a figure eight loop through the broach clip. Cockpit rings are good contact points for vertical pin stabilization. Grab loops may be simple webbing loops screwed into the plastic so be careful.

Boat Contact Points

Notes:


96

Vertical bridge rescue is often times successful by placing a simple re-directional on the bridge railing and raising the pinned craft vertically. This gives you an idea of how you might construct a system to raise a pinned craft or rescue stranded swimmers from a bridge abutment. Multiple M.A. configurations are possible.

Vertical Bridge Rescue Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

97

It will probably be necessary to lower a rescuer to the pinned craft in order to successfully anchor the craft using a multi-point anchor

system. Your lowered rescuer can be raised using a very similar mechanical system with a re-directional. Problem solving with an

emphasis on safety is critical.

Paddle Boat: • Always have a flip-line on your waist using a locking carabiner. • Know your boat and know your ability to get on top. Do you need a belly line on the boat for assistance? Have you tried various techniques to get on top of an upside down craft before?

• Keep all entrapment possibilities on the boat to a minimum. No long tails hanging free on straps. Have it strapped down, not just strapped in.

• Always keep a spare paddle in boat and practice getting on top of the overturned boat and righting it on a regular basis.

Oar- Rig: • Have a way to get on top of the overturned boat. This may require a flip-line in conjunction with a belly line on the bottom of your boat. A diamond formation is a favorite, but a simple perpendicular or parallel line can help us achieve our goal of successfully getting on top of a capsized boat.

Rig to Flip: • It’s not good enough to have everything tied in. You must make sure it’s rigged so it won’t move if your boat goes upside down.

Boat Rigging Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

98

Regardless of your craft, in order to to perform a self-rescue in a competent manner, it is imperative that you have practiced

adequately such that you are adept to getting quickly out of the water and on top of your overturned craft. SSI instruction

attempts to give you practical rescue training with regard to a multitude of potential skills needed, but our instruction is to be used in conjunction with ongoing practice and development of

your personal skill-set.

• Always note points of orientation, e.g., rocks, bubble lines etc. These help in determining your location as you are moving downriver. Review these points of orientation from different perspectives both on your walk to and from the scout.

• Plan for a plan "B". Identify downstream hazards, rescue plans

and alternate routes. Look for stopping points, eddies etc., that might allow for a break, or allow the group to come together.

• Wear your P.F.D. when scouting, and it’s always a good idea to have a throw bag with you while you scout as well.

• If an obvious run does not present itself, consider portaging or lining your boats down if that’s an option.

• Talk it over as a group, but don’t be afraid to take an alternative route if you like it better. Once more, it’s always good to verbalize your plan B.

Scouting

Notes:


99

Scouting takes practice. You need to be able to equate water speed and your ability to make the move accordingly. When

scouting, keep the following in mind:

Hypothermia / Hyperthermia

Hypothermia: Defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 °C (95.0 °F) in humans. The effect of cold water causes the body to reduce circulation to the arms and legs. This shunting of blood makes it difficult for purposeful swimming after a few minutes. Source: [7]

• Shivering • Sluggish • Mumbling • Stumbling • Fumbling • Slow decision making • Increased HR, RR

• Shivering stops • L.O.C. decreases • Mumbling • Stumbling • Fumbling • Decreased HR, RR • Temp below 90°F-

(32°C)

Hyperthermia: Also known simply as overheating, is a condition where an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. When extreme temperature elevation occurs, it becomes a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or death. Source: [8]

• Sweaty • Clammy skin • Vomit/Nausea • Headache • Low BP • Increased BP

• Dry Skin • L.O.C. decreases • Low BP • Temp above 104°F-

(40°C) • 50% survive • 25% have brain damage

Heat Exhaustion Heat Stroke


100

Mild Hypothermia Severe HypothermiaM O D E R A T E

Severe HyperthermiaMild Hyperthermia M O D E R A T E

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_temperature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_emergency

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_temperature

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_emergency

Hypothermia Swimmer / 1:10:1

Source: [9]


1-10-1 is a simple way to remember the first three phases of cold water immersion and the approximate time each phase takes. Although the times are variable based on body differences and water temperature (see graph on pg. 104), just remember 1-10-1:

1 Minute to get your breathing under control Cold Shock Response: An initial deep and sudden gasp followed by hyperventilation that can be as much as 6-10 times greater than normal breathing. You must keep your airway clear or run the risk of drowning. The Cold Shock Response will pass in about 1 minute. During that time concentrate on avoiding panic and getting control of your breathing. Wearing a lifejacket during this phase is critically important to keep you afloat and breathing.

10 Minutes of meaningful movement Cold Incapacitation: Over approximately the next 10 minutes you will gradually lose the effective use of your fingers, arms and legs for any meaningful movement. Concentrate on self-rescue initially, and if that isn’t possible, prepare a way to keep your airway clear while you wait for rescue. Swim failure is one example of cold incapacitation, and will occur within these critical minutes. If you are in the water without a lifejacket, drowning is highly probable.

1 Hour before you become unconscious due to hypothermia Hypothermia: Even in ice water it could take approximately 1 hour before becoming unconscious due to Hypothermia. If you understand the aspects of hypothermia, techniques of how to delay it, self-rescue and calling for help, your chances of survival and rescue will be dramatically increased.

101

4 Phases of Cold Water Immersion Section 4 - Rescue Lines, Boat Pins, Medical Considerations

102

The most common misunderstanding about Cold Water Immersion is that it leads to immediate Hypothermia. The real truth is, other serious events occur long before hypothermia sets in, each with its own physiological challenges.

The four phases are: 1. Cold Shock Response 2. Cold Anticipation 3. Hypothermia 4. Circum-Rescue Collapse

1. Cold Shock Response: lasts for only about a minute after entering the water and refers to the affect that cold water has on your breathing. Initially, there is an automatic gasp reflex in response to rapid skin cooling. If the head goes underwater, water may be breathed into the lungs during the gasp. The result is simple: drowning. That’s one of the many benefits of a life jacket or PFD: it helps to keep your head above water during this critical first response.

2. Cold Anticipation: occurs within 5 – 15 minutes in cold water. Vasoconstriction decreases blood flow to the extremities in an effort to preserve heat in the core, thereby protecting the vital organs but allowing the periphery to cool. Unfortunately, muscle and nerve fibers don’t work well when cold. Within this critical time frame you will lose meaningful movement in your hands and feet, and then your arms and legs, so if you’re not wearing a floatation device, you will be unable to stay afloat and will drown. Other important life-saving/survival activities will also become more difficult and then impossible.

Source: [10]


103

3. Hypothermia: there are a number of misconceptions when it comes to hypothermia. The first deals with how long it will take to become hypothermic. While it varies with water temperature and body mass, it can take 30 minutes or more for most adults to become even mildly hypothermic in ice water. Knowing this is vitally important in a survival situation, since people would be far less likely to panic if they knew that hypothermia would not occur quickly and that they have some time to make good decisions and actions to save themselves. See the graph below.

Figure 1. Responses of 681 individuals to the following question, “If you fall in ice (0°C) water while wearing regular winter clothing, how long do you think it will take to become hypothermic?”

Notes:

Source: [10]


104

Notes:

Type to enter text

The graph below shows the variation in time to fatal hypothermia based on gender and body mass.

Source: [10]


105

3. Hypothermia - (Mild, Moderate and Severe)

Normal body temperature: 37°C - 98.6°F Temperature Conversion: 35°C = 95°F 32°C = 89.6°F 28°C = 82.4°F

Notes:

Source: [10]


106

4. Circum-rescue Collapse - can happen just before, during or after rescue. The symptoms can range anywhere from fainting to death. But, why does this collapse occur so near rescue? Several factors are working here: while you are fighting to stay alive, your senses are heightened and stress hormones are surging through your body, helping you survive. Once rescue is imminent, is in progress, or has just taken place, a mental relaxation occurs, creating a decreased output of those stress hormones. Blood pressure can drop and muscles can fail, causing collapse and in some extreme cases, even cardiac arrest and death. The key thing to remember is that heart function is dramatically impacted by the way that a victim is handled and removed from the water. Knowing what NOT to do can make a life-saving difference.

For First Responders and water rescue personnel, it is this critical time (from first encountering the victims until they are transferred to appropriate medical resources), that special extraction and treatment-related actions can have the greatest impact on their survival. Some of these actions might even seem counter-intuitive to your emergency training for other types of rescue, so it’s vital that you understand the key elements of Circum-rescue Collapse on pg.109.

Notes:

Source: [10]

http://beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/4-phases-of-cold-water-immersion/81-extraction

http://beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/4-phases-of-cold-water-immersion/81-extraction

Drowning Drowning is defined as respiratory impairment as a result of being in or under a liquid.

Near Drowning: The survival of a drowning event involving unconsciousness or water inhalation and can lead to serious secondary complications or death, possibly up to 72 hours after the event.

• Drowning is the 3rd leading cause of unintentional injury or death worldwide, accounting for 7% of all injury related deaths, with more than 90% of these deaths occurring in developing countries.

• In the United States, it is the second leading cause of death (after motor vehicle crashes) in children 12 and younger.

• Water in lungs • Hypoxia • BP decreases • Cardiac arrest • CPR unlikely

• Temporary laryngospasm • No water in lungs • Hypoxia • BP decreases • Cardiac arrest • CPR possible


107

Wet drownings compromise 85% of drowning victims. This is when the patient actually aspirates water into their lungs. The

other 15% are dry drownings. The victim suffers from a laryngospasm where the larynx closes and does not allow any

water to enter the lungs. If responded to within a few minutes the dry drowning victim stands to potentially recover from artificial

respiration.

Wet Drowning Dry Drowning

Source: [11]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia

Mammalian Diving Reflex Mammalian Diving Reflex: It optimizes respiration by preferentially distributing oxygen stores to the heart and brain which allows staying underwater for extended periods of time. It is exhibited strongly in aquatic mammals (seals, otters, dolphins, muskrats), but exists in other mammals, including humans, in particular babies up to 6 months old. Diving birds, such as penguins, have a similar diving reflex. It may be the evolutionary development of a more primitive response to hypoxia exhibited by fishes. The diving reflex is triggered specifically by chilling the face and breath-hold. The most noticeable effects are on the cardiovascular system, which displays peripheral vasoconstriction, slowed pulse rate, redirection of blood to the vital organs to conserve oxygen, release of red blood cells stored in the spleen, and, in humans, heart rhythm irregularities.

Reflex Reactions to Immersion: The effect of cold water causes the body to reduce circulation to the arms and legs. This shunting of blood makes it difficult for purposeful swimming after a few minutes.

• Bradycardia, a slowing of the heart rate by up to 50% in humans.

• Peripheral vasoconstriction, the restriction of the blood flow to the extremities to increase the blood and oxygen supply to the vital organs, especially the brain.

Source: [12]


108

The reflex action is automatic and allows both a conscious and an unconscious person to survive longer without oxygen under water than in a comparable situation on dry land. The exact mechanism

for this effect has been debated and may be a result of brain cooling similar to the protective effects seen in patients treated

with deep hypothermia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstriction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstriction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain

Extrication & Packaging

Source: [10]


109

Notes:

• Prepare a packaging system (with insulation and plastic vapor barrier) in advance if possible.

• Be as gentle as possible in the extraction of the victim.

• Once you have hold of the victim, don’t let go until they have been fully extracted into the boat.

• Keep the victim as horizontal as possible.

• If a packaging system is on board, place the victim gently into the system.

• Attempt to secure the victim in the boat to minimize jostling on the trip to shore.

• Take your time and move more carefully; with a cold victim, slower is better.

Extraction and Treatment:

River Fatalities Experienced vs. Non Exp.

Source: [13]


110

“The American Whitewater Accident Database catalogs over 1600 fatalities and close calls on whitewater rivers dating back to 1972. The project was initiated over 40 years ago, in 1975 when a fatality occurred due to foot entrapment at a slalom race. Charlie Walbridge was present for the race and described the risks of foot entrapment for the first time in a 1976 issue of the American Whitewater Journal.” [13]

The following bar graph depicts numbers and types of fatalities suffered by 537 experienced and non-experienced private boaters as listed by the American Whitewater Accident Database from 1972 - 2019.

River Fatalities Experienced vs. Non Exp.

Source: [13]


110



1. List 2 ways to get a large rope across the river: ____________ ______________________________________________________

2. At what angle do you set your tensioned diagonal to the current? ____________

3. What is a 4-point tethered rescue craft used for? ____________ ______________________________________________________

4. When would a 2-point tether be sufficient? _________________

5. What is a Rescue Boss used for? _________________________ ______________________________________________________

6. Where is an appropriate location for a rescuer to stand in relation to an anchor or haul line that is under tension?

______________________________________________________

7. List 3 anchor connection points on a raft: _________________ __________________________ ___________________________

8. What is the difference between mild and severe hypothermia? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9. How do you prevent heat exhaustion from becoming heat stroke? _____________________________________________

10. T or F - It is typical to tension a low-line perpendicular to the current vector?

11. Why are low-head dams called “drowning machines?” __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

111

National Fire Protection Association

112

• NFPA 1670 addresses standards on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents.

• NFPA 1006 addresses standards for Rescue Technician Professional Qualifications.

• NFPA 1983 is the standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services.

About NFPA Technical Rescue Standards: National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is committed to advocating consensus codes and standards and providing research and education for fire and related safety issues. A nonprofit membership organization, NFPA has over 65,000 members and is staffed by over 5,000 volunteers. Many of these volunteers are part of technical committees. These committees work hard to develop standards which prompt a high level of safety to which all fire service personnel and organizations are held accountable.

Currently there are three (3) NFPA standards which directly apply to technical rescue efforts that should be addressed as part of becoming a rescue technician. An overview of whom these standards are meant to address, and the intent of each standard is vital in knowing which standard to reference for specific details when needed.

Each NFPA standard identifies a scope, or whom it applies to, and a purpose. The scope of “this standard shall identify and establish levels of functional capability for conducting operations at technical search and rescue incidents while minimizing threats to rescuers” (1.1.1). This standard goes on to state, “the requirements of this standard shall apply to organizations that provide response to technical search and rescue incidents…” (1.1.2)

Source: [14]

NFPA 1670

113

The purpose, or the intent of NFPA 1670 is to assist the authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) in: • Assessing a technical search and rescue hazard within the

response area. • To identify the level of operational capability. • To establish operational criteria. (1.2.1)

The purpose of NFPA 1670 is to assist the decision making personnel for an organization to assess preparation and response readiness for a technical search and rescue incident. NFPA 1670 goes on to state, “the AHJ shall establish levels of operational capability needed to conduct operations at a technical search and rescue incidents safely and effectively, based on”:

• Hazard identification • Risk management • Training level of personnel • Availability of internal and external resources (4.1.1)

By assessing these criteria, the AHJ can decide at which level it wants to be able to perform operations at a scene, and shall establish written standard operating procedures consistent with the chosen level. (4.1.2)

There are three (3) identified levels of operational capabilities for a technical search and rescue incident. These levels are for operational capability, not rescuer qualifications as outlined in NFPA 1006.

Source: [14]

114

Technician Level- “This level represents the capability of organizations to respond to technical search and rescue incidents, to identify hazards, use equipment, and apply advanced techniques specified in this standard necessary to coordinate, perform, and supervise technical search and rescue incidents” (4.1.2-3)

Operations Level- “This level represents the capability of organizations to respond to technical search and rescue incidents and to identify hazards, use equipment and apply limited techniques specific in this standard to support and participate in technical search and rescue incidents” (4.1.2-2)

Awareness Level- “This level represents the minimum capabilities of organizations that provide response technical search and rescue incidents” (4.1.2-1)

NFPA 1670

Source: [14]

115

NFPA 1670 identifies the need for a certain level of training, proper documentation, SOP’s, hazard identification, risk assessment, incident response planning, equipment, safety, fitness, etc. The various levels of preparedness within each of these areas is what should be assessed for each organization. Based on a needs assessment, the AHJ shall provide the proper support to function to the planned level of operation. The most recent version if this standard was approved and adopted in 2017.

Different disciplines identified by NFPA 1670. Currently NFPA 1670 addresses 7 different rescue disciplines. They are as follows:

1. Structural Collapse 2. Rope Rescue 3. Confined Space Search and Rescue 4. Vehicle and Machinery Search and Rescue 5. Water Search and Rescue 6. Wilderness Search and Rescue 7. Trench Evacuation Search and Rescue

Most of these disciplines identify a working environment and so the standard correlates specific concerns that are found in those environments. Rope Rescue is a little different since it is not an environment specifically. That section deals with techniques that can be applied to a variety of environments. Because of that, Rope Rescue becomes a discipline that should be covered prior to exploring specific environments.

NFPA 1670

Source: [14]

116

NFPA 1006 Prepared by the Technical Committee on Rescue Technician Professional Qualifications, released by the Technical Correlating Committee on Professional Qualifications, and issued by the NFPA Standards Council, NFPA 1006 addresses standards for Rescue Technician Professional Qualifications. Originally, developed in 1994, the most recent version if this standard was approved and adopted in 2017.

The scope of NFPA 1006 “establishes the minimum job performance requirements necessary for fire service and other emergency response personnel who perform technical rescue operations” (1.1).

The purpose of NFPA 1006 “is to specify the minimum job performance requirements for service as a rescuer in an emergency response organization. It is not the intent of this standard to restrict any jurisdiction from exceeding these minimum requirements (1.2). Each of the listed “performance objectives, shall be performed safely, completely and in its entirety” (1.3.1).

This standard is aimed to the rescuer to assure skill proficiency. There are many actions involved by each participant to PERFORM certain requirements and to DEMONSTRATE specific skills and objectives. You as a rescuer, have minimum requirements that need to be met for certifications. The person trained to a level to meet minimum job performance requirements and has the ability to perform objectives safely, completely, and in its entirety is referred to as a Rescue Technician. There are no intermediary levels identified for individuals that meet some of the requirements.

NFPA 1006

Source: [14]

117

An individual can NOT be certified to Rope Rescue Operations according to NFPA 1006. The term “operations” and “awareness” refers to an organizational capability according to NFPA 1670 and is also reference in NFPA 472 Hazardous Materials, but these intermediary levels of performance are NOT identified by NFPA 1006. Only the Rescue Technician is defined by this standard.

NFPA 1006 defines a minimum requirement “for certification. The rescue technician shall perform all of the job performance requirements in Chapter 5 and all job performances listed in at least one of the specialty areas” covered in Chapters 6 through 14 (4.3). Chapter 5 refers to general job performance requirements and can be considered CORE skills. Chapters 6-14 refer to discipline specific job performance requirements. This philosophy is referenced as a “core plus one” approach to become compliant to the standard.

Since the only level of professional qualification identified by NFPA 1006 is that of a technician, many reference a specific discipline when clarifying personal skills; i.e. Rope Rescue Technician or Trench Rescue Technician. There are no prerequisites that state an individual must become a technician of one particular discipline before becoming a technician of a different discipline. Only that a core set of skills much be performed plus the discipline specific skills.

NFPA 1006

Source: [14]

118

Currently, NFPA 1006 addresses nine (9) different disciplines. They are: 1. Rope Rescue 2. Surface Water Rescue 3. Vehicle and Machinery Rescue 4. Confined Space Rescue 5. Structural Collapse Rescue 6. Trench Rescue 7. Subterranean Rescue 8. Dive Rescue 9. Wilderness Rescue

Reminder: NFPA 1006 established minimum job performance requirements. This does not mean that once certified to a technician level, the rescuer is always able to perform to a needed level of competency. It does not mean that once you achieve technician that the learning process is over. The skills and knowledge involved in the above listed disciplines are usually high in technicality in comparison to the low frequency of use.

Retention of knowledge and regression of abilities are viable concerns for individual qualifications. For that reason it is strongly encouraged to regularly do self assessments of skills and knowledge. Where do you rank on the continuum of knowledge? Where you rank and the end of a course and where you rank a year later will be different as your skills will diminish.

NFPA 1006

Source: [14]

119

NFPA 1983

NFPA 1983 is the standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services. It was prepared by the Technical Committee on Special Operations Protective Clothing and Equipment, released by the Technical Correlating Committee on Fire and Emergency Services Protective Clothing and Equipment, and acted on by the National Fire Protection Association. The most recent edition was approved in 2017.

The NFPA 1983 standard is primarily utilized by manufacturers for minimum design performance, testing and certification requirements. This standard is not a “use” standard, but instead is good reference to use for understanding the equipment used in the industry. NFPA 1983 identifies labeling, design and construction requirements, performance and testing requirements for system components.

This standard does not identify system safety factors or how to use equipment and gear. If you are interested in knowing the minimum breaking strength of a particular diameter of rope, then refer to NPFA 1983. If you want to know testing procedures for a class III harness, then NFPA 1983 is your bedtime reading material.

Summary: Each NFPA standards establishes a scope and purpose for who the standard affects and the intent of the standard. Each person involved with technical rescue should be able to identify the critical points of NFPA standards 1670, 1006, and 1983 and how each standard pertains to a technical rescue team versus the individual rescuer.

Source: [14]

Notes:

120

Notes:

121

Notes:

122

Notes:

123

124

Works Cited

1] “Risk Calculation Worksheet - Calculating Risk Using GAR Model.” dco.uscg.mil. United States Coast Guard <https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/National%20Strike%20Force/foscr/ASTFOSCRSeminar/Presentations/Safety/ORM-GAR.pdf?ver=2017-09-14-144539-427>

[2] “Safety Code of American Whitewater - VI International Scale of River Difficulty.” americanwhitewater.org. American Whitewater, 2005. <https://www.americanwhitewater.org/content/Wiki/safety:start>

[3] “P.F.D. Selection, Use, Wear & Care.” dco.uscg.mil. United States Coast Guard <https://www.dco.uscg.mil/CG-ENG-4/PFDSel/>

[4] Soles, Clyde – “Outdoor Knots Book” First Edition 2004 Chapter 1

[5] Soles, Clyde – “Outdoor Knots Book” First Edition 2004 Chapter 5 pg. 83

[6] “Square-cube Law” wikipedia.org. Wikipedia <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square%E2%80%93cube_law>

[7] “Hypothermia.” wikipedia.org. Wikipedia <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia>

[8] “Hyperthermia.” wikipedia.org. Wikipedia <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthermia>

[9] “1:10:1.” beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com Beyond Cold Water Boot Camp, Canadian Safe Boating Council, 2011. <http://www.beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/1-10-1-principle>

[10] “Four Phases of Cold Water Immersion.” beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com. Beyond Cold Water Boot Camp, Canadian Safe Boating Council, 2011. <http://www.beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/4-phases-of-cold-water-immersion>

[11] “Drowning.” wikipedia.org. Wikipedia <http://www.beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/1-10-1-principle>

[12] “Diving reflex.” wikipedia.org. Wikipedia <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_reflex>

[13]“American Whitewater Database.” americanwhitewater.org American Whitewater Fatalities 1972 – 2019 <https://www.americanwhitewater.org/content/Accident/view/>

[14] Eady, Melody, “The Rescue Technician and NFPA Standards 2013.”gpstc.org. Georgia Public Safety Training Center, 2013 <https://www.gpstc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/06/gfa_resources_articles_rescue_tech_and_nfpa_standards.pdf>

https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%2520Documents/National%252



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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperthermia


http://www.beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/1-10-1-principle

http://www.beyondcoldwaterbootcamp.com/



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divi

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https://www.gpstc.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/06/gfa_resources_articles_rescue_tech_and_nfpa_standards







https://www.dco.uscg.mil/CG-ENG-4/PFDSel/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square%E2%80%93cube_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothermia







https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divi

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